UTILISATION o¢ o” INTRODUCTION yectrical energy is a Convenient fo itted economi TM. of . and transmitte Omically oy METRY becanee i jr level. The production of teen te distances pee can be generated centrally i jon. In general, there are two , EREBY by the gg most Pollution free at the em YPES primary source ‘tulisation of sources is called i @) Conventional sources . (v) Non-conventional sources The sources of whose availabilit ty and utilj aqventional source. The conventiona i sation compl ii 1 ene, pletely depends upon man is called The sources whose availabiti edi bias |, nuclear elements and I uct ty and. utilisat s and petroleum i isal 7 fenton — Ron-conventional en ae - upon 1 ia) ested i waves. In thi : urces are sun, wind, terrestri : jean tides: a S chapter, we will focus our attention on bri terrestrial heat pave generation, solar power generation and tific: on brief review of wind RENEWABLE ENERGY sources The electrical energy power generation, which presently contribute only small amounts ip tal power production, have potential for expansion. They are e Wind « Solar © Geothermal ¢ Tidal and ¢ Bio-mass6.2.1 Wind power plant . of energy. Wi rent en ew ty oy ge by the solar heating of the atmespere TY yind into ae A incre enn fe oe SEEMSY SPSS a ‘mechanical energy to an electrical generator snes! it sci ey we If the mec ; tones, the machine is usually nerator or win electrical energy, then the machine is called 2 wind an “users aoe ‘com install re wind turbines, which are usually installed in Ae socuc kee tment of ‘electrical energy in terms of bart it OW). Suan wid wich are generally defined as producing Bo ase tricity, wind turbines are designed 10 be installed at mall wind power generation an be used for water pumping, tlecommwicaion power irrigation publication the real power is delivered to the grid. Since the wind speqq constant, a variety of control mechanisms are employed to manage the conversion ty machinery, 8h 28 pumpy gy {and protect the mechanical and electrical equipment from conditions that would resi jg fale, or destruction All wind turbines have a maximum wind speed, called the survival they will not operate above. When wind over thus maximum occur, brake or lock to prevent them from the survival speed. Advantages of wind energy conversion system 1. It is non polluting 2. No problem of transportation 3. Is cheaper if produced in large amount of power. Disadvantages of wind energy conversion system 1, Noisy in operation 2. Wind energy available is fluctuating in nature. 3. The overall weight of the plant is very high, 4. Not reliable system. Wind energy conservation system are classified into two types: 1. Horizontal axis wind mill Plane is vertical facing the wind. The axis of rotation is vertical, the blades also vertical, 2 Vertical axis wind mill — S ind ey Neg farms and small industries, qa) oT & they have tian’ ‘The axis of rotating horizontal and in the Aerotubine Fig. 6.1 Simple wind turbines model wih control elem 422 Solar Energy system Solar energy is energy from the sun. This energy in the form of heat and light, supports allie on Earth, drives the Earth's climate and weather and is predominately responsible for te class of resources collectively known as renewable energy ‘The total solar energy available to earth is epproximately 4 x 1024 Joules per year. Out cf all the renewable and non-polluting sources power become the most primary source of commercial power for every one in the world. Solar energy is defined as the energy produced by the sun and collected on earth. The sun makes this energy using a thermonuclear process iat can convert about 650,000,000 tons of hydrogen to helium in a second. Through this heat and electromagnetic radiation are produced. The main components of solar energy are coletor and a storage unit. The collector collects the radiation that falls on it and converts ‘bit of it to either electricity and heat. Since solar enemy is not constant, storage become vecessry. Besides at night or cloudy day, the collector will be able to produce very litle cvergy. Therefore, the storage unit can be repository of energy produced on a goad day and ‘elease it as required. The basic solar photovoltaic system as shown in Fig. 62.Fr. 62 Protovoi blocking