Introduction To Gender Studies Module

UNDERSTANDING GENDER
1. 1 Introduction
Although women have made important gains in terms of accessing vital resources useful for
social mobility in Zimbabwe and the world over, they are still socially disadvantaged as men
continue to hold positions of relative privilege. This inequality is often thought to reflect
innate differences between the sexes but it is actually a creation of society itself. Research
has revealed that sex is a pervasive element in the structure of society and in the lives of
people. It shapes other people‟s views of us as well as our own self- concepts.
This module is an „introduction to gender studies‟ hence an understanding of the term gender
is important. In gender studies we are neither interested in women as a group nor with men as
a group but in the social relations between them. In this unit we make you have an
understanding of gender as a concept. We also clarify some selected concepts central to the
study of gender. The explanations offered are neither comprehensive nor definitive. They are
only intended to help you explore key ideas about the concepts. You will develop a deeper
understanding when you read about them in the subsequent chapters. The unit also covers
how gender is socially constructed through the family, the school, the peer group and the
mass media. Although there are many types of gender socialisation, in this unit we focus on
Oakley‟s types of gender socialisation.
1.2 Unit Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Define and explain gender
 Differentiate between gender and sex
 Define and explain some key concepts in relation to gender
 Discuss how gender is socially constructed, maintained and perpetuated
 Examine the various types of gender socialisation
1.3 Gender and related concepts.

To best understand the term gender it is essential to first understand the term sex as these two
terms are often confused and sometimes used interchangeably.
Sex
According to Macionis (1989), sex refers to the division of humanity into biological
categories of male and female. As a biological distinction, sex is determined at the moment a
child is conceived. Sex is also defined as the biological differences between men and women,
that is, “…their physical characteristics: external genitalia, internal genitalia, gonads (the
organs which produce sex cells), hormonal states and secondary sex characteristics.”
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(Haralambos and Holborn, 2004: 94). Sex is therefore a fact of biology, which is the
physiological distinctiveness or state of being male or female.
Gender
Gender refers to human traits linked by culture to each sex (Haralambos and Holborn,
2004).Within a society; males are socialized to be masculine as females are taught to be
feminine. Walter and Manion (1996) maintain that gender is the difference that sex makes
within a society, guiding how we are to think of ourselves, how we interact with others, the
social opportunities, occupations, family roles and prestige allowed males and females.
“Gender can also be defined as a set of characteristics, roles and behaviour patterns that
distinguish women from men which are constructed not biologically but socially and
culturally” (Gita Sen in Towards Earth Summit 2002:1). Like the variable concepts of class,
race, ethnicity, culture and economics, gender is an analytical tool for understanding social
processes that affect human beings. The following table1.1 helps you differentiate between
gender and sex.
Table 1.1 Differentiating gender from sex.
Sex Gender
 Is in born  Starts the moment the sex is
known.
 Is biologically determined  Is socially constructed.
 Is exclusive to a particular sex and  Varies within and among cultures.
is fixed. It does not change over Different individuals and societies
time, once born male always male give different meanings to
and once born female always maleness and femaleness.
female.
 Is universal, that is, the organs that  The attributes, expected roles,
determine a male or a female are expected behaviours and expected
uniform the world over for responsibilities that go with
example the penis for the males maleness and femaleness differ
and the vagina for the females. from society to society, community
to community and from individual
to individual.
 Is natural.  Is learnt
Activity 1.1
 What is your understanding of gender?
 Why do you think „gender‟ is a contemporary issue in your country today?
Sex roles

Sex roles are duties, activities, tasks or responsibilities that males and females perform or
undertake that are an inevitable product of one‟s biology, for example, breastfeeding for
females and impregnating for the males. Like sex, these assignments are biologically
determined, fixed, universal and exclusive to a particular sex.
Gender roles
Gender roles are duties, chores, tasks, responsibilities or assignments that a particular cultural
group consider appropriate for its males and females on the basis of the meaning attached to
their sexual identity. These roles are not a direct or an inevitable product of males‟ or
females‟ biology e.g. caring for children by females and mending a puncture for males.
They are learnt, vary within and among cultures, dynamic, interchangeable and can be
affected by factors like class, religion, age, race, education, geographical location and
ethnicity.
Gender Equality
When we say 2+2=4, we mean that the value of 2+2 and the value of 4 are the same. In
gender equality, we are interested in the same valuation of men and women and sameness of
enjoyment of rights, power, opportunities, treatment and control of resources between males
and females in society. We are also interested in the sameness in enjoying of the benefits
from resources. Gender equality is therefore not only the absence of discrimination and bias,
but “… the equal valuing by society of both the similarities and differences between women
and men and the varying roles that they play” (Gender Equality Analysis Policy-Status of
Women Canada page 5).It does not mean that men and women will become the same. No.
But they will have same opportunities in life. An example of practising gender equality is
according men and women enjoyment of same voting rights. Gender equality, therefore,
“denotes the equivalence in life outcomes for women and men, recognizing their different
needs and interests and requiring a redistribution of power and resources” (Bridge Report No.
55:10).
Gender Equity
Gender equity is a process of achieving fairness and justice among men and women. The
fairness and justice is in relation to distribution of opportunities, responsibilities and
resources as well as in accessing and controlling the benefits from the resources. “To ensure
fairness, measures must often be made available to compensate for historical and social
disadvantages that prevent women and men from operating on a level playing field” (Gender
Equality Analysis Policy- Status of Women Canada page 5).
Gender equity also entails proportional distribution of social resources and services, as well
as proportional representation of men and women in the development process, that is, the
composition of males and females at all levels should closely represent the general
population. What we mean here is that, if we are practicing gender equity, say in our
enrolment of male and females into university then the ratio of males to females should be
commensurate with the national population ratio of 48:52. Gender equity leads to gender
equality.

Gender bias
Gender bias is the tendency to be in favour of, or against males and females on the basis of
their gender rather than on anything else, like what some teachers do when they take only
females for fashion and fabrics because of their stereotypical belief that women are better at
sewing than men.
Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination is an act of unfair treatment directed against an individual or a group
on the basis of their gender which denies them rights, opportunities or resources. When
universities lower entry points for only female students, (whatever the reasons may be) they
will be discriminating against the male students. Gender discrimination can be positive or
negative and whether positive or negative, differential treatment is given to males and
females on basis of their gender.
Gender Neutrality
This is the claim that one is indifferent to issues of gender as he/she has no ultimate gender
practice. It assumes that all people are affected by programmes or polices in the same way.
“It is premised on the theory that all people are already equal, therefore treating all people
the same way is fair,” (Women‟s Policy Office, Government of Newfound land and Labrador
(undated) Facilitator‟s Guide, Gender Inclusive Analysis….An Overview St Johns, NF, p.14)
like what most universities do when they give one tissue roll to every student in residence for
a specified period of time. Female students, by virtue of their biology require more tissue
paper. It thus may not allow for sensitivity to disadvantages, hence it replicates stereotypes
and restrictive views of males and females.
Gender Blindness
When one is blind one cannot see. Gender blindness is total failure, out of sheer gender
ignorance, to recognize the differences between males and females and subsequently leads to
failure to provide or cater for the differences.
Gender blind people fail to realize that policies, programmes and activities can have different
effects on men and women and this often leads to rigidity and unchanging attitudes. It is a
characteristics feature of conservative societies, where gender bias and discrimination is
orchestrated on ill knowledge and innocence. A good example is what happened at a certain
school which had been originally a boys‟ only school and then decided to become co-
educational. The school administration made girls stay in hostels that were previously boys‟.
The toilets in these hostels had urinals and the administration did not see anything wrong
with that. This is gender blindness.
Gender Sensitivity
Imagine entering a bus which is ferrying students from your university home and you find
that 90% of the bus load is males and the majority of those that failed to enter the bus are
females. You will obviously sense a gap of something between male students as a group and
female students as a group. What is it that you are sensing? You are right!-that, whatever the
reason, there is a gender gap between men and women. You see, you are becoming gender
sensitive. Gender sensitivity is the mere ability to perceive existing gender inequalities. It is

gender perceptiveness or gender consciousness, which is, looking at an issue with a gender
eye. It is the beginning of gender awareness.
Gender Awareness
In the example of the bus situation given immediately above, what do you think is the cause
of the problem given that the passengers in the bus were self drawn from a population of
equal numbers between males and females? You are now searching for the possible gender
problems. You are now becoming gender-aware. Gender awareness is, therefore, the ability
to identify problems arising from gender discrimination and bias which affect men‟s and
women‟s ability to access and control resources and /or even access and control of benefits
from the resources is gender awareness. It is still gender awareness even when and where the
problems are disguised and defended as culture and tradition.
Gender Responsiveness
What solutions would you offer in the transport problem above so that females are not
discriminated against? You are now becoming gender responsive. Gender responsiveness
mainly constitutes responding to gender issues with a view to eradicate the bias and
discrimination in order to ensure equality and equity (FAWE, 2004).It is the ability to
visualise and practicalise gender equity and gender equality. You see, it starts from gender
sensitivity to gender awareness then to gender responsiveness. For detail we refer you to Unit
7.
Feminism
Feminism is a social and political movement aimed at defending and expanding the rights of
women. It is both a cause and a result of the changing positions of women in society. It is
also an ideology, which recognizes the systematic discrimination against women on the
grounds of their gender. Feminism gives commitment to work towards correcting the
undesirable situation of women. It challenges the idea that gender like sex is natural. For
detail we refer you to Unit 2.
Patriarchy
Patriarchy is a social system that propagates male superiority, power and control over women
as natural. It oppresses exploits and subordinates women. In patriarchal societies leadership
roles, control of valuable resources and decision making is a male preserve. Patriarchy draws
a clear demarcation line between males and female. It also creates a social stratification with
males always on top. Meena (1992) says that, in patriarchy, even the weakest man has a
woman to oppress and exploit. In patriarchy women are perceived as perpetual minors who
cannot take independent decisions. It is in short, “systematic societal structures that
institutionalize male physical social and economic power over women” (Bridge Report No.
55:29). For detail we refer you to Unit 2.
Gender Mainstreaming
“…..is the process of assessing the implication for women and men of any planned action;
including legislation, policies or programmes, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for
making women‟s as well as men‟s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the

design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the policies and programmes in all
political, eco/nomic, and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and
inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.” (Towards
Earth Summit, 2002: 2).It is a strategy to achieve gender equality that was universally
adopted at the fourth world conference on women in 1995, at Beijing- a means to the bigger
end of attaining gender equality. For detail you go to Unit 7.
Gender Empowerment
This is one of the words that are difficulty to define because of taking different forms in
different people and different contexts. Babikwa (2004:72) says “empowerment does not
mean individual self assertion, upward social mobility or increased disposable income or
when psychological experience of feeling self realized….it means....an understanding of the
causes of powerlessness, recognizing systematically oppressive forces and acting
individually and collectively to change the conditions of life” Basically, then, it is to do with
one‟s participation in decisions and processes affecting one‟s life. It is a process about
people, taking control over their own lives, setting their own agendas, building self
confidence, solving problems [Kabeer, (1994) in March et al 1999:25] “Empowerment
cannot be given, it must be self generated” because such change must be believed in,
initiated, and directed by those whose interests it is meant to serve. What other external
forces like education can do is to provide those who need empowerment with an enabling
environment and resources which will allow them to take greater control of their lives;
determine what relations they would want to live within and devise strategies to help them
get there (Naila Kabeer, in March, Smyth and Mukhopadhyay, 1999:.25).For detail you go to
Unit 9.
Gender Affirmative Action

Gender affirmative action is a corrective or compensatory measure for past injustices or gaps
and an accelerator for the process of equitable development. It is an intended justice measure
through deliberately according the previously excluded or disadvantaged sex group
preferential treatment to increase the group‟s representation in areas of education,
employment, business and politics among others. It entails gender discrimination because it
gives unfair, though justifiable, advantage to the once discriminated sex group. It is therefore
positive or reverse discrimination. Gender affirmative action is meant to redress the effects of
past discriminations rather than discriminate. An example of gender affirmative action is the
practice done by most universities when these institutions lower their entry points for female
students only. For detail you go to Unit 7.
Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes are socially constructed ideas or beliefs about men and women which are
not necessarily true but taken as truth by society. They are maintained, perpetuated and
transmitted from generation to generation by social institutions like the family, the school,
the media, religion, the culture among others. Most common gender stereotypes are based on:
 Sex, for example, males are aggressive while females are affectionate
 Personality, for example men are cheerful while women are nervous
 Age, for example, young men are rebellious while older women are conservative

 Ethnicity, for example, Ndebele women are good home managers while Shona
women are good fieldworkers
 Class for example upper class men are playful while lower class men are ambitious
 Occupations, for example male nurses are kind and loving while female nurses are
rude and short hearted with women in labour.
Stereotypes can be positive or negative.
Gender Identity
‘….it is how an individual adapts the prescribed sex role to his or her individual identity.‟
(Http: // www.gender.org.uk about gender definitions.htm page 2)
Gender Relations
These are “the range of gendered practices, such as the division of labour and resources and
the gendered ideologies such as ideas of acceptable behaviour for men and women” (Bridge
Report No. 55:18.).They are simply the social relationships between men as a sex group and
women as a sex group. They determine what is socially accepted and what is socially
inappropriate. They work in most cases to subordinate and discriminate against women.
Gender practical needs

These are the concrete, immediate and often essential needs/wants for human survival. The
men and women survive better in their socially accepted roles, within their gendered power
structures. Practical gender needs include food and shelter among other things.
Gender strategic needs

These are human requirements which when met challenge and change power relations
between men and women. They are often less visible than the practical ones and are long
term, one example being access to decision making positions.
Gender Socialisation
Gender socialisation “refers to the means whereby social expectations regarding gender-
appropriate characteristics are conveyed to the child. These expectations are often based on
stereotyped beliefs.” It has a dual significance for these children, that is, it provides them
with models for present behaviour and it prepares them for adult life (Dekker and Lemmer,
1993:9).
1.4 Social Construction of Gender

