Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education

ISSN: 1359-866X (Print) 1469-2945 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/capj20

Just add hours? An assessment of pre-service

teachers’ perception of the value of professional
experience in attaining teacher competencies

Ruth Reynolds, Peter Howley, Erica Southgate & Joanna Brown

To cite this article: Ruth Reynolds, Peter Howley, Erica Southgate & Joanna Brown (2015): Just
add hours? An assessment of pre-service teachers’ perception of the value of professional
experience in attaining teacher competencies, Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, DOI:
10.1080/1359866X.2015.1086971

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2015.1086971

Published online: 06 Oct 2015.

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 ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TEACHER EDUCATION, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2015.1086971

Just add hours? An assessment of pre-service teachers’

perception of the value of professional experience in
attaining teacher competencies
Ruth Reynoldsa, Peter Howleyb, Erica Southgatea and Joanna Browna
a
School of Education, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle and Ourimbah, Australia; bSchool of
Mathematical and Physical Sciences/Statistics, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
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ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study compared pre-service teachers’ perceptions of their Received 6 November 2014
professional competencies at two campuses of a large regional Accepted 16 June 2015
teacher education university, where one campus provided KEYWORDS
students 22% more hours of professional placement in schools Pre-service teacher
and related educational settings. Students who had experienced education; professional
more hours in schools and such settings were more positive about experience; school linkages;
their, ability to apply their knowledge of students and how they teacher education; teaching
learn, classroom management, professional knowledge and prac- competencies
tice, and community engagement; however, when students felt
well supported during professional experience, such differences
diminished. Additional hours were not associated with pre-service
teachers’ perceptions of their ability to apply subject content and
teaching; plan, assess and report; and effective student commu-
nication. Researchers argued that this pointed to the crucial role of
good classroom mentors in teacher professional experience but
also the value of students’ tertiary teacher education in preparing
them for classroom teaching.

Introduction
University-based initial teacher education (ITE) has long faced issues regarding the role
of professional experience (a term used herein to encompass clinical experience, field
placement, field experience and practicum) and the forms it should take to produce
effective teachers (Brennan & Willis, 2008; Falkenberg, 2010; Hartsuyker, 2007; Vick, 2006;
Zeichner, 2006). Professional experience can include a variety of placement experiences
in school and other educational settings (which may include outside-of-school and
outdoor environments, early childhood centres, outreach activities, virtual experiences
or scenarios of real-life experiences presented to students for appraisal and reflection,
and the like), designed to provide opportunities to develop teaching practice and act as
an initial induction into the profession for pre-service teachers, but there has never been
a simple answer as to whether a particular form provides a quality teacher. Thus, some
have described professional experience as a “wicked problem” in teacher education, a

CONTACT Ruth Reynolds Ruth.Reynolds@newcastle.edu.au

© 2015 Australian Teacher Education Association
 2 R. REYNOLDS ET AL.

highly complex socially constructed quandary for which there is no simple solution
(Southgate, Reynolds, & Howley, 2013).
The complexity of the many and varied lists of competencies that are incorporated in
the profession of teaching, and the many factors that influence the nascent develop-
ment of teaching craft, add to difficulties in assessing professional experience. Broader
discussions of the efficacy of different models of pre-service teacher professional experi-
ence in developing competencies and craft, linked to a robust evidence base, are
relatively rare (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Ronfeldt, 2012;
Zeichner, 2010). Despite this, the area of professional experience is often a key focus
of public inquiries into ITE with both popular commentators and policymakers advocat-
ing initiatives that seek to increase the quantity of the experience with less attention
paid to the quality of the experience (Hartsuyker, 2007). The multiple perspectives from
the stakeholders involved in professional experience (the pre-service teacher, mentor
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teacher and university-based teacher educator) further complicate our understanding of