diode, battery ™ i of solar array: {A basic photovoltaic system consists of inverter. SOLAR CELL = secwrical energy: A solar cell is basicay Solar Cell conver ight energy ito electrical SE, into electrical OP" Junction diode. It wiles photovoltaic effect 1 energy é i \ lI i Construction of Solar Cell constructionally it is lite bit is is basically a junction diode, but ile bit ditty Although this is basically 2 jt A very thin layer of p-type Semiconductor ig poy, PV Current (Amps) a8 form conventional pn junction tors soatnly ticker nye remiondatr. We provide fw fier ectodes onthe fy the pigpe seniconductr ger These eecvodes do ot obsirct light. reach the hig py —— layer, ust below the p-type layer there is a p-n junction. We also provide current = voage letrode atthe bottom ofthe n-ype layer. We encapsulate the entre assembly by thin et — to poec the solar ell fom any mechanical shock. ae Working Principle of Solar Cell mn ny When light reaches the p-n junction, the ight photons can easily enter in the junc, through very thin p-type layer. The light energy. in the form of photons, supplies energy to the junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident the thermal equilibrium condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletic can quickly come to the mtype side of the junction. The free electrons in the de uickly come to the p-type side of the junction. Once, the newly created free elect to the mtype side, cannot further cross the junction because of barrier potential of the watrials used in solar cell ‘The materials which are used for this purpose must have band gap close to 1.5 eV. onmonly used materials are 1. Siliconase NN i 008 Me wl e008 og ggg ‘in @ ). These 2. GaAs eee : oa OME Tae ey a 3. CdTe oe nis the basic prince 9 8 oe OF pateous dinky, vapour lamp and 4. Culn Sey ot this ile of Metal F ischarge lamp. sos io Baseons gucn POM it is “ Criteria for Materials to be Used in to 1869. é goat vapour lamp ee ‘sccompanied by visible ood 4 ction of sodium v 1, Must have band 6®P He come ° _ inner U-tube of a sodigar ® Mihi edi ih its na absorption 2 1t must have high optical # bea wan! eee i -a1 conduct i yf the el ic disc ‘ . 3. te mast nave high else! OPEN sano and the COs of the ise Oe en pa ata tas ewe ing. gy “towa Fig, 6. Tk i valle ee com Pressure Bien cient a 12 44, The raw materia must DE * ap oom presence of of ate cectoer coud ane te oe. Te tia ee we 1 of cent wih brim oe apo ium. The an (he ol NEU, and a small amount tischarge and to develop enough be low. et fis se07PP envelope, and is well j vu. cated 1 develop enough, Advantages of Solar Cell ose ution associated with it vou . 1. No pollution assoc ae 7 ae Lieve 2. it must last for a Jong Sime: ; ranaformer used i ARE amp fp —~ a hi {be heating sqate. The high leakage 8 Of the tran cathode. Sodium below 60°C is solid M4g0 Vs which i forme; 0 50-480. V- is sufficient aSlormer provid : at ssotinside the discharge tbe uy tee an open-circuit voltage of Zone ge. Nt takes about 10 minus hee droeh seen gat The zovac Me ee eee 3. No maintenance cost. Disadvantages of Solar Cell 1. It has high cost of installation: ¥ 2. It bas low efficiency. 3. During cloudy day, the energy cannot get solar energy LLUMINATION Light is the prime factor in the uman depend upon the light meal light is made where tere is novpatural light. Atficig eerpnced ecrealy, plays an increasingly important part i — acecctinese, eave of cone, steady outpul as well as its low cost. Every work ows in day light, can equally be done during night time with same efficiency Tigh. Therefore the science of illumination engineering is becoming of major is _Mluminaton of source is defined as the luminows flux received by the unit area, It is denoted by symbol E and is measured in lumens per square ‘metre candle. For illumination, following types of electric lamps te corel be produced and also at night we a Mtg ‘beuting the cathode Inner tube 1. Are lamps 2. Incandescent lamp 3. Gas-filled lamp 4. Gaseous discharge lamp Outer tbe Fig. 65 Sodium vapour timpsom oy mx on yee cso SI, ‘naape ony suumbsic for aS — ec dacharge mad copmcoet 1S PES pec Ot Cements ty ow ty OS mmc tor proves Neat ns soel aerms tees Jt has longer life. (about 7500 working bamss) lt has high efficiency. gives Tighe similar is ay Tigh gives light that does wc cat dadows 5 pies Tight wis wo ple or ns Jt 18 economical iw loug run lamp. Pia 66 Mercury rage omg‘eiectrnics and Measureme soe i produced. 