To construct is to build or to make. The social construction of gender is the social making of
gender. Gender is constructed by society through the process of gender socialization. The
social institutions that are responsible for gender construction are called socialisation forces
like the family, the school, the media, the language, music religion among others. The people
who carry out the socialization are socialisation agents like the parents, the teachers, pastors,
peers and many others. Some institutions like the family are primary in the sense that they
are the first that any child comes into contact with. Murdock in Haralambos and Holborn
(2004), says the family is the child‟s first window to the world and no other gender
socialisation institution rivals it in gender socialisation. Such prime gender socialisation
institutions are called primary socialisation forces, while those institutions that the child

comes in contact with after primary socialisation are called secondary socialisation forces
like the school, the peer group, and others. Both the primary and secondary forces create,
reinforce, maintain and perpetuate gender but the primary forces are the chief creators, while
the secondary forces are the chief maintainers, reinforcers and perpetuators.
The family, the school, the peer group and the mass media are going to be discussed briefly
here though other agents of gender socialisation are just as important.
The Family
The family constructs gender through the way family members:
 interact with and treat the child
 talk to the child
 dress the child,
 give the toys and types toys they give to the child
 assign roles and the roles they give
 accord the child benefits and opportunities and the type of benefits and opportunities
they accord
 position the child within the family
 give the child the name and the name given and even the other pseudo names given
among other things.
The School
The school is a secondary socializing force and the teachers are the chief socialising agents.
The school operates on two levels, that is, the intentional and official and the unintentional
and none examined both of which gender differentiated (Dekker and Lemmer 2003.)Gordon
(1995) says that teachers don‟t explicitly teach gender, but gender emerges on its own in the
curriculum. What the school pupils‟ eyes see, what their ears hear and what their minds in
turn believe in through:
 the school management structure
 the ways teachers talk ,organize and treat the pupils
 the portrayal of men and women in the texts and reading books
 the learning media
 the subject allocations
 the teachers‟ teaching methodologies
 the teachers‟ attitudes and expectations
 the extra curricula activities the sort of carrier guidance offered among other things,
discerns a gender social code on the pupils.
Therefore you see that, the exclamations „it‟s a boy! Or it‟s a girl!‟ upon delivery sets a
course of action that from that moment on, influences multiple facets of a person‟s life. The
answer „boy or girl‟ carries significance in the child‟s entire life in terms of the individual‟s:
 opportunities
 associations and relationships
 benefits
 societal roles and responsibilities

 value in society
 social identity
 expected behaviour
The Peer Group

On reaching school age, children begin to interact more intensively outside the family,
especially with others of their age (the peer group).Within the peer group, the blue and pink
worlds are further developed.
Children‟s games provide important cultural lessons. Lever cited in Macionis (1989)
concluded that the peer group activities of boys and girls differ considerably, providing in
each case a distinctive type of socialization. Lever found out that boys engage in team sports
that involve many roles and complex rules, and clear objectives like scoring a goal. These
games are almost always competitive, producing winners and losers. Such activity among
boys reinforce s the characteristics of masculinity, notably aggression, competition, and
remaining in control.
Girls on the other hand, tend to play games such as jump rope in small groups, or simply sing
or dance together. Such activity tends to be spontaneous, involving few simple rules. Just as
important, since these games rarely have „victory‟ as their ultimate goal, girls rarely oppose
one another. However, female peer groups do serve to teach the interpersonal skills of
communication and cooperation that are the basis for life within the family.
Gilligan cited in Giddens (2004), noted that boys and girls learn to use distinctive patterns of
moral reasoning. Boys tend to reason according to rules and principles, that „rightness‟ is
largely a matter of „playing by the rules‟. Girls however, understand morality more in terms
of responsibility to other human beings, so that „rightness‟ lies in maintaining close
relationships with others. Clearly then, these distinctive patterns of moral reasoning are
encouraged by the different kinds of peer group activity common to boys and girls
The Mass Media

Mass media are channels of communication directed to vast audiences within a society
(Macionis, 1989).The mass media include both electronic and print media such as the
television, radio newspapers, and magazines. All of these constantly present us with
information of all kinds and, as a result, have an enormous effect on our attitudes and
behaviour. The mass media are a powerful force in the socialization process. Films,
magazines, literature and especially the television, have a significant effect on the ways we
think and act.
From the above activity, we may note that beyond the inclusion of both sexes in the mass
media, the issue is how they are portrayed. In most instances, males play the brilliant
detectives, fearless explorers, skilled surgeons, and interesting conversationalists. Males take
charge; they give orders and are portrayed as competent and capable. Females on the other
hand, are mostly portrayed as reliant on males, less competent and more often the targets of
comedy (Busby, cited in Haralambos and Horlborn, 2004). Women have also long been

portrayed as sex objects important for little other than their physical attractiveness (Macionis,
1989). These negative stereotypes continue to persist in modern day programs, although
admittedly there is more programming with interesting and responsible women in major
roles.
Although gender stereotypes in the mass media have lessened recently, commercial
advertising has changed less. This is because advertising sells the most products by
conforming to widely established cultural patterns. Haralambos and Horlborn (2004)
maintain that television and magazine advertising presents women in the home far more
often than in occupational role. In most cases, women are found primarily in adverts for
household items such as cleaning products, foods, clothing, and domestic appliances, while
men predominate in adverts for cars, travel, banking and finance, industrial appliances, and
alcoholic beverages.
Goffman, cited in Macionis (19890, similarly concluded that advertising conveys cultural
ideals of each sex. In his study of advertising in magazines newspapers, Goffman found that
men were typically placed in photographs to appear taller than females, implying social
superiority. In addition, women were far more likely than men to be shown lying down on
sofas and beds, or, like children, seated on the floor.
The music industry is also no exception in portraying females as sex objects .Good examples
are productions by the late „Dr Love‟ Paul Matavire, the „Lonely Lover‟ Gregory Isaacs, and
in some cases the late Simon „Chopper‟ Chimbetu, Dr Thomas Tafirenyika Mapfumo and
many others
TYPES OF GENDER SOCIALISATION
There are many types of gender socialisation. Oakley in Haralambos and Holborn (2004)
talks about the types discussed below.
Canalisation
Canalisation is gender socialization through interaction with toys and objects. Toys align
children play to behavior expected of them when they graduate to be men and women and
again through interacting with these toys children develop different sets of aptitudes and
attitudes.
Verbal Appellations
These are the differential use of descriptions and labels among boys and girls like, what a
“good boy!” or “nice girl!” or reprimands like, „oh! Boys don‟t cry.‟ This makes the children
want to keep up gender appearances as the children internalize the label(s) and start to act
and operate according to it.
Manipulation

Manipulation is the differential attention and valuing given boys and girls like, mothers
paying attention to girls‟ hair. Soon boys and girls learn that different things are expected of
them through the different treatment accorded them and engrave a deep sense of what it is to
be a boy or girl (that is, a deep sense of their self concept.)
Imitation
Imitation is when children observe their parents or other elders within and try to be like them.
They, thus, learn how local governance operates through observing its officers at work.
N.B However, though the argument here is that gender is PURELY a social construct, other
scholars explain gender differences as partly products of Brain lateralization and hormonal
variations, (Haralambos and Holborn 2004
CONCLUSION
This part of the unit has tried to show that gender is a product of gender socialization. This is
largely achieved through social institutions such as the family, the school, the peer group and
the mass media. Other important socializing agents are religion, culture and the work place.
These will be discussed in unit 5.
THEORIES OF GENDER INEQUALITIES
2.1 Introduction
In unit 1 we defined and explained gender concepts. Unit 2 deals with theories of gender
inequalities. Theories of Gender Inequalities do not only offer explanations of gender
differences but also help to clarify differences between gender and sex as well as gender and
feminism which are often misconstrued and confused. This unit discusses first, biological
theories that explain gender differences in terms of natural biology and innate abilities which
were dominant theories before the rise of gender and feminism. Gender theories view and
locate differences between males and females in social constructs (created by society.) This
chapter covers both macro and micro theories of gender inequalities. Macro theories tend to
be comprehensive and include a variety of factors while micro theories centre explanations
on individual aspects like environment, biology, culture or ecology. Origins, major
expositions and applicability of each theory are discussed in this chapter. Also activities are
provided at the end of each theory to enhance your understanding of it through interaction.
2.2 Unit Objectives

By the end of the unit you should be able to:
1. Differentiate:
a. Gender from sex
b. Gender from feminism
2. Outline origins and major expositions of each theory
3. Evaluate the applicability of each theory especially to your country situation.

4. Explain limitations of each theory.
5. Answer questions that relate to the activities at the end of each theory.
2.3 What is a theory?

Henslin (1999) defines a theory as a general statement that explains how two or more facts
are related to one another. Haralambos and Holborn (1990:8) define a theory as a set of ideas
which claim to explain how something works: it provides a logical explanation for why
things happen the way they do. A theory therefore defines the causal factors of a relationship
and explains the nature of that relationship.
2.4 What is Feminism?

According to Magezis‟ (1996) feminism is a broad social movement which allows different
points of view that work for women‟ rights. It is the organizational movement which
promotes equality for both men and women in political, economic and social spheres of life
(Different Types of Feminist Theories, 2006). Feminists focus on why and how women are
oppressed in different spheres of life and work for their liberation. Feminism can be viewed
in the following three ways:
1. As a social and political movement that fight for the rights of women and their
equality with men in all spheres of life.
2. As an ideology or philosophy or way of thinking that questions oppressive relations
of men and women using women‟s perspectives.
3. A theory that questions relations of men and women and aims at transforming them
(Mannathoko in Meena, 1992).
To Henslin (1999:292) Feminism is the view that;
Biology is not destiny and therefore stratification by Gender is

wrong and should be resisted, met with strong opposition both by
men who have privileges to lose and by women who accepted their
status as normally correct.
2.4.1 Rise of Feminism

It rose as a challenge to functionalism which is conservative and views sexual division of
labour and the subordinate position of women as functional for the stability of society. It was
also a reaction to the biological theories that viewed the position of women as natural.
Feminism also questioned the dominant views or philosophies that viewed women as les
human than males. Examples of these philosophies are:
 The female is female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities( Aristotle)
 A woman is an imperfect man (St Thomas Aquinas).
 The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shown by man
attaining to a higher eminence in whatever he takes up, than women can attain-
whether requiring deep thought, reason, imagination or merely the use of senses and
hands( Charles Darwin).
(Sandi, 1997; 1)
The feminist movement gave rise to a body of theory which attempts to explain
discrimination of women. The theory is not unified but is made of a variety of theories that

focus on women though differing in causes of subordination and strategies of women‟s
liberation.
2.4.2 Common aspects shared by Feminists

1. Gender is not natural but a social construct.
2. They take the position that women are unfairly treated in all spheres of life.
3. Strategies can be developed to make the world a better place for women.
2.4.3 Feminist Differences

1. Explanations of women‟s oppression.
2. Areas of focus e.g. cultural stereotypes, biology, patriarchy, capitalism, class etc.
3. Direction of change or what constitute women‟s liberation.
2.5. What is Gender?

Sifuniso et al (2000:2) define gender as:
The social meanings given to being either a man or a woman in a given society
and the expectations held as to the character, attitude and likely behaviour of
men and women.
Gender, unlike sex which is biological, is socially constructed. Gender influences the
different behaviours, roles, responsibilities, identities and treatment of males and females in
society. Gender depends on the culture and history of a particular society and differs from
culture to culture (Refer to unit 1).
Though gender theories do not differ much from feminist theories, they focus on both males
and females, while feminist theories centre on women.
Table 2.1 Differences between Feminist and Gender Theories
Feminist Theories Gender Theories

Are women centered Men and Women centered
Focus on experiences of women Focus on experiences of women and men
View issues from women‟s social world View issues from a gender perspective
Seek to produce a better world for women
Seek to produce a better world for both
Are about peaceful co-existence of males
Are about fighting back (revenge) and females not fighting back
View males as enemies and to blame for Males are viewed as victims of socio-
subordinate position of women cultural institutions created by society
Reject assistance by males in their Accept assistance by gender sensitive
struggles males
The question is: What about men and
Ask questions like: What about women? women?
2.6 Both feminist and gender theories agree on the following:
* Gender differences are socially rather than biologically constructed.

* Gender differences can be deconstructed

* Both questions and challenge oppressive gender relations
* Gender differences are embedded in socio-economic structures such as:
a) capitalism
b) sexism or patriarchy
c) racism
d) social and cultural institutions
2.7 Biological Theories
Biological theories view differences between men and women as natural and God given
hence cannot be changed. Some of the theories are:
Table 2.2 Biological Theories
Theory Theorists
Brain Laterisation Theory John Nicholson
Gray J.A.
Buffery A.W.H.
Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud
Socio-biology E.O.Wilson
David Barash
Biology and Practicality G.P. Murdock

Biology: Expressive & Instrumental Roles Talcott Parsons
Biology has been the most widely accepted explanation for inequalities between men and
women for a long time. Scientists observe natural differences ranging from hormones,
chromosomes, brain size and genetics as responsible for innate differences in behaviour of
women and men (Giddens, 2001). Even stereotypical behaviours like men‟s physical
strength, superior intelligence aggression women‟s softness, care, passivity and love are all
attributed to biological determinism.
Biologists argue that the above characteristics are evident across cultures. However, critics
of biological theories reveal that the level, for example of passivity of women and aggression
of males vary depending on cultures. They argue that, if a trait is not universal, then it
cannot be natural. Giddens (2001) notes that such theories neglect the vital role of social
interaction in shaping human behaviour.
2.7.1 Brain Laterisation and Hormonal Explanations
Scientists believe that behaviour, personality and emotional disposition are controlled by
hormones in males and females. Studies by Nicholson showed that there is correlation

between levels of testosterone and male aggression. Girls with high levels of oestrogen
exhibit „tomboy‟ characteristics. John Nicholson cited in Haralambos and Holborn (2004)
argue that the Right and left wings of the brain specialize in different tasks because of
hormones which have effects on the brain. The right specializes in visio-spatial abilities
while the left specializes in verbal and language skills. This is supported by Gray and
Buffery (Ibid) who pointed out that the left is dominant in girls hence girls have verbal
ability, while boys perform better in mathematical texts. However, not all boys score higher
in maths and lower in languages. Similarly not all girls score low marks in maths and higher
in language. There are also differences in ability at infant stage where girls score higher in
all subjects. This shows that there are other factors that influence ability.
2.7.2 Psycho-analytic theory (by Sigmund Freud)
Freud in Giddens (2001) argues that gender differences at infant are centred on the presence
or absence of the penis. Having a penis is equivalent to being a boy while being a girl means
one lacks a penis. The boy views the father as a rival in the affection of the mother. The boy
suppresses feelings for the mother and identifies with the father in fear of threats, discipline
and demand for autonomy by the father. Girls suffer from penis envy and devalue the
mother who does not have one. She identifies with the mother and takes dependency and
submissive attitudes. The above theory assumes that the penis is superior to the vagina and
that gender learning is concentrated at the age of 4-5years. There are more factors and
processes that contribute to gender learning, genetic factors are not enough.
2.7.3 Sociobiology
The theory was propounded by William (1975) and applied to gender by David Barash
(Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). Barash argues that genetics are governed by instructions
to maximize the chances of passion on the genes to future generations from breeding. Males
produce more sperms hence have interest in making many females pregnant. As a result
males are likely to be promiscuous than females. Men compete for scarce reproductive
capacities of females. Females invest more time and energy in one off-spring and gestate the
foetus in her womb. Women are sure that children are genetically theirs hence devote time to
child care. It is assumed that women can tolerate men‟s infidelity more readily than men.
The theory falls short of the realization that human behaviour is governed by the environment
not instincts. It is conservative and views human behaviour as natural, inevitable and
universal.
2.7.4 Biology and Practicality
George Murdock in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) views males and females differences in
physical strength, as leading to differences in roles. Sexual division of labour is taken to be
the most efficient way of organizing society. He points out that a survey of 224 societies
showed that men‟s tasks were those demanding physical strength eg, mining, hunting,
quarrying etc. Women were limited to less strenuous tasks like fetching water, cooking,
gathering firewood, preparing clothes. Women were tied to the home, child bearing and care.
To Murdock, physical strength and child bearing are biological and determine roles and

spheres of operation in the home and public place. The findings from the survey of 224
societies are not enough to conclude that sexual division of labour is biological. Societies
construct roles but these roles are not universal. What would be the biological explanation in
these societies which do not stick to the roles given above?
2.7.5 Biology: Expressive and Instrumental Roles (Talcott Parsons)
Though a sociologist, Parsons starting point in explaining sexual division of labour was in
biology. He argues out that childbearing and early nursing is linked to biology. The male is
achievement oriented; playing instrumental role that has stress and anxiety. The woman‟s
role is expressive, that is providing warmth, emotional support and stabilizing adult
personalities. She relieves stress by providing the breadwinner with love, consideration and
understanding. Clear sexual division of labour is for efficiency as a social system.
Expressive and instrumental roles complement each other and promote family solidarity.
Each sex is biologically suited for these tasks. Parsons did not foresee the future of the
modern industrial society where women also perform instrumental roles that are stressful.
Mothers can have substitutes in childcare for love and affection (O‟Donnell, 1992). This is
because although child bearing is biological, child rearing is not. In a modern industrial
society even the type of work has changed and sexual division of labour is not universal.
2.7.6 Summary
Biological theories assume that nature is more significant than one‟s social experiences.
They focus on sex hence are heavily criticized by sociologists and feminists who are
interested in gender instead. Sociologists and feminists feel that the differences between men
and women are socially rather than biologically produced. Feminist theories were a reaction
to the shortfalls of biological theories. There has been a shift from biological explanations to
psychosocial patterns of socialization. Biology alone is not enough to explain social,
economic, political and religious differences between men and women.
2.8 MACRO-THEORIES OF GENDER INEQUALITIES
2.8.1 Liberal theory
2.8.1.1 Origin
It is the first documented form of feminism. According to Gaidzanwa in Meena (1992),

liberal feminism dates back to the 18th Century Britain. The proponent, Mary Wollerstone
Craft questioned views about women which were damaging and discriminatory. The theory
rose as a result of the following;
 Industrial Revolution in Europe especially Britain that created structural changes in

the methods of production and social relations. For example, women joined wage
labour but were not treated as their male counter parts;

 Democratic political ideas in capitalist USA that emphasized „Equality, Liberty and
Fraternity‟;
 Ideas of Scholars of Enlightment for example , Rousseau,Aristotle among others;
 Influence of the modernization theory and Women in Development (WID) approach
to Development which emphasized borrowing of Western ideas and did not revamp
economic and social structures of society;
 Philosophy of liberalism with the belief in individual rights eg. Right to freedom and
autonomy.
The second wave of feminism was widespread in the 1950s. The 1960s ushered in new rights
in many countries that were gaining independence, especially third world countries (Tandon,
1996). These included rights to independence, vote, work, protection, dignity and freedom.
Liberal feminism was based on the belief that women possess reason and as such are entitled
to full human rights and are free to choose their role in life, explore their potential and
compete with men.
2.8.1.2 Major Exposition
Giddens (2001:692) defines liberal theory as a:
Feminist theory that believes gender inequality is produced by reduced access for
women and girls to civil rights and allocation of social resources such as education
and employment.
Liberal feminists believe:-
 In individual rights for women.