what constitutes an effective professional experience in ITE.
In response to these issues, the present study sought to compare the effectiveness of
two models of ITE professional experience operating within one university from the
perspective of undergraduate pre-service teachers. Specifically, we were interested in
exploring whether “adding more hours” of professional experience (increasing the
quantity of time spent in a professional experience) influenced (a) pre-service teacher
confidence in meeting professional competencies, (b) feelings of support from the
mentor-teacher and (c) a personal sense of induction into the teaching profession.
This paper begins with a literature review on professional experience in ITE which sets
the scene by focusing on research about the effectiveness of professional experience in
ITE, nationally and internationally, and recent Australian policy initiatives in the area. We
then report on results from a survey of over 1000 undergraduate pre-service teachers
involved in either (a) traditional practicum professional experience, which is based on
the notion of critical reflective practice of in-classroom experiences; or (b) traditional
practicum and a compulsory “extra hours” initiative known as the LiNKS programme
(due to the programme’s linking of students to one of many local schools for the
duration of their teaching degree for these “extra hours”); the survey’s content aligns
with the NSW Institute of Teachers’ (NSWIT’s) Graduate Teacher Professional Teaching
Standards (2005). The paper concludes with a discussion focusing on the issue of
increasing the quantity of professional experience from the perspective of pre-service
teachers and discusses implications for the design of models of professional experience
in ITE and related policy and research.

Literature review
The importance of the teacher’s role in student learning has been highlighted in
research over the past decade (Connell, 2009; Hattie, 2003; Rowe, 2003; Thoonen,
Sleegers, Peetsma, & Oort, 2011), and internationally there has been a call to
better understand how to best teach pre-service teachers and how to evaluate teacher
education programmes (Aubusson & Schuck, 2013; Goldhaber, Liddle, & Theobald, 2013;
Korthagen, Loughran, & Russell, 2006; Wang, Odell, Klecka, Spalding, & Emily Lin, 2010).
A recent report from the US (Committee on the Study of Teacher Preparation Programs
 ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TEACHER EDUCATION 3

in the United States, 2010) identified there were many different ways to train teachers
but there was a paucity of data, both in the US and overseas, upon which to judge the
effectiveness of these programmes. The report found that evidence linking various
aspects of teacher preparation and subsequent student learning outcomes was lacking
and further quantitative and qualitative research studies were seen as important if clear
directions for teacher preparation were to be established. It argued that one key aspect
of ITE requiring increased research scrutiny was professional experience.
Professional experience plays a crucial role in preparing effective teachers, and it is
one of the key indicators of a successful teacher education programme (OECD, 2011). ITE
has always incorporated professional experience (Vick, 2006), with students assigned to
a teacher-mentor to supervise school experience under the overall guidance of the
teacher education institution. Given that professional experience is a signature peda-
gogy for ITE (Darling-Hammond, Hammerness, Grossman, & Shulman, 2005), it is inter-
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esting that there is still uncertainty about what models of professional experience best
prepare pre-service teachers for a productive working life (Darling-Hammond &
Leiberman, 2012; Maandag, Folkert Deinum, Hofman, & Buitink, 2007).
Some decades ago, Zeichner and Tabachnick (1981) described professional experi-
ence as a “complicated set of both positive and negative consequences that are often
subtle in nature” (p. 46). The literature is peppered with qualitative accounts of success-
ful and problematic aspects of professional experience from the perspectives of pre-
service teacher, mentor-teacher and university educator (Allen, Howells, & Radford, 2013;
Graham, 2006; Zeichner, 2010). There are fewer large-scale quantitative studies in this
area (Louden, 2008).
In policy terms, there has been some concern regarding the quality of professional
experience (New South Wales Government, 2013). However, it could be argued that
there is much more emphasis placed on the quantity of professional experience,
particularly the idea of immersing pre-service teachers in school settings. For example,
in the UK, Furlong (2005) and MacBeath (2012) describe governmental intervention that
resulted in some ITE being shifted almost entirely to schools. Underpinning the idea of
immersion is the assumption that increasing the quantity of time spent in schools will
remedy the theory–practice divide that is said to plague ITE (Hartsuyker, 2007).
Furthermore, adding more hours could reasonably be thought to automatically create
work-ready graduates who will last the professional distance. However, the literature
indicates there are areas of uncertainty regarding quantity of hours, its timing and
effects, and, importantly, the quality of the experience (Brennan & Willis, 2008;
Le Cornu & Ewing, 2008; Zeichner, 2010). There is no clear evidence-based consensus
on what quantity and quality of professional experience is optimal (Darling-Hammond &
Leiberman, 2012).
Darling-Hammond (2006) pointed out that teachers often claimed that they needed
more professional experience in their teacher preparation, and Harris and Sass (2011)
found direct links between teacher productivity and increases in student productivity.
However, in 2013, a US-based report found that only 7% of ITE programmes ensured
that their student teachers were placed in classrooms taught by teachers who are
themselves effective; their students experienced poorly developed professional experi-
ences (Greenberg, McKee, & Walsh, 2013). Pre-service teachers can revert to an appren-
ticeship of observation (Lortie, 2002), a phenomenon where teaching’s long-standing
 4 R. REYNOLDS ET AL.

