Jasmina Lozanović
PRIMENA STEREOMETRIJSKOG MERENJA DEFORMACIJA NA
MAKRO I MIKRO NIVOU
APPLICATION OF STEREOMETRIC STRAIN MEASUREMENT AT
MACRO AND MICRO LEVEL
Originalni naučni rad / Original scientific paper
UDK /UDC: 629.5.018
Rad primljen / Paper received: 03.12.2007
Ključne reči
• stereometrijsko merenje
• napon
• deformacije
• integritet konstrukcija
• podobnost za upotrebu
Izvod
Ovaj rad opisuje primenu digitalne stereometrije za
merenje deformacija na površini. To se postiže upoređujući
slike rasporeda tačaka na označenoj površini uzorka pri
različitom nivou opterećenja i time izazvanih napona, što je
pogodno za merenje deformacija na makro nivou. Na
primerima je prikazana i mogućnost merenja koncentrisa-
nih deformacija na mikro nivou u okolini vrha prsline na
metalnom uzorku i na koštanom tkivu. Primenom dve video
kamere i odgovarajućeg softvera, slika raspodele deforma-
cija se može dobiti u različitim oblicima, u 3D i 2D formatu.
UVOD
Statistički podaci pokazuju da su otkazi u eksploataciji
posledica statičkog preopterećenja (32%), plastičnog popuš-
tanja (14%), zamora (26%), korozije (17%), i puzanja (1%),
/1/. Blagovremenim otkrivanjem oštećenja mogu se u znat-
noj meri smanjiti ovi otkazi. Poseban doprinos u tom pogle-
du predstavlja kontinualno praćenje ponašanja konstrukcije.
To se može postići i stereometrijskim merenjem deformaci-
ja tokom rada, analizom integriteta konstrukcije i ocenom
preostalog veka.
Za ocenu integriteta i preostalog veka potrebni su podaci
o odgovoru elemenata konstrukcije na dejstvo opterećenja
tokom eksploatacije. Uticaj opterećenja i njegove promene
sa vremenom na ponašanje elemenata konstrukcije se može
oceniti na osnovu izazvane lokalne promene deformacija na
površini. Značajno je da se unapred izabere područje očeki-
vanih maksimalnih deformacija i napona u skladu sa pret-
postavljenom koncentracijom napona, jer od toga zavisi
lokalna raspodela napona i deformacija. Merenje deforma-
cija treba izvesti na odabranom segmentu u tom području.
INTEGRITET I VEK KONSTRUKCIJA
Vol. 7, br. 3 (2007), str. 201–208
Adresa autora / Author's address:
Inovacioni centar Mašinskog fakulteta Univerziteta u
Beogradu, jlozanovic@mas.bg.ac.yu
Keywords
• stereometric measurement
• stress
• strains
• structural integrity
• fitness-for-purpose
Abstract
This paper describes the use of digital stereometry in
measuring strains on the surface. This can be achieved by
comparing images of point distribution on faced surface at
different load levels and thus introduced stresses, conven-
ient for measuring strains at the macro level. The examples
present the possibility to measure strain concentration in
the vicinity of crack tip on the metallic sample and on bone
tissue. By applying two video cameras and corresponding
software the image of strain distribution can be obtained in
different forms, in 2D and 3D formats.
INTRODUCTION
Statistical data revealed that service failures are the con-
sequence of static overloading (32%), plastic collapse
(14%), fatigue (26%), corrosion (17%), and creep (1%), /1/.
These failures can be significantly reduced by timely
detection of damages. Special contribution in that sense
presents continuous monitoring of structural behaviour.
This can be achieved by stereometric measurement of
strains during operation, followed by the structural integrity
analysis and residual life assessment.
The data on response of a structural element to the
applied load during operation are required for structural
integrity and life assessment. The effect of loading on
structural element behaviour and its variation in time can be
assessed based on produced local changes in strains on the
surface. It is important to predict in advance the region of
expected maximal strains and stresses according to the
supposed stress concentration, since local stress and strain
distribution depends on that. Strain measurement has to be
performed on selected segment in this region.
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Primena stereometrijskog merenja deformacija... Application of stereometric strain measurement...