7. Unlike an incandescent lamp. 90 MH 8. Tis avaiable in erent eS ‘The main disadvantage is the cost is i Principle of working “The inside of a fluorescent robe is im the form of powder. A phosphor poss! incident on its surface, and then agsi9 light. The propery is known as Fluoescene® thin layer of phosphor ry of absorbing ultravioly ‘e sabsantial portion in the form coud with 2 3 Construction ‘The fluorescent tube consists of metre and 1.5 metres in length. The in tube 25 mm in diameter and 06 2 face of the tobe is coed with = DS ee ae fam of, powtet VC eae ine ofa! atl ps pn he a vee contains organ gas with @ small ted eid cuted fngsen laments. The a CO tbe an tmercry under low pressure. The choke is commected tee is connected across the tube. Operation ‘Thi starter has two bimetallic strips ‘helium and hy an gases as shown in Fig. 6.7. tr saunas pen ee a This causes a glow discharge ofthe gas. producing a small amount of heat: Due’ o the bimetallic strips are bent s0 as 10 close the contacts. ted and large curent starts flowing through the choke the filaments are heated to incandescent and (3) Sar a glass enclosed in glass bulb filled with a mi “The contacts between the strips are nog = oe ‘The circuit gets complet filaments of the tube and the starter. The CH AE yl Lg ™ # sis, Ee © ts Fig, 67 Fluorescent tube i enough (above sll capait0t Cis oma reduce the radio ineterace sera choke im the crit the te And emits visible light. 10 suppress arcing and tipment. Because of the low. To improve the power saner or becom 10 he neat Power facie (2 sit REFRIGERATOR figerator is 2 Process of re refit 8 high-temperature oral means, but can alo f ¥ ing het enor The waka Be dven by bet 2 lowtemperture reservoir and heat transfer is traditionally driven : ‘magnetism, electricity, laser, ot other pans we onents of Refrigerator & Work anise view of reise sown in ip Fig. 68 An Ina view ofa roi has 4 main components: compressor, condenser, evaporator and throtting device. Of these components, the throtling device is the one tat is responsible fr the production of the cold liquid. So we will first analyze the trotting device in a deiled way and move ca to the other components.ssor is introduced for his pupo i initia! level. But since it is conpecre COMPO wil ise the pressun vi é est ob increased. This i unavoidable, OSE Wh se, enpetn Fig. 6.11 A compressor Is used 10 raise pressure ofthe retigerantand Measurement re avert it 10 tHe Hiahid state, yg ‘ To [Now the refrigerant is a high-pressure *#P°° introduce another heat exchanger. Condenser if vc ertor, and the refrigerant temy ____ This heat exchanger is fited ouside the wep to the surroundings, Tye Sh ST ae eet Fo. 612 Condenser nat exchangr i find oie reget £0 Wil HS Kae hy ih liquid. We So the refigerant is back to its inal state again: a high-pressure Fauld. We ean rey this eycle over and over for continuous refrigeration. This cycle is KDOWn as the yy, ‘comprastion cycle Refrigeration technology based on the vapor compression Cycle ithe mq ‘commonly used one in domestic and industrial applications. Refrigeration Accessories fins attached to them. The fins increase the sy te e of Performance eke tng (Oe et and POWET TENLED happen ‘pertor A pe beat a ld) pening in Row (Fis: 6 Yaper ‘efrigeration circuit is Fig. 6.14 Energy Interaction - rtgeraton eystam A simple eneray balance of he system ys he ftovng lon. Ps Onasonen ne Evaporators and condensers have to th fer and thus will significantly enhance heat ans | is often required to evaluate performance of ie ‘eigeruor or compare between different area available for convective heat trans Since the evaporator is cooling the condense on it, forming fost. The fost will act as an insulator between the evaporator fag | 1 surrounding. air, it is common that water ion win frees this term completely, we need to know tha sth apa and output of | : at we need from « reigento is the eaing ei Ot Qaanencn te Opt exchanger and the surrounding air. Thus it will educe the effectiveness of the heat remo wr reigeration cycle. Input