cultural scripts are impressed upon the novice (Sykes, Bird, & Kennedy, 2010). In other
words, pre-service teachers learn to teach in the way they have been taught.
In Australia, pre-service teachers must spend a mandated minimum number of hours in
schools as part of the accreditation process. In undergraduate ITE, 80 days are to be spent in
“well structured, supervised and assessed teaching practice” (Education Services Australia
2011, p. 15), while in graduate entry programmes there is a minimum of 60 days required.
Many ITE programmes innovate with extra hours devoted to “practical” experiences
whether they be in situ classroom teaching, observation of classrooms, virtual experiences
or scenarios of real-life experiences presented to students for appraisal and reflection.
In 2008, the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) committed $77 million to the
Improving the Practical Component of Teacher Education (IPCTE) programme. This 3-year
programme, rolled out over all states and territories, had a strong emphasis on increas-
ing the number of professional experience days offered in teacher education pro-
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grammes. For example, ITE degrees over 3 or 4 years were to offer a minimum of
120 days of professional experience, while 1- or 2-year graduate degrees were to ensure
a minimum of 60 days professional experience (COAG, 2008). The IPCTE programme
prompted the present study, which was designed to explore the effectiveness of “add-
ing hours” to ITE programmes, specifically from the perspective of pre-service teachers.

Context for study

The University of Newcastle (UoN) is a regional university situated in the state of NSW,
Australia. Its main campus is in Newcastle, and it also has two satellite campuses, one at
Ourimbah, 83 km north of Sydney and the other at Port Macquarie 385 km north of
Sydney. Since 1949, UoN offers a comprehensive ITE programme and has the second
highest number of enrolled education students of any university in Australia. UoN offers
ITE in early childhood, primary education and secondary-level Fine Arts, Health and
Physical Education, Music, Science, Maths, Technology and a range of Humanities areas
such as History, English and Geography. The Ourimbah campus limits its degree offer-
ings to early childhood, primary and secondary English, drama and history teaching.
Professional experience practicum commences in the second year of ITE (with the
exception of early childhood at Ourimbah campus which has a first year practicum).
Practicums in years 2 and 3 are each of 20 days (total 40 days). Year 4 of ITE involves an
internship of 50 days; internships are much the same as practicums; however, the pre-
service teacher is afforded greater control over what happens in the classroom. UoN’s
ITE professional experience primarily takes place in local schools and early childhood
centres. Professional experience practicum at UoN is based on the notion of critical
reflective practice but acknowledges that professional experience has a long history of
“training” and “craft” knowledge and that as an historical artefact it includes many
different views of what a good practitioner should be. The practice at Newcastle is to
encourage critique of many ways of investigating teacher experience and self-reflection
(Grushka, Hinde-McLeod, & Reynolds, 2005).
Between the years 2004 and 2009, two models of ITE professional experience oper-
ated at UoN. The first model operated at the Callaghan Campus, Newcastle, and involved
pre-service teachers undertaking second and third year practicum followed by a fourth
year internship (we refer to this model as the traditional model). The second model
 ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TEACHER EDUCATION 5