Ispitivanje realnih konstrukcija mernim trakama daje
prihvatljive rezultate, ali je prilično složeno u praktičnoj
primeni, /2,3/. Koncept mernih traka je merenje izduženja
male početne merne dužine. Osnovni koncept stereometrij-
ske metode je beskontaktno merenje pomeranja tačaka
odabranog segmenta površine konstrukcije izložene dejstvu
opterećenja i određivanje unetih deformacija i napona, /1/.
STEREOMETRJSKO MERENJE POMERANJA
Na osnovu izmerenog relativnog pomeranja odabranih
tačaka segmenta površine, mogu se proračunati lokalne
deformacije i naponi. Na sl. 1 je prikazan segment površine
elementa konstrukcije sa mrežom tačaka u neopterećenom
stanju i njihovim položajem pri dejstvu opterećenja. Položaj
tačaka se kontinualno prati u prostoru merenjem trenutnih
koordinata, /4,5/. Model ovakvog mernog sistema sa dve
video kamere je prikazan na sl. 2, /6/. Na sl. 3, prikazana je
video kamera National Instruments, /7/, a na sl. 4 „Aramis
sistem“, /8/, sa ispitivanim uzorkom u sredini.
Tests on real structures by strain gauges give acceptable
results, but practical use is very complicated /2,3/. The
concept of strain gauges is in elongation measurement of
small initial measuring lengths. The basic concept of stereo-
metric method is in contactless measurement of point displace-
ment on a selected segment of the structural surface that is
loaded, and in determining induced strains and stresses, /1/.
STEREOMETRIC MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT
Local strains and stresses of selected points on a surface
segment can be calculated based on measured relative displace-
ment. One segment of the structural element surface with a
points grid in a non-loaded state and their positions when
loaded is shown in Fig. 1. Point position is continuously
monitored in space by measuring instantaneous coordinates,
/4,5/. This measuring system model with two video cameras
is given in Fig. 2. The National Instruments video camera is
presented in Fig. 3, /7/, and the “Aramis system” /8/, in
Fig. 4, with a tested specimen at the centre.

Slika 1. Položaj izabranih i obeleženih tačaka na segmentu površine u neopterećenom (levo) i opterećenom stanju (desno)
Figure 1. The position of selected and labelled points on the surface segment in non-loaded (left) and loaded state (right).

Slika 2. Snimanje deformacija na površini konstrukcije sa dve video kamere (shema), /6/
Figure 2. Recording of strains on structural surface with two video cameras (scheme), /6/.

Digitalno stereometrijsko merenje je bazirano na fotome- Digital stereometric measurement is based on photo-
triji kojom se pomeranja tačaka na površini materijala odre- grammetry allowing to obtain displacements of material
đuju poređenjem slika u dva uzastopna naponska stanja, /1, surface points by comparing images in two successive
4,5,6/. U tom cilju, niz tačaka u početnom stanju je ucrtan stress states /1,4,5,6/. Hence, an array of points in the initial
na mikrodijagram – mreža redova i kolona odabrane gusti- state is imposed on a micrograph – a grid of rows and
ne, čiji je položaj određen izrazom: columns with a position defined by expression:
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
N ∑ li M i − ⎜ ∑ I i ⎟ ⎜ ∑ M i ⎟
i ⎝ i ⎠⎝ i ⎠
r (u , v ) =
2 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
N ∑ I i2 − ⎜ ∑ I i ⎟ − N ∑ M i2 ⎜ ∑ M i ⎟
i ⎝ i ⎠ i ⎝ i ⎠