 That women‟s discrimination is based on prejudice, sexism and socialization
(Magezis, 1996).
 Those women have mental capacities as their male counterparts and should be given
the same opportunities in political, economic and social spheres.
 Those women are constrained by social legal and cultural institutions.
 That there should be fairness, justice, equal opportunities and equal participation in
the management of society.
 That attitudes, stereotypes and biases against females constrain women
 Confinement of women to the private sphere and dependency on men .
Disadvantage women
2.8.1.3 Solutions
Liberals propose the following as solutions to women‟s problems:

 Give women equal rights, opportunities to jobs, education to challenge directly the
ideology of patriarchy.
 Proportional representation and equal access of males and females in education,
employment, health, resources, political organs, training etc.
 Sought women‟s liberation through legal reforms.
 Advocate for gender mainstreaming in education and training.
 Education is viewed as a liberating force hence both boys and girls should be
educated.
 Focus on changing attitudes, stereotypes and biases in language, textbooks and the
media.
 Call for diversification of the curriculum.
 Call for catering for special needs of girls to improve their social status, self esteem
and confidence.
 Advocate for women‟s participation in the public sphere.
 Reorient women into crucial decision making positions of executives, directors,
ministers, presidency and so on..
 Empower women through education, training, workshops and projects.
 End discrimination of build positive role models for women and girls.
2.8.1.4 Applicability of the Liberal Theory
Achievements
In SADC countries, liberal feminists are responsible for many important Acts of legislation
that have greatly improved the situation of women. In Zimbabwe, these include reform in
welfare, education and health.
Education
In Zimbabwe, the 1980 Education act declared Education for all despite class, gender
religion, and ethnicity. The liberals have fought for a gender sensitive curriculum and
removal of stereotypes in texts, and any teaching material. This has seen subjects and sports
in the school curriculum being open for both boys and girls. There have been changes in
stereotypical language in the school e.g. :
Headmaster - School Head

Choirmaster - Choir Director
Sportsmaster - Sports Director
Senior Master/mistress – Senior Teachers.
Liberals have called for gender sensitive teaching methods to afford pupils equal treatment.
There has been proportional representation in enrolments of males and females at primary,
secondary and tertiary institutions. Proportional representative has also been applied in
promotion of women to positions of authority eg. School heads, Education officers etc.
There has also been equal access to bursaries and scholarships.
Workplaces
In Britain equal pay and sex discrimination acts came into being in the 1970s. In Zimbabwe
the 1985 Labour Relations Act was introduced. It had the following provisions:-

 Equal pay for males and females;
 Minimum wages for everyone
 Equal treatment and access to male dominated occupations.
 Maternity leave benefits and recently paternity leave
 No discrimination on the grounds of sex, not even on adverts in the media.
 Access to top positions of executives, directors and ministers.
Politics
The SADC declaration on gender led to the consideration of women participation in politics.
This led to the introduction of the quota system where one third of parliamentarians have to
be women. Women now have access to top positions and participate in electoral and legal
reform processes.
Legal sphere
Internationally equal rights for men and women were included in the United Nations (UN)
Charter of 1947. Trafficking in human beings who were mostly females was stopped in
1948. In Zimbabwe Acts were passed to protect and improve the social status of women, for
example:
 Legal Age of majority Act (1982) which lifted women from a state of being perpetual
minors. Women above 18years are now viewed as adults who can consent on their
own, make contracts and own property like land, cattle, bank accounts houses among
others.;
 Matrimonial causes Act which allows sharing of property at death or divorce.
 Sexual offences Act that protects both males and females from sexual harassment.
 There has also been conscientisation of women on marriage Acts and their provisions.
Pension‟s Acts have been amended also. These and many unmentioned Acts
including the recent domestic Act are all in a bid to bring gender equality.
For a detailed treatment of each of these acts refer to Unit 9 of this module.
2.8.1.5 Limitations of the Theory.
The liberal Theory is mainly criticized by socialist and radical feminists who argue that
liberals:
 .Do not addresses underlying causes of women‟s oppression (Bryson, 1992).

 .Ignore power relations (structural inequalities) prevailing in society
 .Do not goes deeper into explaining causes of women‟s subordination hence cannot
offer solutions for an unknown cause.
 Do not offer strategy to counter traditional norms and values that constrain women.
 Is reformist in nature moving in a gradual process to influence the government to pass
laws (Magezis, 1996). No major structural changes are made in the socio-economic
arrangement of the society.
 View women as a homogeneous category ignoring class, race and ethnicity.
 Its calls for access to education, health, employment, legal instruments leave out
lower class women.
 It‟s blending well with the WID approach to development; its welfare and anti-
poverty approaches compromise women rights, access and control of resources.
2.8.2 Marxist- Feminist Theory
2.8.2.1 Origin
Marxist Feminists are a variety of scholars who were applying the Marxist theory of
economic determinism in explaining the oppression of women. These were drawing from
Karl Max and Fredrick Engels‟ writings, for example: „The origin of the family, private
property and the State. (O‟Donnell 1992). The theory rose in the 1970s owing to the Women
and Development (WAD) approach to development and as a critic of the liberal feminist
theory, modernization theory and Women in development approach.
Women and Development (WAD) approach had been influenced by the critics of the
modernization theory, which were dependency theorists and Under-development scholars of
the Third World especially Latin America. These were the likes of Walter Rodney, Dos
Antos and Gunder Frank. The proponents of the Marxist Feminists are Sue Sharpe, Juliet
Mitchel and Marynard among others.
2.8.2.2 Marxist Terms
Economic Base- I t consists of the means of production including land, capital, labour
and time.
Forces of production - which include tools/implements or technology.
Relations of production-which define who owns, controls, dominates, profits as well as who
has power.
The ownership of the means of production and productive forces determine the relations of
production.
Superstructure-Is made of ideologies that monitor, maintain, reproduce and legitimize the
status quo (Relations of production at the base). The ideologies are;
- patriarchy
- capitalism
- cultural beliefs
- religion
- State institutions e.g. schools, legislation and repressive state apparatus.
Economic determinism – states that ownership of the economy greatly determines how the
two classes (owners and non-owners of the means of production) relate in a capitalist system.
Subordinate and dominant class-Those who own the means of production are the dominant
class while those who do not own them constitute the subordinate class.

Exploitation and Oppression-Those who do not own the means of production are exploited
of their labour by being given low wages. The powerful owning class oppresses the
subordinate class.
2.8.2.3 Marxist –Feminist Expositions
 Gender inequalities are rooted in capitalism and its ownership of private property
(Bryson, 1992).
 They challenge attempt to isolate gender from social class.
 Men are powerful because they own the means of production (dominant class)
 Women do not own the means of production hence are a subordinate class that is
oppressed, exploited just like the proletariats.
 The base determines relations between men and women.
 Women‟s position in a capitalist society is economically determined
 Capitalism divides work into private (home) and public sphere (workplace).
 Capitalism values men‟s labour and devalue that of women by giving low wages.
 Women enter wage labour from a subordinate position.
 Women are a reserve army of labour, that is, they can be recruited any time to replace
males at a low cost.
Sharpe in O‟Donnell (1992; 172) argues that;
Employers …. Frequently regard women as mere temporary

labour, and consider that they should be thought lucky to have the
opportunity to earn some money for themselves. They can be used
as surplus labour force, to be employed or laid off at will.
 Men are viewed as bread winners‟ hence higher wages while women are viewed as
appendages of men (Bryson, 1992).
 Women suffer double exploitation, for example, they produce in factories and
produce future labourers at no cost.
 Domestic work in the private sphere is not remunerated.
 Women are alienated (separated) from their production, reproduction and sexuality.
This means women do not own and control what they produce in the public sphere,
at home and even that which relates to their sexuality (children and their bodies).
 Mitchel in O‟ Donnell ( ibid.) argues that oppression in the family produces:
…A tendency to small-mindedness, petty, jealousy, irrational

emotionally and random violence, dependency competitive
selfishness, possessiveness, passivity, a lack of vision and
conservativism….
 These characteristics are embedded in women‟s objective conditions and a sexist
society.

 Women serve the interest of capitalism through the management of the family. They
provide productive, psychological and social needs.
2.8.2.4 Solutions
Marxist-Feminists propose the following as some of the solutions to women‟s problems;
 Marxist Feminists stress the need to overthrow capitalist economic system. They call
for a socialist Revolution that would change the structure and ownership of the means
of production.
 There must be an ideological change first in the consciousness of both sexes. (Pilcher
and Whelehan,2004)
 Females should free themselves from dependence and traditional gender roles that
confine them to the private sphere.
 Participation of women in the public sphere is key to their liberation.
 Men and women should struggle against capitalist oppressors.
 Class and gender struggles should take place at the same time.
 Abolition of private property and setting up of a communally owned means of
production in a communist society.
 Household work should be paid for.
2.8.2.5 Applicability of the Marxist-Feminist Theory.
In SADC countries as patriarchal societies, men own private property more than women e.g.
land, capital, houses, machinery and labour. Most of the productive forces are registered on
male names. As a result men become powerful, oppress and dominate women. The one who
owns decides and has final judgement over resources. Domestic work in the home is either
not paid for or low wages are given to maids. Women employed in the public sphere mostly
do domestic work which has been transferred from the private sphere to the public sphere for
example nursing (caring), teaching (socializing), and catering (servicing) and being
secretaries for bosses who are mostly males. Women are employed in large numbers in
export processing as well as textile industries for low wages. These careers are characterized
by low wages. The children produced belong to the father in a traditional family and what
the woman produces from her labour is controlled by the husband. Patriarchy, culture and
religion are ideologies that legitimate inequalities making them appear normal, natural and
unchangeable. State institutions e.g. education, reproduces patriarchal values. Ownership of
the means of production does determine one‟s (women‟s) position and power in a capitalist
society. Schools in a capitalist society re-enforce social inequalities by producing a
workforce divided by class. Schools in Zimbabwe, for example, can be classified into
private, former group A, former group B, mission schools and what used to be called upper-
tops. Products from these schools still exhibit glaring class and gender differences.
2.8.2.6 Limitations
Marxist-Feminist criticism is based on the following:

 Society has changed from the classes and conditions observed by Karl Marx and
Fredrick Engels. Some women these days own private property.

 Some SADC countries have come up with national gender policies and legal
instruments that enable women to access property, capital, loans and land.
 Entry into wage labour by women from the 18 th Century to today does not prove to be
key to their liberation. It has instead increased women‟s labour burdens.
 Experiences in Socialist countries, for example, Soviet Union, Cuba, China and the
former Eastern Block, did not show that women‟s positions in these societies were
any better. These societies are still male dominated with powerful posts in male
hands.
 In countries like Zimbabwe, most women find themselves in the informal sector with
low unreliable income. They are not part of the proletariat working in public places.
The majority of women are in rural areas. The theory did not look at majority of
women in Third World countries.
 Marxist- feminists are gender blind. They failed to focus on power relations of males
and females as independent from social class. They did not explain why men exploit
and oppress women even in socialist societies.
 They also fail to explain subordinate position of women before the advent of
Capitalism.
 Marxist-Feminists ignore patriarchy and male control of women‟s sexuality, culture,
violence, race and ethnicity.
 The economic factor is not enough to explain gender inequalities; other sources of
inequalities are ignored
2.8.3 Radical theory
2.8.3.1 Origin
Radical feminism is a movement that rose in the 1960s – 80s as a breakaway of Marxists
who were frustrated by the inability to apply social class in analyzing gender oppression. It
also emerged as a reaction to the liberal theory (Meena, 1992: Bryson, 1992). Its impetus
came from women‟s experiences in the Civil Rights, anti war, new-left and student
movements in North America, Europe and Australia. The first radical group was influenced
by the Maoist ideas and the need to develop political strategies for women‟s liberation. Their
slogan was the „Personal is political‟ (Bryson, 1992) meaning that no aspect of life lacked a
political dimension (power relations). Political struggles can take many new forms. It was
important to break the silence through consciousness raising. The theory is radical in nature,
that is it is violent, fast, uncompromising and strongly oppose patriarchal systems. Some of
the proponents are Kate Millet, Shulamith Firestone and Ortner. These demand radical
transformation of oppressive gender relations. Mannathoko in Meena (1192:75) cites that
radicals:
… Launched a wholesale onslaught against male dominated society and consider

men as the enemy.
2.8.3.2 Major Expositions

Radical Feminists have come up with the following factors as explanations of gender
inequalities:
1. Patriarchy;
2. Gender Socialisation;
3. biology (sexuality)
2.8.3.2.1 Patriarchy
According to Bazili (1991:9)
Patriarchy is an ideology of male supremacy that results from

social construction of gender which in turn justifies the social,
economic and political distinction between men and women.
Walby in Smelser (1994:320) defines patriarchy

As a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate oppression and
exploit women.
Patriarchy stretches back to the time of creation in Genesis, where a woman was made from
Adam‟s rib. (Acker, 1987) argues that it appears as if the women came as an after thought.
Genesis 3 v16
…Thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee.
(The Holy Bible; King James Version,
2007)
Genesis 3 V18
It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a help meet for him.
(ibid.)
The word patriarchy is derived from the Greek word patriarchs meaning „head, of the tribe.
Patriarchy is viewed as universal, oldest and worst kind of oppression in the world. (Byrson,
1992; Different Types of Feminist Theories, 2006). It cuts across time, cultures, races,
classes and ethnicities. It is a belief in society dominated and ruled by men. It is viewed as
natural, universal, unchangeable and unquestionable. (For a broader definition, refer to Unit
1).
To radicals like Kate Millet politics means power and men derive their power from the
patriarchal system that supports and favour males. Patriarchy as an ideology is sustained by
early socialization in the family, secondary socialization in schools, churches and
workplaces. It also rests upon the economic exploitation and use of threat and force
(Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). Patriarchy benefits from the oppression of women.
Women as a group have interests opposed to those of men. These interests unite them into
sisterhood across classes and cultures. Male power is not confined to the public worlds of
political and paid employment but extends into private life (sphere).