operated at Ourimbah Campus, Central Coast, and included the practica and internship
of the traditional model plus a supplementary programme known as the LiNKS pro-
gramme (hereafter referred to as the LiNKS).
The LiNKS programme involved pre-service teachers from Ourimbah Campus con-
necting with a local school for the duration of their teaching degree. These pre-service
teachers undertook 20 more days of professional experience than the 90 days of their
Callaghan (traditional model) peers (this equates to students at Ourimbah Campus
having approximately 22% more professional experience than their Callaghan peers).
The LiNKS programme was designed to augment the traditional model of professional
experience and was aligned closely with the courses taught at university. Pre-service
teachers had tasks to implement on their LiNKS placement which were associated with
the course they were studying. For example, when doing a course on behaviour
management the task was to implement a number of these management skills in
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their LiNKS school and report on this as part of a course assessment. Pre-service students
negotiated appropriate times to visit their LiNKS schools and were expected to assist the
school as well as accommodate university requirements.
Having two different models of professional experience operating at separate cam-
puses (Callaghan’s traditional model versus Ourimbah’s LiNKS model) provided an
opportunity to conduct what Louden (2008) describes as a naturally occurring “experi-
ment”. This natural “experiment” tested the assumption that increasing the quantity of
professional experience by adding hours, in this case 20 days, would increase the
confidence of pre-service teachers in meeting professional competencies and in brid-
ging the theory–practice divide. Furthermore, increased hours of immersion would be
reflected in feelings of a greater personal sense of induction into the profession. The
large cohort of pre-service teachers undertaking ITE at both Callaghan and Ourimbah,
coupled with the relative lack of larger scale quantitative studies in this area, particularly
in Australia, inspired a quantitative study by survey to test these assumptions.

Research questions
1. Is participation in LiNKS associated with pre-service teachers’ perceptions of suc-
cess in meeting NSWIT’s Professional Teaching Standards in their professional
experience course?
2. Is participation in LiNKS associated with pre-service teachers’ perceptions of levels
of school-based teaching support to meet NSWIT’s Professional Teaching
Standards in their professional experience course?
3. Is participation in LiNKS associated with pre-service teachers’ perceptions of
school-based early induction into the teaching profession in their professional
experience course?

Method
Instrument
Part 1 of the survey, corresponding with research question 1, listed 20 questions which
covered aspects of all seven key elements of the NSWIT’s Graduate Teacher Professional
 6 R. REYNOLDS ET AL.

Table 1. Seven core NSW Institute of Teachers’ Professional Teaching Standards’ graduate teacher
elements* and corresponding summaries of aspects surveyed.
Description of graduate teacher element Summary of graduate aspects surveyed
1. Teachers know their subject/content and how 1. Knowledge and skills of pedagogy
to teach that content to their students 2. Syllabus/curriculum framework
3. Lesson planning and preparation
4. Knowledge and skills in information and communication
technology
5. Subject content knowledge
2. Teachers know their students and how 6. Knowledge of the social, physical and intellectual
students learn development of students
7. Learning theories
8. Strategies for addressing ATSI, NESB, Special Ed and
Challenging Behaviour students’ needs
3. Teachers plan, assess and report for effective 9. Strategies for assessing students
learning
4. Teachers communicate effectively with their 10. Strategies for leading, directing and facilitating group work
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students 11. Techniques for questioning students

5. Teachers create and maintain safe and
challenging learning environments through
the use of classroom management skills
6. Teachers continually improve their
professional knowledge and practice
7. Teachers are actively engaged members of
their profession and the wider community
*NSWIT (2005).
12. Methods for communicating clear directions to students
about learning goals
13. Techniques for facilitating class discussion
14. Strategies to create a positive and safe classroom
environment
15. Strategies to manage classroom discipline
16. Critical reflection to improve your teaching
17. Strategies to engage with the professional community
within the school (i.e. teachers, the executive, administrative
support)
18. Strategies to engage with parents and other stakeholders
external to the school
19. Knowledge of the laws and regulations relating to rights
and responsibilities for students and teachers
20. Knowledge of ethical conduct in the teaching profession.