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Primena stereometrijskog merenja deformacija...
Slika 3. Video kamere National Instruments, /7/
Figure 3. Video cameras National Instruments, /7/.
Za praćenje promene pomeranja potrebna je procedura
sa algoritmom upravljanja normalizovanom slikom, pri
čemu r(u,v) definiše stepen korelacije između zona slike, I
je naponska zona područja slike, M je model lokacije pikse-
la (xi, yi), Ii je zona lokacije piksela (u + xi, v + yi), N je broj
piksela na modelu slike, i je redni broj od 1 do N, /6/.
Kvalifikovano područje slike je kvadratni niz (matrica)
piksela, strana N oko svake merne tačke mreže. Korelacio-
na vrednost r = 1 označava savršeno slaganje, za r = 0 nema
korelacije i za r = –1 je neslaganje potpuno. Ovaj algoritam
određuje položaj tačaka površine deformisanog materijala u
odnosu na početnu sliku. Rotacija nije uzeta u obzir. Proce-
siranje slike, centriranje i korelacija mernih funkcija se
obavljaju softverom napisanim za grafički programski jezik
LabVIEW, /9/, prilagođen pentijum kompjuteru. Softver
koristi korelaciju indeksa (r) između traženog područja za
interpolaciju unutar pikselske lokacije i procenjenih pod-
piksela pomeranja. Posle određivanja komponenti pomera-
nja svake merne tačke, dvodimenzioni tenzor napona se
proračunava izjednačavanjem i diferenciranjem polja pome-
ranja, /10/.
PRIMENA STEREOMETRIJSKOG MERENJA
MAKROSKOPSKOM NIVOU
Kod velikih čeličnih konstrukcija, izloženih štetnom
uticaju atmosfere, kao što su brodovi, korozija predstavlja
jedan od osnovnih razloga otkaza. Na sl. 5 je prikazana
izražena korozija lanca brodskog čekrka, /11/, a na sl. 6 su
označeni položaji otkrivene korozije na površini podmorni-
ce, /12/.
Slika 5. Korozija lanca brodskog čekrka, /11/
Figure 5. Corrosion on ship windlass chain, /11/.
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Application of stereometric strain measurement...
Slika 4. Video kamere „Aramis“ sa ispitivanim uzorkom u sredini, /8/
Figure 4. Video cameras “Aramis” with the tested sample at the centre, /8/.
Displacement change monitoring requires a procedure
with an algorithm for normalized image control, where r(u,v)
defines the correlation degree between image zones, I is the
stressed zone of image region, M is the model of pixel
location (xi, yi), Ii is the pixel location zone (u + xi, v + yi), N
is the number of pixels in the image model, i ranges from 1
to N, /6/. The trained image region is a square array
(matrix) of pixels with sides N around each grid measure-
ment point. A correlation value r = 1 indicates a perfect
matching, correlation is nil at r = 0, and for r = –1 complete
mismatch is given. This algorithm determines the surface
points position on deformed material relative to initial image.
Rotation is not accounted. Image processing, alignment,
and correlation of measurement functions is done with the
software by LabView, /9/ – a graphic programming lan-
guage adapted for Pentium PC. The software uses the correla-
tion index (r) within the search region to interpolate between
pixel locations and estimated subpixel displacement. After
displacement components are determined in each measure-
ment point, a two-dimensional stress tensor is calculated by
smoothing and differentiating the displacement field, /10/.
NA APPLICATION OF STEREOMERIC MEAUREMENT
AT MACRO SCALE
Corrosion presents one of basic failure causes in large
steel structures, such as ships, exposed to detrimental atmos-
pheric effects. In Fig. 5, considerable corrosion on a ship
windlass chain is shown, /11/, and corrosion locations
detected on submarine surface are marked in Fig. 6, /12/.
Slika 6. Označeni položaji korozije spoljnje površine podmornice, /12/
Figure 6. Marked locations of submarine outer surface corrosion, /12/.
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Primena stereometrijskog merenja deformacija...
Iako je na sl. 5 jasno izražena korozija, primena stereo-
metrijskog merenja je i u ovom slučaju opravdana zbog
upotrebe Machine Vision softverskih paketa, u okviru kojih
je moguće izvršiti analizu naponskog stanja snimanog dela
konstrukcije.
Međutim, kontinualno praćenje oštećenja tokom rada u
slučaju brodova nije jednostavno. Kada se postupak prime-
njuje na realnoj konstrukciji, stacionarno postavljanje
kamera nije uvek moguće, što je slučaj sa primerima datim
na sl. 5 i 6, već se tada merenje izvodi u prekidu između
dve faze rada. Pri svakom merenju treba kamere ponovo
postaviti, pri čemu ih treba pre merenja kalibrisati. Nakon
unošenja plana merenja u softver, slike se snimaju pri razli-
čitim nivoima opterećenja. Takođe treba uočiti da se stereo-
metrijskim merenjem mogu pratiti samo golim okom vidlji-
va oštećenja (kao površinske zamorne prsline, kada su
dovoljno velike), ili jasno izražene lokalne deformacije.
Uspešnom softverskom obradom, rezultati su dostupni u 3D
slici, /5/, a mogu se dobiti i drugi prikazi u obliku tipizira-
nih izveštaja ili statističkih podataka.
Kontinualno praćenje realne konstrukcije se bitno razli-
kuje od praćenja stanja deformacija u laboratorijskim uslo-
vima. Razlog tome je što prilikom kontinualnog praćenja
deformacija uzorka stereometrijskim merenjem u laborato-
rijskim uslovima, eksperiment traje dok ne dođe do loma