to the reiguar is he pover gv whe © . process. Frequent removal of frost is required {o enhance the heat transfer. An automate ‘defrosting mechanism is employed in all modem refrigerators. Ca C.OP can easily be defined as output by input and is expressed as follows. cop = Zansonnen ‘ae_ believe Mary failed inside it, poet os Bit hig not magical Myo neal Ce we commonly refered 1 as widow ACE ners const Of ogy Regardless of the type of installation. component that are Tinted belo } Evaporator t's responsible for " a nx vncaty «ta ecg a ee tg fom inside 2 room through a refrigerant BAS TM oer raies become gas, POM, fui where the liquid retigerant bss ment, Some of the most common refrigerant Base) sed in Or and ne Hg, hydrofworacarbons HFC, hydrechloronuoreatbon co se eigen reaches the ws sa cooker Vigil Because the heat of th crea fins. So, the: the woth uid. This flows through an ex re i he fee cae 18 ihe point where its joumey sated, ‘Compressor i i here compression of the gaseous refi ‘As the name clearly signifies. this is ! eet ced Teftipteay, cccurs Te tonne inane outsede unit, Le. the part that’s installed outside the Rouse, Condenser ‘The condenser receives the vaporized to liquid and expels the heat outside. Needless 10 say. of the split AC. ccfigeat from te COMPEST, conven Ms leted othe cane at Expansion valve ‘Also referred to as the throtling device, the expansion valve is located between ihe two sets of coils (the cooled coils of the evaporator and the hot coils of the condense) keeps tabs on the amount of refrigerant moving towards the evaporator. Note that in the case of window ACs the three aforementioned components.are al) located inside a small metal box that is installed in a window opening, - Air conditioner (AC) working principle ‘An air conditioner collects hot air from a given space, processes it within itself the help of a reftigerant and a bunch of coils and then releases cool air into the same sp Where the hot air had originally been collected.os pe a one eee Although all the COT he focal inside the same metal Fig, 616 Window AC ver agtin ntl the desired temperate sg in warm air and expeling it backing ed over ‘The entire process is repeat attained. Ina nutshell, an AC unit keeps drawing room until there's no. more warm air left {0 coe! BATTERY Baer isa device conning an electic cll or a series of electric cells storing energy that can be converted into electrical power. Batery produces electricity from a chemical reaction. General battery consists of two or more cells connected in series or parallel A cell consists of a negative electrode: an elecuoiyte, which conducts ions; Separator, also an ion conductor, and a positive electrode. The eleewolyie may be aqueous (composed of water) or non-aqueous (not composed of water), in liquid, paste, or sold form, When the cell is connected to an extemal lad, ot device 10 be powered, the negative electrode supplies a Electron flow Load Fig. 6.17 Battery operation ————————————— jectrons that flow throu, fel . 1h the load and are sccepted by the postive electrode ett ewo types of battery that a we, wind secondary Dalleries (rechargeable fancy A Primary bates (disposable toad Acid Battery 4 gt acid battery is the oldest 4 ‘ype of vses a revere chemical raion waa ee cal om fs on aT cee COMBINE Of daed selianc sid to conver” eectnal Se gr rao And low crete tonne, 28 Dep having avery How 30" -to-volume rato, 0 aan te a anna, a active materials are lead donde (PbO) i the 7 pte pe, sponge lad (PD) in pegotive plate» and @ solution of sulfuric acid (H,S0,) in water as the electrolyte. The w Rea reaction during discharge and recharge i normally writen Dice 002 + Po + 2H) SO, 2PSQ, + 21,0 Cure Bene tgemtnee Poser — —— = eameaN | / Fig, 6.18 Lead acid battery constructions(2H) and sulphate negative ions { SO, | and move frets Us im solutions and comected to DC supply the ihe Wane ee ee ‘and moved towards the electrodes and connected 1 the eeBan" 'SOj ions being negatively charged moved Each hydrogen ion takes one electron from the cathode, and each sulphates, ions takes gp ‘two negative ions from the anodes and react with water and form sulfuric and hydrogen aa ‘The oxygen, which produced from the above equation react with lead oxide and inn lead peroxide (PbO,). Thus, during charging the lead cathode remain as lead, but lend sone {8 converted into lead peroxide. chocolate in colour If the DC source of supply 1 disconnected and if the voltmeter conmects betwen de electrodes, it will show the potental difference between them. If wire connects the electrodes then current will flow from die positive plate to the negative plate through extemal cas ‘ie. the cell is capable of supplying electrical energy. (PRO)) and» cathode Fhe oan gh 6 usar, de ydrogen © te soos and Wacom hygeine Shige jn attacks and forms teag m7 a cer nom 1 Shh accede ‘tout and weer contig PESO, + 2H= PhO 4 11,0 PRO +1180, PAS, +2140 PhO, + 350, + 2H = Posoy + 21,0 The each sulphate ton | SO; ) moves towards the cathode end reching there gives up two electrons becomes radical SO, atack the metalic lead cathode and form lead sulphate siush in colour according to the chemical equation, Chemical Action During Recharging For recharging, the anode and cathode are connected wo the positive and the negative terminal of the DC supply mains, The molecules of the sulfuric acid break up into ions of 2M" and SO The hydrogen ions being positively charged moved towards the cathodes and recive two electrons from there and form x hydrogen atom. The hydrogen stom reacts with lead sulphate cathode forming Yead and sulfuric acid according 1 the chemical equation PHSO4 + 21,0 + 2H = PoSO, + 2150,batteries OPETIE 00 the prin b on reversible; this enables ner, _ fio Mored drng a AON at each of the electrons becomes ra SO; moves 10 the anode gives up i 190 aionl Si a id So, ie anode and form leads ecco react with the lead sulphat " tote (oft OH —>N00H +H. ME charging) i004 + #204 N01, +o ug 6) : ; 8 ich isola and NIOOH are viewed as 4 ag ps0, + 2H = HySOs PP set pending O WHEE chaig ge gang OP he tar om one The charging and incharing ae represented by # sinble FeTIDIe eQton gig below. ing the charging operation, elecrica PbO, +H,50,+ Pb ry ‘chemical energy in the cell, Mae Provided from an external power source ‘ve plate -4ve plate 1900 ergy NiOOH. During a i aoe nergy Ni(OH), is converted to the eh releasing the stored chemical esey eh NiOOH is converted back to “i ery, jectrode chemistry ne electro : Charge es The following reactions occur dung the cage he dichage ' “Operations: C4 (OH)2 + 2e~ C+ 20H (during charging) 7 (6.3) SQ, + 21,0 + PoSoy Electrical enerzy cd+20H Cd (OH)2 + 2€" (during discharging) (64) se plte sve plate : verall reaction Fig, 22 Combining the equations in 6.2 and 6.3 reveals the overall cell equation Ni (OH) + Cd (OH), + 2NiOOH + Cd + 24,0 The overall reaction schematically depicts a simple transfer of OH-ion between (OH), and Cd, depending on whether the cells being charged or discharged 1 Performance Characteristics There are five major characteristics of NiCd batery hat we should look at, which are duping, discharging, storage, cycle life and safey. ‘The equation should read downward for discharge and upward for recharge 6.7.2 NI Cd Battery Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) is one of the most established amongst the varius commercially available rechargeable battery systems. The energy density of NiCd bates are lower than the newer battery systems, such as Nickel Metal Hydride and Lithium lon However, the robust NiCd batteries are very durable, reliable, easy-to-use and economicalinal discharge capaci te woalng bouts, To dk oa {ot age a ate agiag sie by discharge current and op ane tithe dcr oa rosetivity of Jy 10 ond volage ‘bce th try hage up t ‘hough # balanced electrode during overduebarys sipated into the envionment cate! tanger At ctl Me APO apy mu J" lowest capacity colt wij, “ell, setieg connect y. the be the fint ad_batteries When Charging efficiency sent wo ear the aneey 0 HAW fOOM pe care® Continues, Use Unit ell wit by gives Pee & voltage drop. If the In general it is more eff ive electrodes sre MOTE. stable eo is er Int ah overcharged condition the chemicals of bath positve and nepal oe tenon = ahi ‘oon taker capacity ee aera & secie NiC taterion drape rapidly when the ambled! OTE cn of electrde 6 Do ow ie 10 Fla. 6.24 Discharge charactvatic 173 Lithlum-lon battery Lion battery contains lithium oxide inead of metal Uthlim. He makes use of Htbium