2.8.3.2.2 Gender Socialization
Gender inequalities are learnt through primary socialization and reinforced later by every
other institution, for example, School, media, community, church among others. In a
patriarchal society children are socialized to be different. Being male or female is
emphasized. Oakley in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) points out that this is done through
processes like manipulation, canalization, verbal appellations and exposure to different
activities. (See unit 1).
2.8.3.2.3 Biology/Sexuality
Subordination of women has origins in biology, the fact that women give birth (firestone in
Marcus and Ducklin, 1998). The core of power and female domination is male control of
female‟s roles in reproduction and child rearing (Firestone in O‟Donnell 1992). Women
become dependent on men for material necessities of life and protection especially in the
nuclear family. Men control women‟s production, reproduction, child rearing and sexuality.
It is for this reason that other radicals like Kate Millet view the family as a central site of
women‟s oppression. Ortner in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) cites that women are
viewed as closer to biology (nature) while men are closer to culture (social construct). This
has led to the belief that what relates to women cannot be changed while that, which relates
to males can be changed. Biology is seen as the inevitable form of sexual division of labour.
Rape and violence against women is used by m ales to secure and maintain power. The New
York Restocking Manifesto of 1969 Read:-
Women are an oppressed class. Our oppression is total, affecting

every facet of our lives. We are exploited as sex objects, breeder,
domestic servants and cheap labour. We are considered inferior
beings whose only purpose is to enhance men’s lives… (Bryson,
1992:183-184).
2.8.3.3. Solutions
Radicals prescribe the following solutions for the liberation of women:
 Women are to struggle on their own for their own liberation against their oppressors
(males). This is evidenced by the quotation…Radicals reject assistance by males
because men are viewed as enemies of the liberation. They are blamed for being
responsible for all the other problems of women, for example, Conflict, war,
destruction of the environment, and abuse. A war should be raged against men.
 Reject gender roles and call for child care facilities.
 Radicals are of the view that gender differences can be reduced by taking desirable
characteristics of males and females because these are socially constructed.
 However, cultural feminists (Extremists) celebrate feminine characteristics like
interdependence and sharing:

…It is better to be feminine than to be masculine. Thus women
should not try to be like men. (Tong in Haralambos and Holborn,
2004:103).
(Refer to micro theories, Unit 2).
 Call for total restructuring of society. To them doing away with male
domination is a means of eliminating women‟s oppression.
 Demand women‟s empowerment in education, politics and sexuality.
 Focus on violence against women, for example, rape, sexual harassment, incest,
pornography and domestic violence.
 Challenge also men‟s control and monopoly over the production and use of
knowledge, for example, in the mass media.
2.8.3.4 Applicability of the Radical Feminist Theory
Unlike the liberals who fight for equal educational opportunities, radicals have challenged
both the quality and quantity of education being offered to women. Their ideas have
significantly influenced changes in the curriculum which has resulted in the eliminating of
gender stereotyping that impact negatively on women‟s academic achievement. This gender
stereotyping is evident in subjects as sciences, maths, commercials and social studies that
were male dominated. These have been made available to women. Women are also
empowered health wise e.g. use of birth control measures of their choices, use of protection
(female condom), There are women‟s pressure groups, for example, Women‟s Action
Group (WAG), Affirmative Action Group(AAG) and Women Of Zimbabwe Arise(WOZA)
fight for rights of women and girls. Other women facilities include the Girl Child Network,
scholarships for girl children and victim friendly courts for abused children. The passing of
the sexual offences Act, HIV AIDS Act, Domestic Violence Act and stiffer penalties for rape
perpetrators are all efforts of radical feminists. Organizations like Msasa Project have
protected women experiencing gender domestic violence of any kind in Zimbabwe. A
shelter for such women was set up in Harare. Single sex schools, women‟s University and
women‟s Institute of Governance are all products of radical feminists. Women have been
made to access legal instruments that allow them to abort under special circumstances like
rape, incest, mental health or anything that endangers the woman‟s health. Radical feminists
have also influenced the setting up of childcare institutions, and introduction of new
reproductive technologies like donation of sperms, artificial insemination, surrogate
motherhood and making choices of family planning methods. All these enable women to
control their bodies.
2.8.3.5 Limitations
The following can be cited as limitations of the Radical Feminist Theory:
 It is criticized as Western, for example, in Africa, abortion is male dominated
(males decide) and it touches religious and moral issues. As a result the theory is
heavily criticized and opposed.

 It emphasizes differences between men and women making peaceful co-existence
and co-operation impossible.
 It is hostile towards the man who is also victims of socialization.
 Separatists and their rejection of marriage and relationships with males can lead to
the end of the human race.
 Views women as passive victims and assumes that all women are good and all
males are bad.
 That all males are able to oppress all women, ignoring the fact that some men are
oppressed by women or by both
 The theory fails to explain the origins of patriarchy and its power.
 It leaves out other factors like race, class and ethnicity.
2.8.4 Socialist Feminist Theory
Socialist Feminism is not a theory on its own, but a critique of the Marxist and radical
feminist theories. Bryson (1992:234) argues that:
It refers to recent attempts to synthesize the insights of Marxists

and radical feminism to build a new theory combining the best of
both. It rose in the 1960s.
Some of the proponents are Heidi, Jaggar and Ann Ferguson. The socialist- Feminists differ
from Marxist- Feminists in that their explanation for gender inequalities extend from
capitalism to patriarchy. Unlike Marxists, they looked at women in both the public and the
private spheres. Marxists focused more at the workplace.
2.8.4.1 Major Expositions
 The modern society is viewed as both capitalist and patriarchal. Socialist-

feminists believe that the subordination of women is rooted in the two evils of
capitalism and patriarchy:
 The theory is dualistic in nature with two evils mutually reinforcing.
 Sometimes the two systems conflict – for example,. Capitalist demand for labour
is opposed by patriarchal demand for personal services in the home. However,
both capitalist and patriarchal men benefit from the above arrangement that
subordinate women.
 Marxists are criticized for focusing only on capital ignoring relations of men and
women.
 To socialist feminists, women‟s subordinates go beyond capitalism to patriarchy
that pre-dates capitalism.
 Patriarchy is based on men‟s control over women‟s labour and this is part of the
productive process.
 Capitalism is based on the capitalist control of labour in the productive process.
 Ferguson feels that patriarchy is semi-autonomous, while Young views patriarchy
and capitalism as not dual but unified systems (Bryson, 1992).
 To support the above, Jaggar says the two are inseparable. For both, oppression
of women touches issues of reproduction and production, for example, patriarchy
controls reproduction of women and their labour in the production process.
Patriarchy benefits from the control of the produce from reproduction (children)
and women‟s labour (products). Capitalism like patriarchy benefits from
reproduction of future workers and produce from women‟s labour.
 Vogel says maintenance and production of the working class are essential
requirements of capitalism. Hence, the two systems of domination are
„inextricably entangled‟ (Bryson, 1992:247).
 Socialist- feminist argue that entry into wage labour by women cannot be key to
their liberation as Marxists suggested.
 Women entered wage labour during the industrial revolutions in Europe, for
example, Britain (1800) France (1830), Germany (1850) but the position of
women did not change in homes and workplace. Again, during world wars (WWI
1914- 1918) and (WW II 1939-1945) women participated in industries but this did
not usher the fruits they expected.
 Class analysis by Marxists is not enough. They ignore patriarchy and over
estimate the power of capital.
 Socialist Feminists focus on women‟s question and make demands as both
workers and women.
 Men have vested interest in the subordination of women because they benefit
socially and materially.
 Women produce, reproduce, socialize and service families at no cost. Women
reproduce workers for capitalists. They also reproduce heirs as well as workers
for their husbands.
 Education is seen as reproducing both class and gender inequalities.
(Stromquist1989; Sanderson, 1988). Schools through socialization reproduce
capitalists and patriarchal values, habits of passivity, conformity among girls as
well as children from lower class background.
 Capitalism and patriarchy legitimizes class and gender inequalities.
 Capitalism and patriarchy work hand in hand in the exploitation of women. Male
supremacy is embedded in economic structures. These are strengthened by
patriarchal relations.
2.8.4.2 Solutions
The following are solutions suggested by Socialist- Feminists:
 A revolution that challenges the two ideologies leading to uprooting of both
capitalism and patriarchy;
 Women struggle should focus on conditions of production, reproduction, reproductive
rights, sexuality, and new forms of family organization.
 Women should be united by their experiences, disputes, race, class, ethnicity or
religion.
 All class and cultural forces of oppression should be ended in order to liberate
women.
 Women should work side by side with men.

2.8.4.3 Applicability of the Socialist- Feminist Theory
The Socialist- Feminist Theory has led to Gender and Development (GAD) Approach where
men and women work side by side with men in political, economic and social development.
(Refer to Unit 3). It has made development agencies or governments to focus on inequalities
in the private and public spheres. Economic ownership, reproduction, family organization
and reproductive rights are now areas of focus in some SADC countries. This has led to
introduction of laws that enable women to access property, health care, and reproductive
rights and to choose marriage types (forms of family organization). Some governments in the
SADC like Zimbabwe have crafted national gender policies for development. These policies
look at men and women‟s access to land, education and training, housing, water, health,
political decision making, natural resources. The policies encourage participation of women
and men in al spheres of life.
2.8.4.4 Limitations
The following have been identified as weaknesses of the Socialist- Feminist Theory:
 It focuses on working middle class women leaving out peasants..
 Socialist- Feminists do not explain the origins of patriarchy and give no suggestions
of how it can be uprooted.
 Socialist- Feminists do not offer a theory of their own but only critique existing
theories.
 Patriarchy can work in other modes of production besides capitalism, for example,
pre-capitalist and socialist modes of production.
 Patriarchy can be strengthened and supported by other ideologies beside capitalism,
for example, culture, religion and socialization.
Third World Countries Political Economy Approach (Post Modernism)
Origins
It is important for us to note that the traditional feminist theories (liberal, Marxist, radical and
socialist feminist) focused on the concerns of middle class women. They also viewed women
as a homogeneous group. Gaidzanwa in Meena (1992) refer to these theories as „bourgeoisie
theories‟. Women‟s concerns did not transcend class and race. Wollenstone craft‟s liberal
feminism belonged to the bourgeoisie class concerned with bourgeoisie women. Women of
the other creeds, religion, age, class and ethnicity were excluded.
The proponents of third world economy approach are third world feminists who offer a
critique of the (traditional dominant) feminist theories. Third world political approach is part
of post modernist theories. Post modernism is a reaction to modernist theories‟ failure to
account for different changes in society. Post modernists argue that:
1. It is not possible to study society and develop unified conclusions.

2. Human behavior is characterized by heterogeneity rather than homogeneity
3. Positivism and generalizations are not accurate in human behavior

The Third World Political approach looks at the following factors as explanations for the
subordinate position of women especially in Third World Countries:
 Location on the Globe ( first, second and third world)
 International/ Global economy
 History of colonization
 Race
 Class
 Patriarchy
 Ethnicity
 Religion
 Age
 Gender among others.
Major Tenants
 The theory focuses on the 3rd world minorities of women previously ignored.
These are unrepresented black, rural, disabled, and younger and lower class
women among others.
 Women are viewed as fragmented or heterogeneous because of ethnicity, race,
religion, age, disability, class, nationality, marital status, history and multiple
identities.
 As a result women do not have shared experiences as suggested by traditional
feminist theories. Marcus and Duckling (1998:59) argues that social theory
can not offer general and inclusive views of the social world.
 A feminist theory is not possible especially in 3 rd world countries like Africa
where women are divided by a lot of factors listed above.
 Subordination of 3rd world women should be situated in their histories and
their location within neo-colonial nations.
 It looks at multicultural or global feminism where all other differences are
recognized not just gender.
 It also looks at intersection of gender with race, class and issues of
colonization and exploitation of women in the developing world
 According to the 3rd world feminist writers, women in the 3rd world countries
are subordinated in many ways: they are subordinated and oppressed as:
1. Third World women
The relationship that exists between the first world (developed industrial nations) and the
3rd world (underdeveloped nations) is in such away that the first world exploits third
world resources and labour. The periphery (satellites that is third world countries supply
the metropolis (core), the first world with resources and labour (Gunder Frank and Dos
Santos in Anderson (1995). Zimbabwe is a third world country and women are
subordinated as third world women.
2. Globalization of Economy
Third world economies, Zimbabwe included are incorporated into capitalist
economies of the developed world. Transnational capitalists who are mostly the

patriarchs control world economy through trade. A system of dependency of 3 rd world
countries on the economies of the first world has been created. There is dependency
„….when the first society (economy is organized by persons in the foreign society so
as to benefit primarily the foreign economy (Sanderson, 1995:217). Developed
nations extracted raw materials from third world countries, exported them to be
manufactured in Europe and brought back as finished goods expensive to the
Africans. The third world people become depended on the west for manufactured
goods, technology and technological know how. New dependency arose after the
Second World War that is financial dependency with multinational corporations that
invested in 3 rd world countries. Only a third is reinvested. The profits are repatriated.
Peripheral market conditions of the developed nations dictate the terms of trade (Dos
Santos in Sanderson 1995). Zimbabwean women are part of this dependency and
exploitation by the first world‟s multinational companies and trade.
3. Class
Women in a capitalist global economy like men are part of the proletariats. Their
labour is exploited for low wages. In this global oppression, peasants farmers and
urban workers are the most exploited. Women are the producers of raw materials in
the periphery but are alienated from what they produce. They are exploited by both
global capitalists and capitalist elites in their nations. In Zimbabwe women belong to
a lower class that has no power or control of the means of production.
4. Race
Women especially in third world Africa Zimbabwe included are further subordinated
as a black race. White w omen in the first world are the capitalists and consumers of
what the black race produces. The voices of the black women are not heard. The
concerns of the traditional (modernist) feminist theories did not take into account
issues of race. White women and black women do not have same experiences hence
cannot speak with one voice. Black women are subordinated by both white males and
females of the first and 3rd world. The situation of women during the colonial and
post colonial has not changed much in relation to racial issues in most African
countries.
5. Gender
Women in third world countries are also subordinated and exploited as women by
males. In patriarchal societies where males dominate, ownership of property, movable
and immovable is largely in the hands of males. Such resources are land, livestock,
cars, tractors, capital, and homesteads among others. Studies conducted by Women
and Law in Zimbabwe (2000) reveal that women have access to the resources but do
not have control over them. Women are exploited as labourers and child bearers.
Most African cultures legitimize this male dominance.
6. By other women
Women are further subordinated by other women depending on age, position of
power and relationships (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2003)