uzorka, dok se realna konstrukcija snima tokom određenog
vremenskog perioda i na osnovu dobijenih slika se proce-
njuje integritet i vek konstrukcije.
Radi ilustracije ispitivanja stereometrijskim merenjem u
laboratoriji, na sl. 7 je prikazana dispozicija eksperimental-
nog istraživanja sa dve video kamere „Aramis“, usmerene
na epruvetu mehanike loma, /6/. U okviru projekta MOSTIS
/12/, ispitana je epruveta za zatezanje sa dve simetrične
prsline razvijene iz centralnog kružnog otvora tipa M(T),
prema ASTM standardu, /14/. Primenom odgovarajućeg
softvera, /9/, moguće je odrediti polje napona na epruveti
prelomljenoj u eksperimentu, sa izraženom plastičnom
deformacijom (sl. 8).
Sličan pristup je primenjen i na lanac sa sl. 5, čime je
omogućeno da se dobije raspodela napona na mestu izraže-
ne korozije i proceni integritet konstrukcije.
Veoma je teško otkriti koroziju ispod izolacije na
podmornici (sl. 6), i neprekidna kontrola razvoja otkrivene
korozije zahteva značajno unapređenje odgovarajućeg sistema.
ANALIZA MIKROPRSLINE
Mreža tačaka, prikazana na sl. 1, se koristi za određiva-
nje polja deformacija beskontaktnim stereometrijskim
merenjem veličine pomeranja označenih tačaka i poređe-
njem prostornih (3D) slika u početnom stanju i pri dejstvu
opterećenja različitog nivoa. To se može primeniti i na
uzorke sa prslinama u istraživanju, kada su potrebni podaci
na mikro nivou. Ovde će biti razmotrene dve primene za
analizu prslina: pri ispitivanju epruveta iz zavarenog spoja
čelika, /1/, i pri ispitivanju prsline u koštanom tkivu, /15/. U
izvedenim istraživanjima su korišćene dve stacionarno
postavljene video kamere (sl. 2, 3, 4 i 7) za kontinualno
praćenje ponašanja materijala u okolini vrha prsline.
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Application of stereometric strain measurement...
Although corrosion in Fig. 5 is considerable, the appli-
cation of stereometric measurement is also justified in this
case, because software packages Machine Vision are used,
enabling stress state analysis of the recorded structural part.
However, continuous damage monitoring during opera-
tion in case of ships is not simple. When the procedure is
applied to the real structure, stationary camera positioning
is not always possible, as is the case with examples given in
Figs. 5 and 6, and so then the inspection is performed at
shutdowns between two operational stages. Cameras should
be repositioned for each measurement and calibrated before
measuring. Images are recorded in various load levels after
inputting the measuring project into the software. It is to
notice that stereometric measurement allows only damages
visible to the naked eye to be tracked (e.g. surface fatigue
cracks of proper size), or clearly expressed local strains.
Successful software elaboration gives results in 3D image,
/5/, and other presentations in the form of typical reports or
statistical data can be obtained also.
Continuous monitoring of a real structure substantially
differs from strain state monitoring in laboratory condi-
tions. The reason is that in laboratory conditions, sample
strains are continuously monitored by stereometric meas-
urement and the experiment runs until fracture of a sample,
whereas real structure is monitored during predetermined
time interval and the obtained images are used structural
integrity and life assessment.
As an illustration of testing by stereometric measurement
in the laboratory, Figure 7 shows the disposition of an
experimental research with two “Aramis” video cameras
directed to the fracture mechanics’ specimen, /6/. In the
scope of MOSTIS project, /12/, the tensile specimen of
M(T) type with two symmetrical cracks emanating from the
central circular hole had been tested according to ASTM
standard, /14/. By applying the corresponding software, /9/,
it is possible to determine the stress field in the specimen
that has fractured in the experiment, with considerable plas-
tic deformation (Fig. 8).
A similar approach is also applied for the chain in Fig. 5,
that enabled stress distribution at the location of consid-
erably developed corrosion and structural integrity assessment.
It is very difficult to detect corrosion beneath the insula-
tion on submarine (Fig. 6), and continuous inspection of
detected corrosion growth requires improvement of the system.
ANALYSIS OF A MICROCRACK
The grid of points, presented in Fig. 1 is used for deter-
mining the strain field by contactless stereometric measure-
ment of indicated points displacement and by comparing
spatial images (3D) at the initial stage and applied loads of
different levels. This can be applied also to cracked samples
in the research, when data on the microlevel are required.
Here, two typical applications for crack analysis will be
considered: in the steel welded joint specimen test, /1/, and
in the crack in bone tissue test, /15/. In the performed
research, two stationary positioned video cameras were
used (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 7) for continuous monitoring of the
material in the vicinity of the crack tip.
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Primena stereometrijskog merenja deformacija... Application of stereometric strain measurement...