Teaching Standards (2005) (see Table 1). A respondent’s element rating was obtained by
averaging across the respective aspects surveyed. Students identified their perceived
level of success in applying each of the 20 aspects in their most recent professional
experience/internship by responding to a 10-point Likert scale additionally labelled as 1,
none; 2–4, limited; 5–6, satisfactory; 7–8, good; and 9–10, excellent. Students were very
familiar with the teacher standards as they were incorporated in all formal professional
experience placements. It should be noted that the Australian Institute for Teaching and
School Leadership has subsequently developed seven elements for professional stan-
dards for teachers and, although there are slight differences the NSWIT, has accepted
their overall similarity (NSWIT, 2012).
Part 2 of the survey, corresponding with research question 2, used the same 20
questions as in part 1 that linked to the seven key elements. For each question, students
were asked to indicate their perception of the level of support they received from their
school-based teacher in applying the area in their most recent professional experience/
internship using the same 10-point Likert scale.
Part 3 of the survey, corresponding with research question 3, required students to
rate how well their school-based teacher performed in each of two induction areas
(see Table 2), in their most recent professional experience. Eight questions which
covered both induction areas were surveyed. The same 10-point Likert scale was
used.
 ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TEACHER EDUCATION 7

Table 2. Induction areas and corresponding components of induction area surveyed.

Induction area
1. Induction into the teaching process
2. Induction into the professional world of
the teacher
Component of induction area surveyed
1. Equipped you with new teaching strategies
2. Encouraged you to try new teaching strategies
3. Assisted you to overcome teaching difficulties
4. Made you feel like a welcome member of the teaching staff
5. Communicated with you in a collegial manner
6. Helped you understand routines, policies and procedures of the
school/centre
7. Made you feel like a member of the teaching profession
8. Knowledge of ethical conduct in the teaching profession

Further, the following student demographics were recorded: degree within which
currently enrolled (categorised by specialisations as early childhood, primary, secondary);
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age; country of birth (categorised as English speaking or not); gender; Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander status; primary language (categorised as English or not); and
current year of professional experience.

Procedure
At the completion of their course lectures, students in all teaching programmes at
Ourimbah (where the LiNKS programme was implemented) and Callaghan (LiNKS pro-
gramme was not implemented) campuses were given a paper-based survey by a research
assistant not directly involved in the study. Students were invited to complete this survey
knowing that it was entirely voluntary, anonymous and that their decision would not
impinge in any way on their course results. Students on both campuses were asked to
reflect on their most recent professional experience placement, and as these placements
were at different times for different degrees, the surveys were handed out over a period of
weeks in the second semester of 2010 and first semester 2011. The study was approved by
the University of Newcastle Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC 2009-0262).

Analysis
For each of parts 1, 2 and 3 of the survey, a respondent’s mean score of the respective
summaries of aspects surveyed was obtained for each defined element. Stepwise regres-
sion was used to fit models having each of the defined elements’ mean scores as the
outcome variable and significant, at 10% level, demographic variables as predictor variables
in order to adjust for potential differences in respondents between the two campuses.
Participation in the [blinded] programme was then tested for significance in the model,
both before and after the mean score for level of support was included in the model.

Participants
Participants were 1167 pre-service teachers enrolled in a 4-year ITE programme at either
the Callaghan or Ourimbah campuses of UoN in 2010/2011. There were 366 and 801
respondents from the LiNKS and non-LiNKS cohorts, respectively, representing response
rates of 55% and 46%.
 8 R. REYNOLDS ET AL.

Results
The numbers and percentages of respondents for each of the key demographic variables
are presented by campus in Table 3.

Research question 1
After adjusting for significant demographic predictor variables for each element, parti-
cipation in the LiNKS programme was found, at the 1% significance level, to be
statistically significantly associated with a student’s mean score on their perceived ability
to apply element 2 (p = 0.0032), and, at the 5% significance level, to apply elements 5–7
(p = 0.0258, 0.0207 and 0.0434) (see Table 4), with the LiNKS programme exhibiting
higher mean ratings. Participation in the [blinded] programme was not found to be
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statistically significantly associated with a respondent’s mean score on their perceived

ability to apply elements 1, 3 or 4 (p = 0.7382, 0.8345 and 0.1477). However, after the
inclusion in each model of a pre-service teacher’s score on the level of support received
from school-based teacher whilst on professional experience, only element 2 was
statistically significant at 5% significance level (p = 0.025), with all other elements tested
having p-values >0.07.
Whether or not perceived level of support was included as a potential explanatory
variable, the difference in mean scores under the two programmes was relatively small for
all seven elements, ranging from −0.03 to 0.29, on the 10-point Likert scale for all elements.