Generally, elderly women subordinate younger women. They dictate to them and
subject them to initiation ceremonies and cultural norms and values that trap younger
women in their subordination. Other women assume cultural and patriarchal power
that enables them to oppress other women. Examples of such women are mothers in
law and sisters in law. Senior women in polygamous and non polygamous families
enjoy a higher status as grandmothers, sisters and sisters in law (gogo, sisi, maiguru
and tete).They make sure their commands are carried by junior women. They impart
to them traditions and norms that support male dominance and female subordination.
In pre-colonial Zimbabwe, Lozikheyi Dlodlo, Lobengula‟s senior wife kept younger
women under her Nabuiza, the first wife of the Mutapa in the seventeenth century
lived in the palace and served by personal servants like (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2003).
7. Ethnicity
Ethnicity like race is a serious factor in issues of subordination, the world over.
Different ethnic groups have different statuses in their countries. A woman who
belongs to the lowest ethnic group is the most subordinated. She is subordinated by
males and females of other superior ethnic groups and her husband. She is looked
down upon for ethnicity and gender. For example a Nguni woman would always be
the first wife during the reign of Mzilikazi and Lobengula(Ndlovu-
Gatsheni,2003).Her firstborn son would always be an heir even if the husband had
many wives and sons before her .Wives from royal families did not work in the fields
but had other women working for them while they participated in public affairs
8. As rural women
W HM,., training, health etc (Welshenman, et al, 1997 and McFadden, 1992).Most
such women do not own the means of production e.g. land , machinery and capital
despite changes in legal instruments. Historically, these women were affected by
colonial peasantisation. They made up 90% of agricultural workers ( ). However, they
had no access to and control of land, seeds, credit facilities etc. These were registered
in male names. Males took produce of single crops like maize, cotton, palms and
tobacco to marketing boards (Marcus and Dunklin 1998) Money became a medium of
exchange in the colonial era, but women were not part of that money economy.
Women produced for commercial purposes but only controlled crops that had to do
with subsistence (consumption)
9. Religion
Almost all religions in the world subordinate women. In an Islamic religion, a devout
Muslim would stop praying when a strange women or a donkey appears (Acker,
1997). A prayer by devout Jewish reads; I thank God that I am a Jew and not a
gentile, am a man and not a woman.
In Christianity, it is believed that a woman was not created from the dist of the earth
but from Adam‟s independent person. Adam was given dominion over creation and a
man is the head of the family as Christ is head of the church. In traditional religion
women do not speak to the ancestral spirit (midzimu) but can talk to stray spirits
(mashavi). Ancestral spirits from the mother‟s side are not important as those of the

father‟s side. Women do not make important religious decisions in the families. They
can not appease angry ancestral spirits. This is done by fathers, brothers or brother‟s
children
Applicability of the Theory
 Indeed Third World women, like men are trapped in the global capitalist system of
dependency and exploitation.
 Women like man are producers but do not benefit from what they produce. They are
exploited as a class of workers and women.
 The condition of women especially the black race is worse than that of other races.
During the colonial period, most whites had black women as their maids and
nannies‟. This has not changed much in the post colonial period.
 In patriarchal societies, majority of women do not own immovable property like
houses and land for homesteads especially in rural areas. They also do not own
movable properties like cars, scotch carts, cattle especially the married ones.
 Women are further subordinated by other women for example, in Shona and Ndebele
cultures of Zimbabwe a muroora/ Umalukazana/wife has to take without questioning
instructions from the husband‟s mother (vamwene/umamazala) and from the
husband‟s sister (vatete/ubabakazi). These decide on muroora/umalukazana‟s fate in
marriage and the custody of children.
 Elderly women in these cultures dictate and subject younger women to initiation
ceremonies and cultural norms that trap younger women in their subordination. For
example:
1. Women should be quite whatever happens in her marriage she should allow
the husband to access what he paid bride price (lobola) for (sexuality) at
whatever cost and circumstances.
2. A women should endure (persevere) in marriage to avoid breaking up of the
marriage (kuputsa imba yake/ ukudiliza umuzi). In Zimbabwe, for example,
most rural women are engaged in agriculture. They produce for both
subsistence and commercial agriculture. However, few women have access to
credit facilities, technology, technological know how and marketing facilities.
Culture and patriarchy continue to maintain the status quo despite introduction
of legal instruments and policies on access to resources and opportunities
Limitations
1. Third world political approach tends to focus on capitalism and post colonialism.
2. It does not focus on patriarchal and cultural constraints before capitalism.
3. It ignores biological or reproductive constraints.
4. It divides women weakening their struggles because of emphasis of women diversity.
5. Argue that homogenizing women is colonizing women denying them their histories,
cultures, identities and nationalities.
Micro-Theories of gender inequalities

Post modernism has seen a shift from large scale theories with universal explanations of
gender relations, that is, patriarchy, capitalism, socialism and biology to issues of age, class,
race, and ethnicity among others.
Black Feminism
The Third world political approach focuses on heterogeneity of women. It is a theory of third
world women by third world women dissatisfied with other types of feminisms. Black
feminism looks at women affected by race especially the black women in the western world
who are excluded by macro theories. These are black women who are in industrialized
nations as a result of slavery, employment, studies, and refugee status.
Black feminists argue that versions of other feminists do not apply equally to white and non-
white women. Black women have particular problems of segregation or exclusion in civil
rights movements in industrialized nations. Race is viewed as the most/only relevant label for
identification. Womanhood is less than race. As a result black women have not been central
in women‟s liberation movement .Where characteristics of women are measured, those of
white women are used as a yardstick (Hooks in Giddens, 2001)
Solutions
Theories of feminism should take into account issues of racism. Concentration should not be
on experiences and ideas of white women.
Applicability
Black women, the world over, are subordinated by the race issue. However, their situation is
worse in the western world. Their voices are unheard because of race, class and gender.
Activity 2.6
Describe giving examples, the problems of Black women living in developed countries.
Eco-feminism
Eco-feminism was propounded by the likes of Vandana Shiva, Susan Griffin and Carolyn
Merchant. It emerged in western scholarship in the 1970s as a result of realization of
connection between women, human rights and the exploitation of nature.
 Eco-feminists believe that male domination is harmful to both women and

environment earth.
 Men desire to control both women and the environment in order to have complete
power.

 An attempt to control women and the environment leads to the destruction of the
environment
 Women like nature are viewed as objects to control, manipulate and
plunder(Shiva,1999)
 Power of patriarchy and colonialism depends on the exploitation and control of
nature, animals and human beings especially women. (Plumwood, 1994).
 Eco-feminists believe that there is a deep connection between earth and women hence
the terms mother nature or mother earth (Shiva, 1999).
Solutions
 Merchant (1995) feels that women have a central role in preserving and
understanding nature. They are called to lead an ecological revolution to save
the planet. However, this can be done if women‟s role in the construction of
environmental knowledge is recognised (Shiva, 1998).
 It is unfortunate that patriarchal power has made women to turn against the
environment instead of living in harmony with it.
 Women have little access and control of environmental knowledge and the
natural environments e.g. wild vegetation, plantations, wild life, resort areas
among others(Macgregor in Morse and Stocking,1995)
 Women do not participate actively in the conservation and management of
resources. For example natural forests are viewed by women as fire hood land,
wild animals as danger or game meat, physical features like mountains as
sources of rocks for bricks, grinding stones or refuge places in terms of war.
 It is also unfortunate that women‟s knowledge of the environment is not
considered scientific by western scientific standards (Momsen, 2004).
 Their indigenous knowledge of farming, forests and trees is viewed as linked
to intuition or supernatural, therefore excluded despite environmentalists
movements of the late 20th century (Njiro,1999).Women‟s projects fail
because they are either based on western model or because they lack females
(Fortman,1986).
 For sustainable development to be achieved, women should be involved in the
conservation of the natural environment just as they are involved in the
tapping of the resources.
Applicability
 Women in Africa are left out in development projects (Macgregor, 1991). It
is for this reason that the ZNGP, (2004) has called for the involvement of
women in environmental issues and RM structures.
 Women also need to take studies that relate to environmental issues.

 The ZNGP also promotes equitable access to control and ownership of
productive resources including the natural resources.
 Dissemination of environmental information to both males and females is
crucial if our environments are to be preserved .I t can be concluded therefore
that eco-feminism unifies gender and environmental issues. The purpose of
the unity is for conservation of nature for sustainable development. In Africa
women constitute the majority and annihilate the environment as they search
for fire wood, nuts , mushroom, vegetables ,fibres, fruits and soils hence they
need to understand processes of the landscape degradation(Morse and
Stocking,19950). Zimbabwe‟s‟ rate of deforestation, partly caused by women
has been estimated at 2% a year with fuel deficit in 5 out of 9 provinces
including Matebeleland North and South, Midlands, Masvingo and parts of
Mashonaland East (Jackson,1995). With the current land reform and
resettlement programme, the figure is likely to be much higher.
Cultural
Cultural feminism has origins in the feminist theory by extremists or separatists (Haralambos
and Holborn, 2004).Among these are Card Gilligars and Mary Daly.
 Cultural feminism believes in the superiority of the feminine (Momsen,

2004).According to them, the fundamental differences between men and
women should be celebrated. Their argument is that, women are inherently
kind and gentle .If women were to rule the world, there would be no war
but peace. The women‟s‟ way is viewed as the right way and that women
 Can live on their own in a society made of women. Men on the other hand
are vied negatively even their values. It is believed men value ideas of
independence, hierarchy, competition and dominating. These lead to
conflict, wars and chaos, while females value dependence, cooperation,
relationships community, sharing, trust and peace. These also encourage
 Peaceful co-existence. Women‟s‟ reproduction is seen as a source of
power which men are jealous of Men want to control women‟s‟
reproduction as technology through the use of technology.
Applicability
 In Zimbabwe women are vied as reproductive technology for child bearing

.They are also a source of labour and they reproduce future labourers. This is a
source of power for women and who ever controls them controls reproduction
and labour.

Multicultural Feminism
 Multicultural feminism arose as a result of dissatisfaction with global

feminism in a multicultural society. It has roots in the third world feminists‟
theories and other post modernist theories.
 Third world feminists argue that there must be a multicultural theory that
recognises all other differences within which gender is contextualised.
 Gender inequalities manifest themselves differently in different cultures.
Cultural differences like class, ethnicity, religion, age and disability shape
gender differences in different societies.
 A multicultural theory should focus on inclusion of other oppressions and
consider intersection of gender with race, colonisation and exploitation of
women in the developing world (Momsen, 2004).
Applicability
 Zimbabwe is a multicultural society made of the following ethnic groups

Venda,Ndau,Ndebele,Kalanga,Karanga,Tonga,Shangani,Sotho,Korekore,Zezu
ru and Manyika among others.
 Zimbabwe also has different religions, for example Christianity with its
different denomination. Christian Churches are grouped into Pentecostal,
missionary established , African Independent Churches. Parallel to these is
traditional religion, Islam etc. A multicultural theory should take these
differences into consideration, even solutions to women‟s problems. Women
are treated differently in each religion, denomination and ethnic group.
Zimbabwe again is made of different classes, the upper class, middle class
and lower class that can be divided further into formal workers, informal
workers, and house wives
UNIT 3
Historical Development of Gender

by Daniel Mawere
3.1 Introduction
In Unit 2 we introduced you to theories of gender inequality. In this unit you are introduced
to the historical development of gender through four approaches. The approaches are Women
in Development, Women and Development, Gender and Development and Third World
Political Economy. We feel that these approaches are important in tracing the historical
development of gender from focus on women‟s exclusion from development activities to

focusing on development as it takes on board both women and men. The approaches also
seek to explain how development affects women and why women and men are affected by
development differently. We hope the approaches will make you appreciate the many views
that have come up as societies endeavour to grapple with issues of equality and equity
between women and men in the development of nations and societies the world over. The
intention is to enable you to critically examine gender and development as they relate to the
Zimbabwean experience in particular and the world in general.
3.2 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define and explain the concept development as it relates to gender and development.
 Trace the historical development of gender.
 Discuss the main features of each of the four approaches to development of gender.
 Critically examine achievements and challenges of each of the four approaches to the
development of gender.
Approaches to explaining the development of the concept Gender
3.3 The concept Development

The concept development has various sheds of meaning to different people. Generally
development is about: change for the better; continuing processes; collectivities of people;
growth and prosperity; and interrelationships. Among other theories, Modernization and
Dependency theories view development differently as is shown below.
Modernization theories, originating from west-centric institutions, view development as

economic growth and industrialization. Industrialization therefore is a major indicator of
development. One of the most influential modernization theorists is W.W.Rostow of the
United States. His 1960 book (The Stages of Economic Growth) traces the economic growth
of countries through five stages using the analogy of aerodynamics.
 Stage 1 Traditional Stage or Handcrafting Stage: - in which primitive societies
depend upon human and animal power for production. Primitive tools are used and
production is mainly for local consumption.
 Stage 2 Pre-take off Stage: - in which the necessary infrastructure for development is
created. Transport and communication is improved. Electricity and light machines
will be used in agriculture and industry. Modern institutions, such as elected bodies,
codification of laws, banking and transport systems take root.
 Stage 3 Take-off Stage: - in which the economy is poised for growth, becomes self
sufficient and self reliant in many aspects. The economy enters the international
market. Population growth is checked and national income increases.
 Stage 4 Drive to Maturity: - in which the economy goes in for machine building,
space research, eradication of poverty and sophisticated machinery. Society becomes
affluent, socio-economic institutions are modernized and a high standard of living is
achieved.
 Stage 5 High Mass Consumption: - in which there is abundance of everything to
everyone. People enjoy all material comforts, and luxuries are for asking.

As these countries prepare to develop, they need assistance in the form of funds,
technology and new markets.
Dependency is the perpetuation of underdevelopment. It is historical. Dependency of the

Third World countries is related and linked to the colonial economy of the periphery to
the centre. Dependency theories therefore criticize the modernization concept of
development. These theories argue that the origins of persistent global poverty can not be
understood without reference to the entire international economic system. They argue that
underdevelopment is not a condition: it is an active process of impoverishment linked to
development. That is, some parts of the world are underdeveloped because others are
developed. They are not separate processes but two aspects of the same process. In other
words, economic growth in developed countries created Third World poverty in its wake.
The word dependency comes from this link: some say the exploitation of various regions
for their raw materials and labour impoverished them and made them depend on the
West. Others point out that in fact it is the other way round: that the West has been
dependent on the Third World in order to grow and prosper.
All in all, modernization theory sees capitalism as a creative force, causing growth and
progress. Dependency theory sees international capitalism as the ruin of the Third World.
Modernization theory sees rich countries as helpers of poor countries; dependency theory
sees them as the main obstacles to the well-being of the poorer countries.
These models of development are heavily male based: development planners assumed
that men are the most productive workers. Women‟s productive role was ignored because
it was often not directly linked t the market or the formal economy. Brandt et al, (1980)
explain why gender was not noticed in development in the past when they say that; no
political system assumed the equal status of women; production-oriented societies tended
to undervalue their contribution; statistical methods largely ignored the contribution of
women as it was concentrated in the informal sector. Fagerlind and Saha (1989) in Bown
(1999) commented that women provided more health care than all health services
combined and yet outnumber men among the world‟s illiterate. Chinery-Hesse et al
(1990) in Bown (1999) commented on women‟s contribution to development thus;
Women‟s distinctiveness lies in the multiplicity of their roles. Whilst men can confine
themselves mainly to being producers, most women, in addition to being heavily
involved in economic production, take prime responsibility as home managers, child
bearers and careers of children, the sick and the elderly. As a result women work more
hours than men, usually with smaller resources, fewer opportunities and lower rewards.
By and large inequalities exist between men and women. These inequalities typify gender
differences and contribute to disparities in development between them.
Development, argues anthropologist Arturo Escobar, not only ignored women, but in fact
had – and continues to have, in different cases – extremely detrimental effects on
women‟s economic position. From the 1970s, the assumption of women as actors mainly
in the reproductive sphere began to be questioned. Over the decades since distinctive

approaches have emerged related to gender and development (WID, WAD and GAD,
among others). These frameworks guide development policies, research and practice.
3.4 Approaches to explaining the development of the concept Gender
3.4.1 Women in Development (WID)

Origins
In the early 1970s, researchers on development began to focus on the division of
labour based on sex, and the impact of development and modernization strategies on
women. The concept, Women in Development (WID), came into use during the
United Nations Decade for Women (1975 to 1985). It is closely related to western
liberal feminism which emphasizes on gender equity and equal rights. The approach
viewed women as passive beneficiaries of development. In fact there is a growing
realization that women are being left out of economic development or are not
benefiting significantly from it (Moyoyeta, 2004). The approach stands for concern
with the disadvantaged position of women, and discrimination against them. Research
based on this concept recognizes that the impact of development and social change on
women differs from its impact on men. The main objective of the WID approach,
therefore, is to design actions and policies to integrate women fully into development.
Main Features
The WID approach views women‟s lack of participation as the main problem. As
pointed out earlier on, WID approach focuses on women. The exclusion of women
(half of the productive resource) from the development process is viewed as the main
problem under focus. Women‟s subordination, therefore, is seen in terms of their
exclusion from the market sphere, and limited access to and control over resources.
More efficient and effective development that includes women is the main goal of the
approach. Integration of women into existing structures of development is viewed as
the solution to the problem. The approach seeks to integrate women into economic
development through legal and administrative support.
WID advances a number of strategies aimed at addressing the problem under focus.
Through WID, projects such as transfer of technology, extension services, credit
facilities, and other interventions that have a welfare orientation especially projects on
hygiene, literacy or childcare are implemented. WID also focuses on advocacy
strategies for more equal participation of women in education, employment and other
spheres of society. The other strategy is to increase women‟s ability to manage the
household (family planning). All these strategies are aimed at increasing women‟s
productivity and income.
The approach also examines the sexual division of labour and the differential impact
of gender in development. Furthermore it recognizes that women and men‟s
experience of development and societal changes are different.