Slika 7. Kontinualno stereometrijsko snimanje u laboratorijskim uslovima, Slika 8. Raspodela napona u prelomljenoj epruveti M(T),
ispitivanje epruvete za zatezanje tipa M(T), /6/ dobijena softverskom analizom naponskog stanja, /6/
Figure 7. Continuous stereometric recording in laboratory conditions, Figure 8. Stress distribution in a fractured M(T) specimen,
testing of the tensile specimen type M(T), /6/. obtained by software analysis of stress state, /6/.

Zahvaljujući kompjuterskoj obradi podataka princip
stereometrijskog merenja nudi još jednu prednost. Naime,
moguće je uveličavati posmatrano područje do zadatog nivoa,
u skladu sa kapacitetom opreme i softverskog programa. To
znači, na primer, da se može dovoljno jasno pratiti ponaša-
nje materijala u području vrha prsline na mikro nivou i
izvesti precizna analiza stanja napona i deformacija. Sa
takvim podacima i ocena integriteta postaje mnogo preciz-
nija i lakše se upravlja sigurnošću posmatrane konstrukcije.
Stereometrijsko merenje je sa uspehom primenjeno u
kontinualnom praćenju ponašanja epruvete sa prslinom
(sl. 9) tokom ispitivanja, /1/. Razvoj prsline kroz metal šava
zavarenog spoja heterogene mikrostrukture i mehaničkih
osobina je bio predmet ovog istraživanja.
Thanks to data processing by computer, the principle of
stereometric measurement offers an additional advantage. It
is possible to magnify a considered region up to a prede-
fined level, owing to equipment and software capacity. That
means, for example, that material behaviour in the crack tip
vicinity can be monitored sufficiently clear at the micro
level, and stress and strain state accurately analysed. With
such data, structural integrity assessment is also more accurate
and the safety of the considered structure is easily controlled.
Stereometric measurement is successfully applied in con-
tinuous monitoring of cracked specimen behaviour in tests
(Fig. 9), /1/. Crack development through the weld metal of
welded joint of heterogeneous microstructure and mechani-
cal properties is the subject of this research.

Slika 9. Epruveta iz zavarenog spoja sa prslinom u metalu šava, /1/, (levo: shema nanete mreže; desno: izgled opterećene epruvete)
Figure 9. Welded joint specimen pre-cracked in weld metal, /1/, (left: scheme of depicted grid; right: view of loaded specimen).

Postavljena mreža je velikih dimenzija u poređenju sa
singularitetom na vrhu prsline. Rastojanje mernih tačaka A
do F je u oba pravca veće od 1 mm. Imajući u vidu konti-
nuitet deformacija, krajnji rezultat je prikazan u vidu pros-
torne raspodele deformacija oko vrha prsline (sl. 10).
The positioned grid is of significant size compared to
crack tip singularity. The distance between measurement
points A to F in both directions is larger than 1 mm. Having
in mind strain continuity, the final result is presented in the
form of spatial strain distribution around crack tip (Fig. 10).