vat onde as the positive electrode and speciaty carbon as the negative electrode, Only “am ions trove between the postive and the negative goles, The ions are lonized from foire material and move (0 the vegatve olectie during charge. During diecharge. the iy move 10 the positive electrode and retum tw the original compound. Tho reaction for Auge and discharge are shown tx below 10 40 10 Capty put (4) 1a. 23 Charge etarsterate Discharge Characteristics Discharge voltage 1. Structure of lithtumston cells The nominal discharge voltage of a NICU battery is 1.2V at 0.2C discharge Liton cell has tree layer strucare. A posiive electde plate (made with {thin Cobalt affected by current and ambient temperature. The discharge voliage Je, depresied vole + cathode), a egative electrode plate (made with specialty carbon anode) and « fampersture, ‘Tia fs because NiCd batteries employ an aqueous electrolyte system, resuhing J xoor layer, Inde the batery also exist ao electrolyte whieh iy a tin salt io ab 4 decreased fonic mobility at lower temperatures. At higher currents, the discharge voluge J cnic solvent, L.i-Ton is also equipped wih 0 vaely of saely measures and protectivese 0 SC 45 Fig. 625 lectronics and/or fuses to prevent reverse polarity, over voltage and over heating and sig hhave a pressure release valve and a safety vent to prevent batery from burst. 2 Char cutent of 0.1 CIA orl ge Temperature - rity Charging - verifying te poesy of te Mion baerieS ATE NEVE chaiged With he recy rely pxtarging of litblumion ces o discharge Lithium-lon bateries should be used the following method: Cima, ven MME vgs per cel sould be 29 V of ee ee eg ere | Satries before charging, due to Secon) _05¢ aa) so 4 02C (184m) = 2 Charging of Lithium-ion cells Charging method that commonly used for charging of Lithium-Ion cells is conan ‘current - constant voltage (CV-CC). This means charging with constant current until the 42V are reached by the cell (or 4.2V x the number of cells connected in series) and continuing je é 2sl 3.0}- Charge: 920mA-4.2V (CC-CV)256 | Discharge: 02C.05C 1C(EV.=2751) I] 1 we 1 1 with constant voltage until the current drops to zero. The charge time depends on the chaye level of the battery and varies from 2-4 hours for full charge. Also Li-Ion cannot fast ctaye 8 this will increase their temperature above limits. Charge voltage - the maximum voltage is 42 V multiplied to the number of ce connected in pack 0 206 oo (Capcity (Ab) Fig. 6.27 Discharging characteristics 7000 ischarzing at vohage less than 3.0V pet Discharge Termination voltage ~ To avoid discharging at Jt Due to overcharging can damage the performance ofthe Litium-fon battery[2 L uch goat of 7 amit #10 C0A oiey, YY, st i “ rus used (OF switeri at should pot ; t. Discharge Current - the current mag of bs ries are WEMPETALUTE range 4, Fe gown 8 HEN aa, eM ee os ‘ Fe TT i ltt, gianna appt and 10°C to + 60°C. LA SEE tt OY ony ie semening Cand he caine Pt ge , EARTI % switch gear detects the fay aneat flows ‘HING it itteraption rough the. Gs) ait wo be cated, HF HH OUT Fame aay | ee 84 Gomory VCE to the consumers cis ‘uur : sexton from eter past arya yc reconnected 1 TH AA aay yh BEA EOE tag oo potent ax possible the earth wire isnot proved Pu 20) 0 OS gn 1) a tat Of he i a hy a ae quent Wie touches a meal fame, the fame wil aque ET ie shock. By ean fy dy ed ig air an OFAN HAE open gh The cota of a es Person touching the body of the appliance Wit fy Se the leakage CUTEDt sets an out fue is SOM Bie Of Wit o hi pati ‘machine or appliance, the shock hazard wire to DOW and protect the ci a Mey sufficient ime. I is meas " eh when ded in the live etit a sees ‘excessive curent flows earth. This will cause the fuse provi ne echines of gRdget ° ‘conditions, the fare is veh ce tore well as the person touching the electrical appli - current below its meting point 68.1 Objective of Earthing aa | fot grrent through the fuse clement Maing. When ere ‘The main objective of earthing isto provide safety of OPeEGE, Th SO, insltg of windings placed inside the machine very becomes weak, 2 Pat oF Ue OPSFatNg cue ‘8618 diverted to the surface. When person touches such a mic ht: Ae HEM curren fing, @ path through his body to earth. If this leakage current is high, the person