Achievements
 The WID approach has enhanced people‟s understanding of women‟s development
needs, particularly the need to improve statistical measures of women‟s work and to
provide women with more opportunities for education and employment (Overholt, et
al. 1984). The approach has provided a checklist for ensuring women‟s status in
societies, a checklist that is helpful and accessible to development technocrats.
 Programmes informed by the WID approach address women‟s practical needs by;
creating wage employment, income-generating opportunities, and improving access
to credit and to education.
 Its presence at the UN helped to push for social legislation that enhanced women‟s
civil and political rights in some countries.
 It has also been successful in helping secure a prominent place for women‟s issues at
the United Nations (UN).
 The UN declared 1975 to 1985, the Decade for Women. A major achievement of the
decade has been the establishment of women in development structures.
 WID has helped to mainstream gender issues in many development agencies and
policies as well as increase women‟s visibility.
 WID highlights the fact that women need to be integrated into development processes
as active agents if efficient and effective development is to be achieved. It has also
encouraged research and debate on women issues.
Limitations
Limitations of the approach noted later were that:
 The benefits of „modernization‟ do not, in fact, trickle down automatically or equally.
Furthermore the approach focuses on integration of women into ongoing development
strategies. This often entails the acceptance of existing social structures that
perpetuate inequalities. The approach tends to focus heavily on the productive aspects
of women‟s work, overlooking the burden of social and reproductive functions. It
should also be noted that women‟s issues tend to be increasingly relegated to
marginal programmes and isolated projects (Gender! A Partnership of Equals, 2000).
 The approach does not challenge gender relations and assumes that these will change,
as women become economic partners in development.
 WID views women as being outside the mainstream of development and yet women
are already playing a crucial part in development, for example, in the domestic and
agriculture spheres.
 By exclusively targeting women, WID creates tension, suspicion and hostility.
 The approach tends to perpetuate gender inequalities as it focuses on practical needs
to the exclusion of strategic gender needs.
 The approach calls for women‟s inclusion in development but it does not call for
changes in the social, cultural and legal structures that give rise to inequalities in
society.
 Because the approach relies heavily on modernization theory, it generally assumes
that western institutions hold most of the answers and it often ignores the possible
contribution of indigenous knowledge.

 Critics see the WID initiative as “add-on” approach that, instead of integrating
women into the mainstream of development, marginalizes them even further (Chiriga,
1998). For finer details on WID approaches study Table 3.1 below:
 Table 3.1
 Different policy approaches to Third World women: Moser (1993: pp 56-57)

Issues Welfare Equity Anti-Poverty
Origins Second WID ap-

Earliest approach: Original WID approach: proach:
-Residual model of so- -Failure of modernisation -toned down equity
cial welfare under co- development policy because of criticism.
lonial administration. -Influence of Boserup and -linked to redistribu-
-Modernization / First World Feminists on tion with growth and
accelerated growth Percy amendment of UN basic needs.
economic develop- decade for women
ment model.
1970s onward: still
Period Most Popu !950-1970 but still !975-1985: attempts to limited popularity
lar widely used. adopt it during the
women‟s decade.
To ensure poor
Purpose To bring women into To gain equity for women women increase their
development as better in the development proc- productivity:
mothers: this is seen as ess: women seen as active women‟s poverty
their most important participants in develop- seen as a problem of
role in development. ment underdevelopment,
not of subordination.
Needs of women To meet PGN in re- To meet SGN in terms of To meet PGN in pro-
met and roles rec- productive role, relat-
triple role– directly ductive role, to earn
ognized
ing particularly to food through state top-down an income, particu-
aid, malnutrition and intervention, giving politi- larly in small-scale
family planning cal and economic auton- income generating
omy by reducing inequal- projects.
ity.
Comment Women seen as pas- In identifying subordinate Poor women isolated

sive beneficiaries of position of women in as separate category
development with fo- terms of relationship to with tendency only
cus on their reproduc- men, challenging, criti- to recognize produc-
tive role; non- cized as Western femi- tive role; reluctance
challenging, therefore nism, considered threaten- of government to
widely popular espe- ing and not popular with give limited aid to
cially with govern- government. women means popu-
ment and traditional larity still at small-
NGOs. scale NGO level.

Issues Efficiency Empowerment
Origins .Most recent approach:

Third and now pre- -arose out of failure of eq-
dominant WID ap- uity approach
proach: -Third World women‟s
- deterioration in the feminist writing and grass-
world economy roots organization
- policies of economic
stabilization and ad-
justment rely on
women‟s economic
contribution to devel-
opment.
Period Most
Popu 1975 onward: accelerated
lar Post 1980s: now most during 1980s, still limited
popular approach popularity
Purpose
To empower women
To ensure develop- through greater self-
ment is more efficient reliance: women‟s subordi-
and more effective: nation seen not only as
women‟s economic problem of men but also of
participation seen as colonial and neo-colonial
associated with equity oppression
To reach SGN in terms of

Needs of To met PGN in con- triple role– indirectly
women met and
roles recog- text of declining social through bottom-up mobili-
nized services by relying on zation around PGN as a
all three roles of means to confront oppres-
women and elasticity sion
of women‟s time
Women seen entirely Potentially challenging

Comment in terms of delivery with emphasis on Third
capacity and ability to World and women‟s self-
extend working day; reliance; largely unsup-
most popular approach ported by governments and
both with governments agencies; avoidance of
and multilateral agen- Western feminism criticism
cies means slow, significant
growth of under-financed
voluntary organizations

Women and Development (WAD)
Origins
The seeds of the WAD concept were planted during the 1950s and 1960s when about 50
countries were freed from colonialism. Women who had participated in independent
movements felt that they must join with men in building these new nations. The approach is
Marxist in content as it drew on dependency theory. WAD actually arose in the latter part of
the 1970s. Its main basis was critiquing the earlier approach of WID. Its origins are in the
argument that there should be a development approach to women that recognizes the dangers
of integrating women into a patriarchal world. The approach seeks instead to create “women-
only” projects, carefully constructed to protect women‟s interests from patriarchal
domination (Rathbeger, 1990). WAD therefore is an inclusive term meant to signify a
concept and a movement whose long-range goal is well being of society.
Main Features
The central point of the WAD approach is that women must be lifted from poverty and
contribute to and benefit from development efforts. The approach stresses the distinctiveness
of women‟s knowledge, women‟s work and women‟s goals and responsibilities. It argues for
recognition of this distinctiveness and for the acknowledgement of the special role that
women have always played in the development process. The work they do both inside and
outside the household is crucial to the maintenance of society. The WAD perspective gave
rise to a persistent call to recognize that women are the mainstay of agricultural production in
many areas of Africa, although their contribution has been systematically overlooked and
marginalized in national and donor development plans (Connelly et al, 2005).
The main focus of WAD is on the interaction between women and development processes
rather than purely on strategies to integrate women into development. WAD sees both
women and men as not benefiting from the global economic structures because of
disadvantages due to class and the way wealth is distributed (Moyoyeta, 2004).
Global inequalities have been viewed by WAD as the main problem facing poor countries
and their citizens. The approach contents that economic growth and the industrialization of
the west has been based upon the exploitation of nations that have been subjected to colonial
rule. WAD has been very persuasive in raising the debate that women have a role not only in
reproduction but in production as well. It focuses on women‟s economic roles and class
decisions. For development to be meaningful for women both these roles have to be
acknowledged. In other words the approach recognizes that women have always been part of
development.
The approach focuses on the relations between developed and developing nations,
particularly their impact on the lives of women and men in developing countries. It maintains
that women‟s position will improve once needed structural and institutional reforms are

installed at the local and international levels. Women therefore must have both the legal right
and access to existing means for their improvement and that of society.
Achievements
Gains have been made through the approach in:
 Raising consciousness,
 Publicizing women‟s concerns, and
 Bringing them into the policy arena.
In other words WAD significantly extends the WID critique of mainstream
development approach by bringing in a broader analysis.
Limitations
Although the WAD approach has offered an important corrective to WID‟s assumption that
male dominated states can be used to alter gender inequalities, it also has a number of
weaknesses:
 Marginalization and smallness of scale have limited the transformative potential of
women-only organizations.
 The approach also sees women as a class, downplaying differences among women,
particularly along racial and ethnic lines.
 It focuses on production and income generating projects at the expense of women‟s
reproduction work.
 The approach has been criticized for assuming that the position of women will
improve if and when international structures become more equitable. In doing so it
sees women‟s positions as primarily within the structure of international and class
inequalities. It therefore underplays the role of patriarchy in undermining women‟s
development and does not adequately address the question of social relations between
men and women and their impact on development (Moyoyeta, 2004).
Gender and Development (GAD)

Origins
The GAD approach emerged in the early 1980s. GAD originated from the experiences and
analysis of Western socialist feminists interested in development issues. It overlaps with
WAD but the socialist feminists in this approach combine lessons from the limitations of
both WID and WAD. It also emerges from the grass-roots organizational experiences and
writings of Third World feminists. It is born out of frustration with the lack of progress of
WID policy, in changing women‟s lives and in influencing the broader development agenda.
Its objective therefore, is to remove disparities in social, economic and political equality
between women and men in development.
Main Features
 The GAD approach argues that women‟s status in society is deeply affected by their
material conditions of life and their position in the national, regional, and global
economies.

 GAD also recognizes that women are deeply affected by the nature of patriarchal
power in their societies at the national, community, and household levels. Moreover,
women‟s material conditions and patriarchal authority are both defined and
maintained by the accepted norms and values that define women‟s and men‟s roles
and duties in a particular society (Sen and Grown 1987 in Connelly et al, 2005).
 GAD focuses not just on women but also on the social relations between women and
men, be it in the workplace or in other settings. It therefore seeks to address issues of
access and control over resources and power. Gender relations are seen as the key
determinant of women‟s position in society, not as immutable reflections of the
natural order but as socially constructed patterns of behaviour-the social construction
of gender-which can be changed if this is desired. The GAD approach focuses on the
interconnection of gender, class, colonial history, culture, and position in the
international economic order (Moser, 1993).
 The approach sees the gender division of labour as the root cause of inequality,
especially since it undervalues the work done by women in the household. It
recognizes women as agents of development, not merely as passive recipients of
development assistance. The need for women to organize themselves and participate
in political processes is stressed. Current social, economic and political structures are
questioned by the approach. It promotes interventions and affirmative action
programmes that integrate women into ongoing development efforts (Gender
Mainstreaming, 2005).
 Given that women are usually in a disadvantaged position in the work place as
compared to men, promotion of gender equality implies explicit attention to women‟s
needs, interests and perspectives. The objective then is the advantage of the status of
women in society, with gender equality as the ultimate goal (Gender! A Partnership
of Equals, 2000).
 GAD looks at the impact of development on both women and men. It seeks to ensure
that both women and men participate in and benefit from development and so
emphasizes equality of benefit and control. It recognizes that women may be involved
in development, but not necessarily benefit from it (Moyoyeta, 2004).
 The GAD approach also plays particular attention to the oppression of women in the
family or the „private sphere‟ of women‟s lives. As a result we have seen projects
develop addressing issues such as domestic violence and violence against women.
 GAD brought about a gender perspective, thereby bringing under scrutiny the whole
gamut of difference in power, legal rights, roles, constraints, opportunities and needs
of women compared to men. The argument being that to bring women into the center
stage of development, the existing gender relations need to be re-examined and
wherever needed to be restructured (Mainstreaming Gender Equity, 2005).
Achievements
 The biggest contribution of GAD is the inclusion of men into the approach.
 It does not exclusively emphasize the solidarity of women.
 The approach acknowledges that women spend a lot of time; - bearing, raising
children, cooking, washing, and fetching water, caring for the sick and elderly,
attending to the fields and small stock.

 It also observes that women have no control over their fertility and over productive
resources.
 The GAD approach has also helped us to understand that the gender division of
labour gives triple roles (reproductive, productive and community) to women in
society.
 It goes beyond seeing development as mainly economic well being but also that the
social and mental well being of a person is important.
 Arising from the GAD analysis is the need for women to organize themselves into a
more effective political voice in order to strengthen their legal right and increase the
number of women in decision making.
The approach therefore: liberates, empowers, and promotes partnership and equitable
distribution of resources and benefits. It transforms unequal relationships; challenges
and changes gender insensitive traditions, institutions, policies and structures. Above
all it also humanizes. WID and GAD approaches are summarized in Table 3.2 below:
Table 3.2 Comparison of WID and GAD
Women in Development Gender and Development (GAD)

(WID)
The An approach which views An approach to people centered
Approach women‟s lack of participation development
as the problem.
The Focus Women Relations between women and men
The The exclusion of women (half Inequitable relations (between women
Problem of the productive resource) and men, rich and poor) that prevents
from the development process equitable development and women‟s
full participation
The Goal More efficient, effective Equitable, sustainable development
development with men and women sharing decisions
making and power
The Solution Integrate women into existing Empower the disadvantaged and
structures women
The Women only projects Identify/address practical needs
strategies determined by women and men to
Women‟s components improve their condition
Integrated projects At the same time address strategic

gender needs of women and men
Increase women‟s productivity
Address strategic needs of the poor
Increase women‟s income through people centered development

Increase women‟s ability to
manage the household
Source: Connelly et al, (2005)
Third World Political Economy Approach

Origins
Proponents of this approach are Third World Feminist Writers.
Main Features
 It is a critique of the three approaches discussed above.
 It locates the oppressive social systems within the traditional patriarchy systems,
colonial, neo-colonial, and the globalization processes which impact on women and
men differently.
 The approach blames the earlier approaches for focusing on white and middle class
women and generalizing explanations for the subordinate positions of all women.
 Historical context is ignored – women have had different experiences at different
periods in history. The approach analyses and traces the situation of women from pre-
capitalist, capitalist/colonial and post- colonial periods.
 Though patriarchy is central, it does not explain changes and diversity in gender
neutrality.
 Questions of race, class, and ethnicity should not be ignored.
 Experiences of western women are different from those of third world women. The
approach looks at globalization of economy and its impact on men and women. Third
World women are exploited; as Third world women, as the African race, as working
class, and within each class.
 Not all men are able to oppress all women.
 Young women are the most oppressed and exploited, for example, daughter-in-law
(muroora) versus Mother-in-law (Vamwene) and Daughter-in-law versus her
husband‟s sister/ aunt (Vatete). Elderly women and aunts use patriarchal values to
oppress other women. The lowest class or ethnic group is the most exploited.
 Advent of capitalism and colonialism worsened the problems of third world women.
Women had double burdens, for example, subsistence agriculture, childbearing, work
outside the home, among other burdens.
 Money became the medium of exchange but women were not party of the money
economy. Women produced food and became totally dependent on men for cash
goods, for example, school fees, farming implements, furniture and loans among
others.
 Peasant economy marginalized women and made them powerless.
 Traditional structures were modified to fit into the capitalist system.
 Before independence in third world countries, the state reproduced gender, class and
race. After independence it reproduced class and gender. Women produced and
continue to produce for use value. The proponents of the approach see third world
women as producers whilst western women are consumers.