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Primena stereometrijskog merenja deformacija...
Slika 10. Raspodela deformacija oko vrha prsline dobijena postupkom stereometrijskog merenja, /1/
Figure 10. Strain distribution around crack tip obtained by the stereometric measurement procedure, /1/.
U pogledu tačnosti rezultata treba imati u vidu da je:
1. raspodela deformacija kontinualna, iako je neravnomerna,
2. dijagram na sl. 10 nacrtan na osnovu merenja pomeranja
u tačkama označenim na sl. 9, levo,
3. za namenu ovog istraživanja – određivanje mesta i veli-
čine maksimalne deformacije, tačnost dobijena primenje-
nom mrežom mernih tačaka je zadovoljavajuća, pa nije
potrebna ni gušća mreža, ni dodatno uvećanje.
U drugom slučaju je stereometrijski praćeno ponašanje
prsline u mikrostrukturi koštanog tkiva, karakterističnoj
zbog poroznosti i prisustva šupljina, /15/. Kvadratna merna
mreža koraka 11 µm obuhvata mikrostrukturno polje defor-
macija (sl. 11, gore). Vidljiva je i praćena prslina, koja je na
uvećanoj slici (sl. 11, dole levo) označena isprekidanom
linijom. Karakteristične tamne pore mikrostrukture na istoj
slici, jasnije vidljive u odnosu na gornju sliku, su mesta
koncentracije napona. Na sl. 11, dole desno, je prethodna
slika dalje uvećana, radi ilustracije mogućnosti primene
postupka stereometrijskog snimanja i za analizu mikro-
strukture. Granice opravdanog uvećanja još treba istraživa-
ti, ali je pokazano da je takva mogućnost značajna prednost
primene ovog postupka.
Dijagram u ispitanoj oblasti, dobijen preklapanjem slika,
je ovde prikazan u ravni (2D), da bi efektivne deformacije
mogle da se prate prema razvijenoj mikrostrukturi (sl. 11,
dole). U području vrha prsline su najveće koncentrisane
lokalne deformacije u kortikalnoj kosti i iznose 0,030%
(30 000 mikrodeformacija). Nađeni su i pikovi deformacije
oko koštanih pora (0,017% i 0,010%) zahvaljujući nacrta-
nim izodeformacijskim linijama.
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Application of stereometric strain measurement...
Regarding the accuracy of results, it is to have in mind:
1. strain distribution is continuous, although non-uniform,
2. the diagram in Fig. 10 is obtained based on measure-
ments at points indicated in Fig. 9, left,
3. for the purpose of this research – in determining the loca-
tion and size of maximal strain, the accuracy obtained by
applied measurement grid is satisfactory, so neither a
denser grid is necessary, nor higher magnification.
Stereometric monitoring of crack behaviour in bone
tissue microstructure is done in the second case, typical by
porosity and lacunae (voids), /15/. The square measurement
grid of 11 µm spacing, captures the microstructural strain
field (Fig. 11, top). The crack is visible and is monitored, in
the magnified image marked by dashed line (Fig. 11, lower
left). Typical pitch-dark pores in the microstructure in the
same image, much clearly visible relative to the previous
image, are locations of stress concentration. In Fig. 11, lower
right, is a former image further magnified, in order to illus-
trate the possibility to apply stereometric recording also for
microstructural analysis. Limits of reasonable magnification
should be explored, but it is shown that this possibility is an
important advantage of this procedure.
The diagram in the tested region, obtained by overlapping
images, is presented here in plane surface (2D) in order to
track effective strains according to developed microstructure
(Fig. 11, bottom). In the crack tip region local concentrated
strains are the highest in cortical bone amounting to 0,030%
(30 000 microstrains). Peaks around osteocyte lacunae
(0.017% and 0.010%) are located thanks to the induced
isostrain lines.
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Vol. 7, No 3 (2007), pp. 201–208
Primena stereometrijskog merenja deformacija... Application of stereometric strain measurement...