Table 3. Frequencies of demographic variables by campus.

LiNKS campus Non-LiNKS campus
Demographic Categories n % n %
Gender Male 57 15.6 194 24.2
Female 306 83.6 607 83.6
Missing 3 0.8 0 0.0
Age at enrolment Under 22 230 62.8 627 78.3
23–30 70 19.1 102 12.7
Over 30 63 17.2 71 8.9
Missing 3 0.8 1 0.1
Current year of professional experience 2nd 99 27.0 136 17.0
3rd 124 33.9 364 45.4
4th 139 38.0 300 37.5
Missing 4 1.1 1 0.1
Specialisation Early childhood 87 23.8 118 14.7
Primary 223 60.9 328 40.9
Secondary# 50 13.7 349 43.6
Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander Yes 11 3.0 23 2.9
No 350 95.6 776 96.9
Missing 5 1.4 2 0.2
Country of birth English speaking 356 97.3 778 97.1
Non-English Speaking 5 1.4 18 2.2
Missing 5 1.4 5 0.6
Primary language English 358 97.8 794 99.1
Not English 3 0.8 5 0.6
Missing 5 1.4 2 0.2
Notes: #Callaghan (non-LiNKS) campus secondary programmes include a number of specialisations not available at
Ourimbah (LiNKS) campus including Health and Physical Education, Fine Arts, Design and Technology, Music, Science
and Mathematics.
 ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TEACHER EDUCATION 9

Table 4. Campus comparisons of pre-service teacher ratings of ability to apply each element.
Mean LiNKS Mean Difference Standard error
Element campus non-LiNKS (LiNKS–non LiNKS) of difference p-Value
1. Subject content and teaching 7.44 7.46 −0.025 0.0746 0.7382
2. Knowledge of students and 7.08 6.78 0.286 0.0969 0.0032#
how they learn
3. Plan, assess and report 6.78 6.75 0.024 0.1158 0.8345
4. Effective student 7.35 7.22 0.128 0.0882 0.1477
communication
5. Classroom management 7.79 7.59 0.202 0.0908 0.0258^
6. Professional knowledge and 7.54 7.36 0.185 0.0916 0.0434^
practice
7. Community engagement 6.94 6.70 0.239 0.1031 0.0207^
#
Notes: Significant at 1% significance level.
^
Significant at 5% significance level.
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Means ranged across the seven elements from 6.7 to 7.8, indicating students on average,
irrespective of programme exposure, rated their ability to apply each element while on
their most recent professional experience in the range from highly satisfactory to good.

Research question 2
After adjusting for significant demographic predictor variables for each element, parti-
cipation in the LiNKS programme was found not to be statistically significantly asso-
ciated with the mean score of the level of school-based teaching support (p > 0.15 for all
seven elements) (see Table 5). Mean scores ranged across the seven elements from 6.7
to 7.7, indicating on average pre-service teachers rated their school-based support to
apply each element while on their most recent professional experience in the range of
highly satisfactory to good for all elements. Relatively small differences in mean scores
for the two campuses were observed for all elements, ranging from −0.05 to 0.2, on the
10-point Likert scale.