 Due to the diversities indicated above, women cannot speak with one voice even in
post –modernism because of race and class.
 The neo-colonial period has not improved women‟s position, as they have no access
to technology and technological know-how. Third world women are therefore
alienated from technology and knowledge.
 Cultural constraints in the family further subordinate women.
 Capitalism and patriarchy therefore combine to exploit third world women.
Limitations
 The approach does not focus much on cultural constraints.
 Focus is mainly on capitalism and post-modernism.
 It does not explain subordinate position of women before the advent of capitalism.
 The approach ignores sexuality and reproduction (biology).
 It does not go deeper into the root causes of subordination of women.
Conclusion
In this unit we have shown how focus initially was on women only as evidenced by the WID
and WAD approaches. The WID approach hoped to bring women into development through
providing them with opportunities for employment or engaging them in income generating
projects. This would, as it were, remove them from the private sphere into the public sphere.
The WAD approach was arguing for publicizing women‟s concerns, and
bringing them into the policy arena. Criticisms of these approaches resulted in the Gender
and Development approach with its focus being mainly on the inequality in relations between
men and women. It goes beyond seeing development as mainly economic well being but also
that the social and mental well being of a person is important. The GAD approach goes
beyond seeing development as mainly economic well being but also that the social and
mental well being of a person is important. It should also be noted that the biggest
contribution of GAD is the inclusion of men into the approach. The Third World Economic
Approach comes in as a critique of the first three approaches which tended to focus on
women in the developed world without articulating the concerns of women in the third
world. The approach brings in the part played by some women in perpetuating gender
inequality when these women connive with patriarchy to exploit, subordinate and oppress
young women in the third world.
UNIT 4
GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS AND TOOLS
4.0 Introduction
Gender analysis provides a basis for robust analysis of the differences between women and
men‟s lives and this removes the possibility of analysis being based on incorrect assumptions
and stereotypes. In this unit we present a discussion on what is gender analysis, why do
gender analysis and the tools for gender analysis. The tools we will look at are the Harvard
Analytical framework, Moser Gender Planning framework and Women Empowerment

framework. Our approach in this unit will impress upon you to adopt an appropriate and
effective interpretation of gender issues from a gender perspective as you tackle the various
activities in the unit and continually relate the issues to your own experiences in education,
the workplace and the community.
4.1 Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain the meaning of the term gender analysis and explain its purpose
 Define and describe some gender analysis tools
 Use and apply different gender analysis tools to conduct a gender analysis to various
case studies and situations.
4.2 What is Gender Analysis?
Gender analysis:
 Examines the differences in women‟s and men‟s lives, including those which lead to
social and economic inequity for women and applies this understanding to policy
development and service delivery. (gender/framework: 2006).
 Is concerned with the underlying causes of these inequities.
 Aims to achieve positive change for women and men.
 Is a tool to better understand the realities of women and men, boys and girls whose
lives are impacted by planned development.
 Is used to understand the culture, expressed in construction of gender identities and
inequities.
 Aims to uncover dynamics of gender differences across a variety of issues.
 Includes gender issues with respect to social relations, activities, access and control
over resources, services, institutions of decision –making and network of power and
authority.
 Identifies specifically how public policy affects women and men differently.
 It also brings to the fore these differences and to the attention of those who can make
a difference.
 It also provides an understanding of gender relations which include experiences of
women as distinct from men‟s, how women are contributors and producers to the
community under review and ways in which women are subordinate to men
(http//www.snvword.org/cds/rgGEND 2006).
 Aims to achieve equity rather than equality. Recognizes that women‟s and men‟s
lives, experiences, needs, issues and priorities are different. These vary according to
various factors such as marital status, ethnicity, income levels, and age among others.
This entails adopting different strategies to achieve equitable outcomes for women
and men and different groups of women (gdrc.org.gender/framework:2006)
4. 3 Why do gender analysis?

* Information is essential for mainstreaming of gender at all levels from formulation
of national legislation and policy to planning and monitoring of specific interventions.
* Gender based analysis should be a common thread woven from beginning to end
throughout entire policy not merely an additional heading or section in briefing notes.
* It gives information on who performs what activities and at what levels- household,
community or national.
* It is important to correct unfairness- who owns what resources, who uses what
resources for what? Who has ultimate control of resources at different levels.
* To determine the different ways in which women and men do or do not benefit from
particular livelihoods interventions.
* Both qualitative and quantitative gender analytical research can be used to raise
awareness of gender issues, to inform policy makers, to provide material for gender
training and to monitor the differential impact of policy, project and budget
commitments on women and men.
* To highlight different responsibilities of women and men that might constrain their
participation in a project.
Activity 4.1 Gender based analysis

 Identify an issue that affects you as student at a university.
 What is the issue?
 Who says it is an issue?
 Why has it become an issue?
 How does your personal or professional background affect understanding of the
issue?
 How are the root causes perpetuated?
 What factors are influencing this issue?
 Does this issue require policy analysis or development?
You have successfully carried out gender based analysis by answering the above questions
which are often asked to identify or define policy issues. Your responses to the above will
assist you to identify different needs of women and men, their ability to understand different
stakeholders‟ capacity to participate in any given intervention. It will also assist you to
identify major environmental factors (culture, religion, politics) which have critical influence
and maybe responsible for maintaining the system of gender differentiation and equity.
4.6 Tools for gender analysis
Several development workers have come up with strategies of carrying out gender analysis in
development work or interventions. There are a number of gender analysis tools available but
this unit will focus only on three namely the Harvard Analytical Framework, the Gender and
Development (Moser) approach and the Women Empowerment approach (Longwe). .
However, other approaches such as the ABC of Gender Analysis Framework (FAWE),
Socio Economic and Gender Analysis (SEAGA), Social Relations and Life Cycle approaches
will not be looked at in this particular unit.

The Harvard Analytical Framework
The Harvard Analytical Framework also referred to as Gender Roles Framework or Gender
analysis framework was developed by the Harvard Institute for International Development in
1985 in collaboration with the WID office of USAID. This approach is based on the WID
efficiency approach.( Remember you looked at his approach in the preceding unit).
It is one of the earliest gender analysis and planning frameworks. The framework is a useful
data gathering tool that charts and organizes information and can be adapted to many
situations.
Features
The framework is originally outlined in Overholt, Anderson, Cloud and Austin (1984).The
framework consist of a matrix for collecting data at the micro (community and household)
level. It has four interrelated components which are explained as follows:
Tool 1: the Activity Profile

The activity profile answers the question „who does what‟ and identifies all relevant
productive and reproductive tasks. For example a daily activity profile analyses different
roles and responsibilities of women and men based on description of their daily tasks
according to gender and age. You may also specify the percentage of time allocated to each
activity, whether it is carried out seasonally or daily and the location of the activity. The
following activity will assist you to use the activity profile in the table below:
Example of Harvard tool: The activity profile( adapted from March et al 1999)
Activities Female Male Time

Women, girls Men, boys
Productive
Activity 1
Activity 2
Activity 3
Activity 4
Reproductive
Activity 1
Activity 2
Activity 3
Activity 4
Community linked role
Activity 1
Activity 2
Activity 3
Activity 4

Tool 2: Access and Control – Resources and Benefits
The access and control profile allows for detailed listing of the resources available to people
to carry out the tasks identified in the activity profile. It identifies whether it is women or
men who have access to resources, who control their use and who controls the benefits that
arise from their use (household or community level). March et al (1999:34) say
“…access simply means that you are able to use a resource, but this says nothing
about whether you have control over it”.
For example, women may have access to land but little influence or control over which issues
to do with the land are discussed. The person who controls a resource is the one ultimately
able to make decisions about its use and whether it can be sold. For example, in rural
patriarchal Zimbabwe the land is controlled by the males and most women only have access
to it. Access to income does not always lead to increased control of assets within the
household, or to greater say in decision making in the household or wider society. Below is a
table showing access and control of resources and benefits by women and men.
Example of Harvard tool 2: access & control profile
Control Control Access Access

women men women Men
Resources
Land/ property (include all
significant types of assets)
Employment (formal &
informal)l
Money & credit
Skills & technology (access to

&control over acquired skills
&technical facilities)
Education & training
Benefits
Tool 3: influencing Factors
The influencing factors allow you to chart the differences in the gender division of labor,
access and control as listed in tools 1 and 2. By identifying constraints you will be able to
look for opportunities which will facilitate a more equal sharing of resources and more
involvement of women in development, projects and programs. It also helps to identify past
and present influences and can give an indication of future trends. The identification of
external constraints and opportunities assist you to anticipate what inputs you would need to

make the intervention successful. The following table identifies some of the influencing
factors, possible constraints and opportunities:
Table 4. Influencing factors
Influencing factors Constraints Opportunities

Cultural Early marriage, Lobbying women‟s
polygamy, poverty groups, legal
parameters
Educational Institutional structures, Legal interventions
poverty, stereotypes, and acts, sponsorship
lack of mobility and and aid from agencies,
access, discrimination government priorities
Economic Lack of political will, Financial assistance,
lack of funding, world external funding,
recession political will
Environmental Institutional structures, Lobbying women‟s
legal parameters, lack groups, external
of mobility, funding
community norms
Religious beliefs Stereotypes, Change in mindset
discrimination
Other
Tool 4: The Project Cycle Analysis
The project cycle is the fourth tool of the analysis framework. This consists of a series of
questions which are designed to assist you to examine a project proposal or an area of
intervention from a gender perspective, using gender disaggregated data and capturing the
different effects of social change on women and men (March et al, 1999). A number of key
questions are asked at each stage of the project cycle: identification, design, implementation
and evaluation.
Uses of the framework

 It is best suited for project planning rather than program or policy planning.
 As a gender –neutral entry point when raising gender issues with constituents
resistant to considering gender relations and power dynamics.
 For baseline data collection.
 In conjunction with Moser‟s framework drawn on the idea of strategic gender needs.
Strengths of the Harvard framework

 It is practical and hands on.
 Once data have been collected, it gives a clear picture of who does what, when and
with what resources. It makes women‟s role and work visible.

 It distinguishes between access and control over resources.
 It can easily be adapted to a variety of situations and settings.
 It is relatively non-threatening as it relies on facts only.
Potential Limitations
 It does not delineate power relations or decision making processes. It offers little
guidance on changing existing gender inequalities. It tends to result in gender- neutral
or gender specific interventions, rather than those that can transform existing gender
relations.
 It tends to oversimplify, based on the tick the boxes approach to data collection and
ignores complexities in the community which includes networks and kinships. You
only need to look at the dynamics of the Shona kinship ties.
 It is basically top- down planning tool and excludes women and men own analysis of
their situation
 It ignores underlying inequalities such as class, ethnicity and race, encouraging an
erroneous view of women and men as homogeneous categories.
 It emphasizes separation of activities and resources based on age, sex ignoring
connections and cooperative relations across these categories.
 The profile yields a somewhat static view of the community, makes no reference to
changes over time in gender relations.(adapted from Training Workshop and trainers
in Women, Gender and Development, June 9-21, 19996)
 It can encourage a simplistic yes/no approach by asking whether or not women have
access and control to resources. However, women‟s experiences are a more complex
reality, for example, a women‟s may have access to some village land, and have
partial control in that they can decide what crops to grow and how. It may be left to
elders to decide which plot to give the women. Looking simply at access and control
can also hide the bargaining processes which take place in accessing the pieces of
land (March et al 1999).
Moser’s Gender Planning Framework (the GAD approach)

Origins
This approach challenged traditional assumptions towards development work which
encouraged treating women‟s issues as separate concerns, GAD approach argued for an
integrated gender- planning perspective. It was developed in the early 1980‟s at University of
London, UK by Caroline Moser with Caren Levy. Moser (1993: 87) distinguishes gender
planning from traditional planning methods and says,
First, (gender planning) is both political and technical in nature. Second, it assumes
conflict in the planning process. Third, it characterizes planning debate
According to Moser, women as a group have their own particular needs that differ from those
of men as a whole. These needs are determined by the gender roles they perform. GAD
brought women to deliberate on women‟s issues and allows for discussion by both men and
women about their relations and calls for transformation of relationships and structure which
promote gender inequity. As a result it makes visible differences due to class, race, age,
ethnicity, disability and sexual orientation.

Features
The framework has three concepts:
 Women‟ s triple role
 Practical and strategic gender needs
 Categories of WID/GAD policy approaches.
Moser tool 1: Gender Roles Identification

This tool includes making visible the gender visible the gender division of labor. It can be
carried out by mapping all the activities of women and men in the household over a 24 hour
period. A triple role for low income women is identified by Moser, productive, reproductive
and community management roles:
Reproductive work
These are activities and tasks that involve the care for the household and community. These
include the care and education of children, fuel and water collection, food processing and
preparation, healthcare, housing and housekeeping. For most low income or rural
communities these activities are labor intensive, time consuming and is usually the
responsibility of girls and women.
Productive work
These are activities and tasks which involve the production of goods and services for
consumption or for sale on the market for example, crop and livestock production, formal
employment, self employment and marketing. Women and men can be engaged in productive
but their functions and responsibilities differ in most cases (March et al 1999). Women carry
visible and less valued than that of men.
Community management roles

These are activities and tasks that involve the collective organization of services and social
events for example ceremonies, community development activities, church services, funerals,
local political activities and resources used by everyone such as water, heath care and
education. Most of this work is carried out on a voluntary basis and is an important aspect for
the community‟s spiritual and cultural development. Both women and men engage in
community activities, though a gender division of labor prevails here. Moser divides
community into work into two different categories namely, unpaid and monetary rewards for
work done.
For the community roles and activities women are unpaid and such work is carried out during
women‟s „free time‟ (March, 1999). On the other hand, men‟s involvement in such activities
like politics brings in monetary rewards and benefits through improved status and power.
“Moser‟s framework recognizes that women perform reproductive, community management
activities alongside productive, it makes visible work that tends to be invisible” (March,
1999:57). It is therefore necessary to use the triple role analysis in a planning framework as
any development intervention in one area of work will affect activities performed in the other
two areas. For example, women‟s reproductive workload can prevent them from participating
in development projects or if they do participate they may spend less time on other tasks.

Moser tool 2: gender needs assessment
Moser distinguishes two types of gender needs practical gender needs and strategic gender
interests. Women and men can easily identify these as they often relate to living conditions.
Women may identify safe drinking water, food, healthcare, cash income as immediate
interests/ needs that they must meet. These needs are not specifically women‟s needs but the
whole family‟s needs, yet often women identify them as theirs because it is their
responsibility to families‟ needs. Addressing practical gender needs improve women‟s lives
but do not challenge the prevailing forms of subordination.
For Moser strategic gender interests are the needs that would enable women to transform the
existing imbalances of power between women and men. A strategic gender interest begins
with the assumption that women are subordinate to men as a consequence of social and
institutional discrimination against women. Addressing women‟s strategic position has to do
with dismantling the whole spectrum of which women‟s subordination is rooted. Strategic
gender needs vary in particular contexts and dismantling these may entail delving into such
issues as legal rights, discrimination, demanding equality in political, cultural and economic
spheres, domestic violence and equal pay. According to March et al (1999:58) “meeting
strategic gender needs helps women to achieve greater equality and challenges their
subordinate position, including their role in society”.
Moser tool 3: disaggregating control of resources and decision making within the
household
This tool asks the questions: who controls what? Who decides what? How? The Harvard
access and control profile enables you to note who is likely to benefit from implementation
of a project. The Moser framework looks at who has access and control over resources
(political, social, economic etc) although most women have access to the fields as mentioned
earlier, they do not have control over produce and income. Several other factors are
responsible for shaping and changing gender relations.
Moser tool 4: balancing of roles

This relates to how women manage the balance between their productive, reproductive and
community tasks. It asks whether planned intervention will increase a woman‟s workload in
one role with consequences for her other roles.
Moser tool 5: WID/GAD policy matrix.