gets an elecy;: ‘shock which even cause death. a The another eject or mens of earn, i 10 sve conictng MALTA In ey days, we were using this technique of saving conductor material in case of telegraph, Earthling also helps in protecting high rise buildings from atmospheric lightning. forked metal rod or thick wire called the lighting conductor, sticks out from the top of i4e building, chimney. tower, etc. Its other end is buried deeps into the ground. Whenever lighting Occurs, the electricity passes directly from the top of lightning conductor to earth, hereby Protecting the building from any damage. Generally we are used two earthling methods commonly (@ Plate earthing Gi) Pipe earthing PROTECTION OF POWER SYSTEM A great demand for electrical energy is a notable feature of modern civilization, In general the electric energy is needed for lighting. heating, domestic appliances, industal electrical machinery and electric traction. It is desirable to protect the power system from hharm during fault conditions and to ensure maximum continuity of supply. For this purpose, all electrical equipments and system under both normal and abnormal conditions must be Provided to switch on or off. This is achieved by an apparatus called switch gear. A switch gear essentially consists of switching and protecting devices such as fuses, switches, circuit, breaker, relays, lighting arresters etc. tyCeO a0 ews ect limite secodary that has to be protected. ie tne cae et closed, the Te eases ee yresace, Cy Cy 1 ee. WHEE CC Test OPE, thai cate ‘energised by an auxiliary d¢ source: causes the "em ite circuit 69.3 Relay — | A relay is device which deo ea hey elt ae ied Gl aa a ciruit interupion, Fig. 6.29 shows major par Bute Dc supply i EF coil o€ Relay Fig, 29 Relay ecu ‘In an curent transformer, the primary winding is connected in series with the cy 10 er mafng of cue ransformer is eOnNECed 10 the yy operating coll The ripping col cei cons of # source of SUPBIY. HP Coil of cgy breaker and relay contacts. Under normal conditions, the emf induced in the secondary winding of CT i smuy and the current flowing in the relay operating coil is insufficient 10 close the relay cont, The contacts of the circuit breaker remain closed and it carries normal load current. Whey a fault occurs, a large current flows through the primary of CT: This increases the second rf and hence the taneat tough the rely operating coil The relay contacts are closed ang trip the coil of the circuit breaker is energised to open the contacts of the circuit breaker, TARIFF The rate at which the electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tr a8 tat. The tariff should include the total cost of producing and supplying electrical energy plus the profit. The tariff also include the following items. (Recovery of cost of producing electical energy atthe power station geo of cost Oe oi eta 0 seery of cost of in cove pemtng anc i) Rerranance Of Supply of glean io of cst se ee bi on and distribution systems. as able Profit on the capi) investment of tariff fa gre several (PES Of tri simple wit aa te ill lock ate tai pworport tariff Maximum element tariff power factor tariff -pe-part tariff tariff eee in this type Of tariff. the price charged per uni ig 8 fr decrease in number of units consumed. The cami i beh eT an = on amer's terminals is recorded by means of a an energy meter, soaps «There ib 0 discrimination teen dite pes of consmers since even consumers since every consumer his to pay equitably for the fixed” charges iy The cost per unit detivered i high ip W does not encour the use of ec 1 trate tat When the diffrent types of consumers ae charged in diferent union per unit aes alld fat ate tari. tn this type of tariff, the consumers are grouped into different classes and each class asumers is charged at a different uniform rae. For instance, the flat rate per kWh for bbe 60 pise, where as it may be slighly less (say $5 paise per kWh) for into account ther diversity ferent types of ft dng load may vet oad. The different classes of consumers are made taking vad factors. The advantage of such a ttf i that it is more fair to dil “rswmers and is quite simple in calculationsof eoergy. For example, the firs, gat": Semel iS ee aad progressively reduced for the