Research question 3
After adjusting for significant demographic predictor variables for each element, parti-
cipation in the LiNKS programme was found not to be statistically significantly asso-
ciated with the mean score of the level of school-based early induction into the teaching
profession (p > 0.48 for both elements, see Table 6). Mean scores indicated, on average,

Table 5. Campus comparisons of pre-service teacher ratings of school-based teaching support for
each element.
Mean LiNKS Mean Difference Standard error
Element campus non-LiNKS (LiNKS–non-LiNKS) of difference p-Value
1. Subject content and teaching 7.32 7.22 0.096 0.126 0.4458
2. Knowledge of students and 6.85 6.71 0.139 0.146 0.3419
how they learn
3. Plan, assess and report 7.09 7.01 0.077 0.155 0.6169
4. Communicate 7.34 7.14 0.198 0.136 0.1462
5. Classroom management 7.69 7.74 −0.048 0.136 0.7209
6. Professional knowledge and 7.16 7.16 −0.001 0.146 0.9933
practice
7. Community engagement 6.80 6.71 0.092 0.154 0.5485
 10 R. REYNOLDS ET AL.

Table 6. Campus comparisons of pre-service teacher ratings of value of induction in key elements.
Mean LiNKS Mean Difference Standard error
Induction area campus non-LiNKS (LiNKS–non-LiNKS of difference p-Value
1. Induction – teaching process 7.65 7.54 0.108 0.154 0.4826
2. Induction – professional world 8.17 8.13 0.040 0.140 0.7776
of the teacher

pre-service teachers rated their school-based level of induction at their most recent
professional experience in the range of very good for both elements. Relatively small
differences in mean scores for the two campuses were observed for all elements,
ranging from 0.04 to 0.1, on the 10-point Likert scale.
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Discussion
This study produced two main findings with implications for the design of and policy
regarding ITE professional experience. Firstly, it appears that adding more hours to
professional experience through the LiNKS programme did not necessarily add value
to the pre-service teacher experience on placement with a few exceptions (research
question 1). There was some evidence that LiNKS students rated their abilities to apply
their knowledge of students and how they learn, classroom management, professional
knowledge and practice, and community engagement better than their peers who had
not undertaken the LiNKS programme (had not been given extra hours). This in itself
may reflect a stronger awareness of such elements occurring in the classroom as a result
of greater exposure to classrooms and child care centres. However, in any event, with
the exception of knowing students and how they learn, it appears that this perception of
success is mediated by the level of teacher support the student received while on
placement. Once “level of support in most recent prac/internship” was taken into
account, three of the above four elements (classroom management, professional knowl-
edge and practice, and community engagement) were not associated with LiNKS
(research question 2). Further, there was a positive association between students’
perceptions of their ability to apply the elements and level of support. This may be
interpreted as suggesting that, on average, students feeling well supported in their prac/
internship negated any differences that may otherwise have been observed due to
LiNKS participation (or greater immersion) (research question 2).
Furthermore, adding extra hours of professional experience was not associated with
pre-service teachers’ perception of level of support while on practicum, or their feeling of
being inducted into the profession (research question 3). A common sense approach to
ITE, and one often found in policy, rests on the assumption that increased time in schools
will lead to more confident pre-service teachers who can communicate more easily with
their cooperating teachers to gain the support they need. This facilitates their induction
into the profession, a process that presumably will alleviate the “practice shock” experi-
enced by new graduates and attrition from the profession (Hammerness, van Tartwijk, &
Snoek, 2012). The question then arises as to what quantity, and importantly, what quality
of professional experience is required to develop confident pre-service teachers who feel
they are attaining teaching standards. Our study suggests that traditional models of
professional experience may be just as effective as more immersive models.
 ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TEACHER EDUCATION 11

Our second key finding, that pre-service teachers were, on average, highly satisfied
with their professional experience regardless of the model they were undertaking,
suggests that the theory–practice divide is not experienced to the degree often claimed
by teacher educators and policymakers. Pre-service teachers were positive about being
able to meet teaching competencies, their cooperative teacher’s expertise in supporting
them at the school/centre and the extent to which they were being well inducted into
the teaching profession. This finding is in contrast to research that suggests pre-service
teachers are dissatisfied with the professional experience component of ITE. For exam-
ple, Hartsuyker (2007) and Zeichner (2006) pointed to the problem of students not
valuing their professional experience due to varying quality and lack of clear supervisory
roles. Falkenberg (2010) and Vick (2006) indicated a shortage of placements, while
Brennan and Willis (2008) noted a difficulty in attracting students to undertake profes-
sional experience in “difficult-to-staff” schools, created the impression of some pre-
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service teachers lacking enthusiasm with their formal professional experience. The pre-
service teachers in our study echo the sentiments of graduates who highly rated the
professional component experience of their ITE (Darling-Hammond, 2006). This high
rating may be a result of the longevity of the ITE programme at UoN and it being well
established in schools coupled with tertiary educators, cooperating teachers and stu-
dents being well aware of their role and their function; these factors may mean that
perceptions of professional experience are less affected by an increase in hours.