Slika 11. Digitalni mikrograf strukture koštanog tkiva: merna mreža (gore), uvećana slika područja vrha prsline (dole levo),
dalje uvećanje radi boljeg pregleda strukture (dole desno)
Figure 11. Digital micrograph of bone tissue structure: measurement grid (top), magnified image of crack tip region (bottom left),
further magnification for better insight of the structure (bottom right)

DISKUSIJA
Položaj svakog podudarnog para tačaka može se odrediti
za sve tri komponente pomeranja u ravni (2D) sa slika u
početnom i opterećenom stanju, pa se prostorne (3D) koor-
dinate mogu odrediti preko leđne projekcije. Kada su odre-
đene karakteristične 3D koordinate tačaka svakog merenja
razmatranog područja na površini, mogu se sračunati defor-
macije, a preko odgovarajućih formula i naponi. Izabrani
sistem izračunava površinske deformacije preko transfor-
macije raspodele 3D pomeranja u raspodelu 2D pomeranja,
tako da su deformacije sračunate u 2D prostoru, /16/. Pret-
hodno se za svaku tačku izračunava tangencijalna ravan za
oba stanja. Dobijena pravougaona oblast se usvaja kao
okvir objekta. Tačke u tom okviru objekta se projektuju na
tangencijalnu ravan u pravcu njenog normalnog vektora, pa
se problem dalje posmatra kao ravanski.
Dalje izračunavanje gradijenta deformacije je moguće
korišćenjem teorije velikih deformacija, koja unosi velike
plastične deformacije i kretanje krutog tela, /17/. U izvede
DISCUSSION
Locations of each homologous point pair can be deter-
mined for all three displacements in the plane (2D) from
images in the initial and loaded state, and the spatial (3D)
coordinates can be determined via back projection. When
distinctive 3D spatial point coordinates of each measure-
ment of the considered surface are determined, strains can
be calculated, and also stresses by corresponding formulae.
The selected system calculates surface strain through trans-
formation of 3D displacement distribution into a 2D displace-
ment distribution, thus strain is calculated in 2D space, /16/.
Initially, for each point, a tangential plane is calculated for
both states. The obtained rectangular area is referred to as
the object facet. Points in this object facet are then
projected onto the tangential plane in the direction of its
normal vector, which renders the problem as planar.
Further calculation of deformation gradient is possible
by using the theory of large deformations which allows
large plastic deformations as well as rigid body motion,

INTEGRITET I VEK KONSTRUKCIJA 207 STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY AND LIFE

Vol. 7, br. 3 (2007), str. 201–208 Vol. 7, No 3 (2007), pp. 201–208
Primena stereometrijskog merenja deformacija...
noj naponskoj analizi razmatran je okvir veličine 11 × 11
piksela. Ekstremni gradijenti deformacija i izražena lokalna
pomeranja van ravni mogu se očekivati u tankoj oblasti
epruvete blizu vrha prsline.
ZAKLJUČAK
Složenost istraživanja integriteta konstrukcija može se
sagledati iz raznolikosti podataka potrebnih za ocenu podob-
nosti za upotrebu. Ovde je ukazano i na pravac istraživanja,
u skladu sa potrebama iskazanim kroz iskustvo i praksu
postupaka ocene integriteta konstrukcija i podobnosti za
upotrebu.
Analiza lokalnih mikrodeformacija i napona na površini
omogućava bolje razumevanje razvoja oštećenja i loma.
Stereometrijska metoda omogućava uvid u polje napona i
deformacija koje odgovara mikrostrukturi ispitivanog mate-
rijala. Zbog toga se može očekivati da će ova tehnika u
budućnosti biti još više korišćena za eksperimentalna istra-
živanja loma.
LITERATURA – REFERENCES
1. Gubeljak, N., Primena stereometrijskog merenja na integritet
konstrukcija (Application of stereometric measurement on struc-
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Vol. 7, br. 3 (2007), str. 201–208
Application of stereometric strain measurement...
/17/. The performed strain analysis considered facet sizes to
11 × 11 pixels. Extreme strain gradients and excessive local
out-of-plane displacement can be expected in the tiny area
of specimen, near the crack tip.
CONCLUSION
The complexity of structural integrity research may be
recognised from the diversity of data necessary for fitness-
for-purpose assessment. The direction of research is also
shown here, consistent with needs defined through experi-
ence and practice of structural integrity assessment and
fitness-for-purpose assessment procedures.
Analysis of local microstrains and stresses on the surface
may lead to better understanding of damage and fracture
development. The stereometric method enables insight into
the stress–strain field corresponding to the microstructure
of the tested material. Owing to this, one can expect
extended applications of this technique for experimental
research of fracture in the future.
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