succeeding wusm demand ot the mits NS demand meter ts require. tay be charged atthe fee rte of the next 32 sts tering ional wats may be charged atthe rate of 30 pais Per enit ’ consumer gets an incentin rover (ae oa Ln We 10 consume ga, JP rps tail m Which powcr factor of the con ere ters load is ten into considerations factor of the system and hence the cost is reduced. However, its principal defect is that lacks a measure of the consumer's Ths Ope of dle beg moe for ajniy of resenialand small COmmer:al cy 4 4 Two-part tariff ‘Whea the rate of electrical energy is charged oo the basis of maximum consumer and the units consumed, it is called 4 two-part tariff. ae In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made trom the consumer is ° 7 it compoocnt viz. faad’ charges anf ramamg chupes. Toe fed charges depend sn," Imaimum demand of he cnumer whieh mnng cares The fed charges depend he atin demand ef comme vik etme TE SFM ten wake {fumes consumed by the consume, Ths. the consume card at 2 certain a imum demand plus a certain amoust per LWh of energy consumed ie. Total charges = Rs (bx kW+ cx kWh) where, b= charge per kW of maximum demand, = charge per kWh of energy consumed ‘This of is ,_ This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have apprecbie Advantages (@ Wis easily understood by the consumers. Of penera ot be on 25 power tp an a6. System. Power fac10r plays ae amporact amg of sation equipment and line losses. There ang cicielocpcliccryieenerel 6 yg penalised. The following am the operant ness at mee tea wah vmporantiypes of power factor aif | AVA maximum demand tariff Ws » wos form “ of owo-pat taf. Ya this case. the fined charges are ade oa the bins of ram ceund tw BVA and kW. As eh is inversely proportional to power factor. therefore, a consumer having tow factor has to contribate more towards the fixed charges. Thi f Powe ands the fred a is type of tariff has the advantage that it encourages the consumers to operate their appliances and machinery at improved power factor. (ay Sliding scale tariff: This is also known as average power factor tiff. In this ease fan average power factor, say 0. lagging, ss uken as the reference. If the power factor of the consumer fulls below this factor, suitable additional charges are made ‘On the other hand, if the power factor is above the reference, a discount is allowed to the consumer: (nv kW cad AVAR tariff: Yn this type, both active power (AW) and reactive power {AVAR) supplied are charged separtely. A consumer having Yow power factor sil draw more reactive power and hence shall have to pay more charges 1. Three-part tariff When the total charge to be made from the consumer is split ino three port fucd Gare, nentsaed charge and eavng charg, iis Brown a a three-part tApon ‘Basic Electrical, Electronics and Measurement ¢, Total charge = Rs. (a+b x kW +c¢xkWh) where a= fixed charge made during each billing Caaageer i nied interen a Gepreciation on the cost of secondary distribution ibour Collecting revenues, = charge per kW of maximum demand, ¢= charge per kWh of energy consumed. . / MW may be seen that by adding fixed charge or sonst _ charge . a 9 tWo.paq LNT, it becomes three-part tariff. The principal objection ot fies “ti 1 ha te Charges ares split into three components. This type of tariff is generally PPlied to ys consumers, PART B - QUESTIONS What are the different types of renewable energy sources? Describe the wind energy conversion system. Describe the solar energy conversion system. Explain the construction and working principle of solar cell. With a neat sketch, explain the working of sodium-vapour lamp. Explain the construction and operation of mercury vapour lamp. Explain the construction and working of Fluorescent tube, Describe the components of refrigeration system. Describe the components of Air conditioning system. 10. Explain the working principle of Lead-Acid battery. 11. What is the basic principle of Ni-Cd battery? Explain the performance characteristic of Ni-Cd battery, 12. Explain the charging and discharging action of Lithium-ion battery. 13. Explain any one of the protective device used in power system, 14. What are the different types of tariff? Explain each of them. 15, What is the need for Earthing? Explain,