Limitations
While the scale of the study is large compared to other studies undertaken into
professional experience in ITE in the Australian context, it was conducted at only one
university. The LiNKS programme included an additional 20 days of placements in
schools and other such educational settings on top of the 90 days formally mandated
at UoN; some 22% more time. This study could not assess whether a greater amount of
additional time would have produced a more substantial difference in pre-service
teachers’ perceptions of competence in meeting teaching standards or induction into
the profession. Further, this study was based upon pre-service teachers’ perceptions of
their abilities and school-based mentors via quantitative methods. Additional research is
required that attempts to triangulate subjective and objective measures of competence
and support from the perspectives of pre-service teacher, cooperating school-based
teacher and university teacher educator. There may be many influences on student
perceptions other than the actual teaching and learning they were given from the
university or school teachers. An evaluation of additional data obtained through focus
groups and interviews would add to the fabric of the conclusions. This will be something
for future consideration. Additionally, the researchers were not in a position to ascertain
the outcomes of the teaching episodes; although the pre-service teachers generally felt
they had taught well, it is unknown whether the school children learnt well.

Conclusion
It is clear that the students from both campuses were very satisfied with their profes-
sional experience and felt they were being well inducted into the teaching profession.
 12 R. REYNOLDS ET AL.

The number of hours of professional experience was overall not significantly associated
with student perceptions of being valued members of the teaching profession or the
degree to which they felt supported (research questions 2 and 3). In the midst of much
discussion about student dissatisfaction with their professional degree programmes, as
indicated above, this study would seem to signal an opposing view.
The study found that increased time spent in professional experience settings was
associated with increased pre-service teachers’ perceptions of their abilities to apply
their knowledge of students and how they learn, classroom management, professional
knowledge and practice, and community engagement (research question 1). However,
when pre-service teachers felt well supported in their professional experience, such
differences for these elements diminished. Level of support from the mentoring teacher
was a mediating factor in any differences in pre-service teachers’ perceptions of their
ability to apply core teaching elements due to additional hours. Further, additional hours
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was not associated with pre-service teachers’ perceptions of their ability to apply subject
content and teaching; plan, assess and report; and effective student communication,
thus supporting the notion that students perceived that their university experience had
well prepared them for these aspects of their classroom teaching (research question 1).
Overall the results indicate that students’ perceptions of their ability to function well in
classroom situations are dependent on good mentoring in schools plus good prepara-
tion in a tertiary setting. Additional hours spent practising in the classroom or centre is
not enough to guarantee improved pre-service teacher perceptions of whether they are
performing well as classroom teachers. Simply “just adding” hours is not sufficient.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
Some funding for this project was supplied by the Australian Council of Australian Governments
(COAG) and Improving the Practical Component of Teacher Education (IPCTE).

Notes on contributors
Ruth Reynolds is leader of the Global Education Research and Teaching Team in the School of
Education at The University of Newcastle. She is an Associate Professor in the area of primary
school Humanities and Social Sciences.

Peter Howley is Chair of Statistics Education within the Statistical Society of Australia and Senior
Lecturer in Statistics. His research addresses performance measurement and systems improvement
across many fields including Education.
Erica Southgate, a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education, has widely published in the areas of
social marginalisation and equity in health and education.

Joanna Brown is Global Education Research and Teaching Team member, School of Education, The
University of Newcastle. She is a lecturer and course coordinator with research interests in Global
Education and School/University partnerships and was LiNKS coordinator.
 ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TEACHER EDUCATION 13

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