The WID/GAD policy matrix provides a framework for identifying or evaluating the
approaches that have been (or can) be used to address the triple role, and the practical and
strategic gender needs of women in programs projects. This therefore examines interventions
in light of WID/GAD approaches.
This examines interventions in light of WID/ GAD approaches.
Moser tool 6: involving women and gender aware organizations and planners in planning.

The aim of this tool is to ensure that practical and strategic gender needs are identified by
women ensuring that „real needs‟ as opposed to perceived needs are incorporated into the
planning process.

 For planning at all levels from policies to projects.
 In conjunction with Harvard framework
 Training in gender issues to raise awareness of women‟s subordination.
Strengths
 It moves beyond technical elements of planning
 It is easily applicable and accessible.
 It makes all the work visible and valuable to planners through concept of
triple roles.
 Distinguish between types of gender needs: those that relate to women‟s daily
lives but maintain existing gender relations (practical gender needs) and those
potentially transform existing gender subordination ( strategic gender needs).
 It challenges inequality and alerts to the possibility that not all development
projects to do with women do this.
 Moser framework helps you to think through the main policy assumptions
which are driving a particular project (Moser, 1993, March, 1999).
Limitations
 It does not mention other forms of inequality such as class, race or
ethnicity and does not examine change over time as variable. It is
static like the Harvard framework.
 Idea of gender roles obscures the notion of gender relationships and
can give a false impression of natural order and
equity.(http/www.gdrc.org/gender framework)
 Like Harvard, Moser framework emphasizes what women and men do
and resources available to them rather than focus on their
relationships, connectedness and not separateness.
 For some people the division between strategic and practical is
artificial as they argue that there is a continuum. Others argue that all
practical interventions affect women‟s power and status even when
this is not factored into the planning process or recognized by those
involved in the project (Longwe, 1994).
 It is criticized for focusing on women‟s strategic gender needs at the
expense of men who need to be taken on board.

Activity 4.6
Study the picture code of „the lie of the land‟
 Using the Moser framework, identify the needs of women and men in your
community.
 Identify the differences between the needs of women and men and categorize
them under practical and strategic needs.
 Discuss why do women do the women in the picture code say „ no we do not
work‟ and show how the community can be sensitized to appreciate the
roles of women.
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT FRAMEWORK
Sara Longwe and Robert Clarke in 1994, in Zambia developed women empowerment
framework as a response to the development workers perceived inability to understand the
issues and concerns of women in the Third World. Longwe argues that most of the
development work has concentrated on ensuring equality between women and men in various
sectors like education and employment. This has tended to leave women out of the
development process. For Longwe, “development means enabling people to take charge of
their own lives, and escape from poverty…” (March, 1999:92). The male domination of
government is preserved by women to serve male interests, where women are given most of
the work and men collect the rewards. Where men have vested interests to continue to
subordinate women its folly to expect them to realize the value of gender equality and give
women an equal share of the cake.
Features
The framework identifies five hierarchical levels in the empowering process. The extent to
which these are evident in any area of social or economic life determines the level of
women‟s empowerment. Gender and development workers use the framework to analyse
development organizations‟ degree of commitment to empowerment and equality of women
as they address/ look at the various „levels of equality‟ addressed by a particular intervention.
The levels illustrate how discussion of inequality at one level leads into discussion of
inequality at other levels. The levels are interconnected illustrating that empowerment is
found in the movement from one level to another. The process of empowerment maybe better
understood in terms of the following five levels of „women empowerment‟ framework.
Welfare

Welfare is the lowest level and looks at women‟s material welfare relative to men. At this
level one looks at whether omen have access to resources like food, income, medical care. If
an intervention is confined to this level we are talking about women being given these
benefits rather than producing / acquiring such benefits for themselves. This is zero level as
most of the interventions focus on meeting the basic needs without the wherewithal for
enlightenment and empowering process.
Access
Access has been defined as „women‟s access to factors of production on an equal footing
with male counterparts: equal access to land, labor, credit, training, marketing facilities,
public service and benefits (March, 1995). For example female farmers may improve their
production and general welfare by increased access to water, land, market, skills and
information. Women maybe „given‟ information by higher authorities or increase their own
access. If it is the latter, then there is beginning of conscientisation, of recognizing and
analyzing their own problems and taking action to solve them. For Longwe, equality of
access can be obtained by applying the principle of equality of opportunity which calls for
reforms in laws and administrative practices to rid of all forms of discrimination.
Conscientisation
Conscientisation is the next level where there is conscious understanding of the difference
between sex and gender and an awareness that gender roles are cultural and can be changed.
Empowerment means sensitizing to beliefs of traditional division of labor as God given and
recognizing that women‟s subordination is not part of natural order of things but is imposed
by discrimination. According to Paulo Freire conscientisation calls for women becoming
subjects and not objects of their own lives coupled with the belief or brief that sexual division
of labor should be fair and agreeable to both, not overtly or covertly entail the domination of
one sex by another. It is here we see the potential and strategies of improved information as
enabling process of consciousness driven by women‟ own need to understand underlying
causes of their problems and to identify strategies for action.
Participation /Mobilisation
Longwe defines this as women‟s equal participation in decision making process, policy
making, planning and administration (March, 1995). Mobilization complements
conscientisation as women come together for recognition and analyzing problems,
identification of strategies to overcome discriminatory practices and collective action to
remove these practices. They may connect with larger women‟s groups to learn about their
successes of women in similar situations.. At this level leadership is important in the
mobilization process. It is not a scenario where tokenism is at play but full involvement and
representation of the women constituency. Reflect on some of the projects in Zimbabwe
where it has been lauded that women are full participants- how have the women‟s
participation been shortchanged?
Control/ Empowerment

This calls for women‟s control over the decision making process through conscientisation
and moblilization to achieve equality of control over the factors of production and
distribution of benefits. Equality of control means a balance of control between women and
men so that neither side dominates. Women have taken action so that there is gender equality
in decision making over access to resources- women have direct access to resources no
longer wait indefinitely to be given resources at men‟s discretion for example, a widow‟s
struggle to retain her property after husband‟s death.
Women empowerment tool2: level of recognition of women’s issues
According to Longwe women‟ issues are all issues concerned with women‟s equality in any
social or economic role and involving any of the levels. An issue becomes a women‟s issue
when it looks at the relationship between women and men rather than simply women
traditional and subordinate sex- stereotyped gender roles. Women empowerment must be the
concern of both women and men and the degree which a project is defined as potentially
empowering women is defined by the extent to which it addresses women‟s issues.
Longwe postulates three different levels of recognition of women‟s issues in project design:
 Negative level: at this level, the project objectives make no
mention of women‟s issues. In some instances, women are more
likely than not left worse off than before by such a project.
 Neutral level: project objectives recognize women‟s issues, but
concerns remain that the project intervention does not leave
women worse off than before.
 Positive level: project objectives are positively concerned with
women‟s issues and with improving the position of women
relative to men.
It is used or planning, monitoring and evaluation, allowing users to question whether their
interventions have transformatory potential.
Strengths of the framework

It shows that development interventions as containing both practical and strategic elements.
It places emphasis on empowerment
It is useful to identify the gap between rhetoric and reality in interventions. It permits an
assessment of where women already have equality, and what still remains to be done.
Limitations
It is static and takes no account of how situations change over time.
It does not include other forms of inequality.
It does not examine the institutions and organizations involved.
It does not examine the macro-environment.

It looks at the relationship between women and men only in terms of equality- rather than at
the complicated system of rights, claims and responsibilities which exist between them.
Conclusion
In this unit we have looked at what is gender analysis and why we carry out gender analysis.
We have looked at three of the tools and frameworks for gender analysis. The activities and
tasks we have tackled have helped us to understand the gender differences and inequalities
that permeate most of the societies in which we live and how these differences impact on
women‟s and men‟s lives differently. Gender based analysis has also helped us to analyse the
division of labor between women, access and control over resources and benefits as well as
the different but significant needs and interests of women and men among other issues.
Gender analysis provides information which is qualitative and quantitative on gender
relations, creates understanding and awareness of existing gender issues at the level of
development workers, community researchers and planners. The following unit on gender
issues will further assist you in understanding the implications of different issues on women
and men.
GENDER ISSUES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA.
Introduction
This unit focuses on culture, religion and poverty as inter related concepts in the social
construction of gender inequality. Each concept is defined, followed by an exploration of
how the concept plays a role in creating gender inequality.
Objectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to:

 Define and explain the concepts culture, religion and poverty
 Show the extent to which each of the concepts creates gender inequality
 Suggest intervention strategies that could be instituted to mitigate gender inequalities
caused by the three gender issues.
Culture and Gender Inequality
Culture may be defined as the beliefs, values, behaviour, and material objects shared by a
particular group (Macionis, 1989). In its broadest sense, culture may be viewed as everything
that is socially learned and shared by a group of people in society.
Religion and Gender Inequality

In this section we look at religion and how it perpetuates gender inequality. From the onset,
we need to point out that religion as a concept is not only complex, but very controversial.
This is because of the nature of the subject itself and the current isms and schisms emanating
from the current trends in the heated debate about religion. We also need to appreciate that
the world in general and countries in SADC in particular, are made of different societies with
diverse societies, beliefs and religions
From the task above, we can note that the debate on religion is indeed controversial. In real
practice, it is enormously difficult to separate religion from culture as the two are intertwined
social institutions serving the same purpose in society, that of indoctrination, mental
colonization, and the creation of a docile, passive and loyal member of a given society
(Rodney, 1981)
In modern day Zimbabwe, it is difficult to discuss the issue of religion without making
reference to Christianity. This is because Zimbabwe is made up of people of diverse
background with different cultural beliefs, and the majority of them is Christians or claim to
be Christians in one way or another. This makes the discussion very controversial, for both
the reader and the writer are bound to be regarded as blasphemous, for people are going to
ask „‟ who are we to undo what God the Almighty has put in place. „We need to also
acknowledge that it is written in the Bible that „‟the fear of God[and what He has put in place
] is the beginning of wisdom.‟‟[Proverbs 1;7].It is against this background that the discussion
shall largely draw examples from the Christian perspective, although not ignoring the
traditional perspective and its controversies per se.
Haralambos and Holborn [1995] noted that, in the Bible, Original Sin in the Garden of Eden
was woman‟s. She tasted the forbidden fruit [alone, we assume], tempted Adam [in his great
God-given wisdom, we assume], and has been paying for it ever since. In Genesis 3; 16 the
Lord said, „‟ I will greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy conception; in sorrow thou shalt bring
forth children [alone, we assume], and thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule
over thee‟‟. Such is the way females are subordinated through religion in most Zimbabwean
societies and the world over
From the activity above, you may have noticed that the quotation is a „mythological
justification for the subordinate position of women in society‟ [Haralambos and Holborn,
2004; 92]. Most people might see the „reality‟ it contains of their relationship with their
spouse[s] as an accurate description of their status, that is;
1. Females are child-bearers[child-bearing machines, child-breeders, or are they?]

2 Females are mothers and housewives
3 Females do the cooking, cleaning, sewing, and washing[domestic/household chores]
4 Females take care of males and are subordinate to male authority
5 Females are largely excluded from high-status occupations and from positions of power.

The above generalizations about females have applied, and continue to be applied to most
known societies. Research in Zimbabwe and the world over has revealed that there is not,
and never has been, a society in which females do not have an inferior status to that of males.
From the discussion, it is evident that religion is one social institution, which leads to women
inferiority and the general subordination of females.
RELIGION AND THE SOCIAL REPRODUCTION OF INEQUALITY
The role of religion as a pacifier to social injustices has been hotly debated. For example, the
gap between the so-called developed and underdeveloped countries has increased by at least
twenty times over the last 150 years [Rodney, 1981]. To explain this disparity, one bourgeois
economist deliberately ignored the historical context and made everything appear God-given
about the situation and put forward the following Biblical explanation;
„ For unto everyone that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance [when others are
starving], but from him that hath not shall be taken away even that which hath[Mathew
25;29, cited in Rodney;1981;29].
The above illustrates one way in which religion may be used to reproduce and justify social
inequality. From the discussion, it may be observed that religion, like any other social
institution, serves the interests of those in power and must be seen as a mechanism to
maintain order, harmony, stability and the status quo. This scenario is clearly portrayed in
Rodney‟s [1981] assertion that the church‟s role is primarily to preserve discrimination and
social inequality by stressing humility, docility and acceptance. Rodney [1981] argues that
during the days of slavery, the church was brought in on condition that it would not excite
African slaves with doctrines of equality before God. In those days slaves were taught to sing
„All things were bright and beautiful, and that the slave master was to be accepted as God‟s
work just like the slave living in a miserable hovel and working 20 hours a day under the
whip. Similarly, in colonial Africa churches could be relied upon to preach turning the other
cheek in the face of exploitation, and they drove home the message that everything would be
right in the next world, what Lenin implied when he commented that „religion is the opium
of the poor.‟ All this is evidence that religion may be used to maintain social inequality.
Commenting on the status of females during the height of colonial rule in Africa, Rodney
[1981] noted that, what happened to African women under colonialism is that the social,
religious, and political privileges and rights disappeared, while the economic exploitation
continued and was often intensified. It was intensified because the division of labour
according to sex was frequently disrupted. Traditionally, African men did the heavy labour of
felling trees, clearing land, etc. When they were required to leave their farms to seek
employment, women remained over-burdened with every task necessary for the survival of
themselves,the children and even the man as far as foodstuffs were concerned. Since men
entered the money sector more easily and in large numbers than women, women‟s work
became greatly inferior to that of men with the new value system of colonialism: men‟s work
was „modern‟ and women‟s work „traditional‟ and
„ Backward‟ (Rodney, 1981).

The above discussion has tried to put religion in the gender analysis perspective. Next let‟s
try to explore how religion serves to maintain and perpetuate gender inequality. First the
definition of religion shall be given.
What is religion?
Like the family, the religious institution is exceedingly complex. Chalfant and Labeff (1988)
view religion as a social institution concerned with the ultimate meaning of life with the
answers to questions that are unanswerable by natural means, such as death, illness tragedy,
or the feeling of powerlessness. In other words religious beliefs and practices provide seem
to answers and consolation when we encounter experiences we do not recognize and
questions we cannot answer. You can imagine the prayers we have made (of course in
privacy) before a dreaded examination or job interview or upon the death of a loved one.
Religion and Gender Inequality
Macionis (1989), Chalfant and Labeff (1988) have all observed that religion plays a
significant part in the perpetuation of gender inequality. Christianity in particular has been a
major force in the support of the traditional female roles. It has been noted that the Old and
New Testament both reveal support for the traditional, subservient role of women (Rodney
1981). In the Old Testament, for example women are frequently defined as the property of
males (Driver cited in Chalfant and Labeff 1988). One of the Ten Commandments forbids
coveting the wife of a neighbour in the same way that it forbids coveting the other property
of a neighbour.In this particular case, women are viewed as the private property of men.
The subordinate position of women in society is evident in passages from many of the sacred
writings of major world religious. Macionis (1989) observed that the Koran- the sacred text
of Islam- asserts that males are to have social dominance over women.
“Men are in charge of women…hence good women are obedient ….As for those
rebelliousness you fear, admonish them, banish them from your bed, and scourage them
(Kaufman, cited in Macionis, 1989: 432).
Christianity, which is the dominant religion in Zimbabwe, also supports patriarchy. Although
Mary the mother of Jesus is highly revered within Christianity, the New Testament contains
the following passages.
“A man…is the image and glory of God; but woman is the glory of man. For man was not
made from woman, but woman from man. Neither was man created for woman, but woman
for man ( 1 Corinthians 11: 7-9) This clearly illustrates that religion portrays females as not
only subordinate to males but rather as sex objects meant whose sole purpose is to satiate the
appetite and pleasure of males. Females therefore are view

ed as second class citizens, not only to be dominated by males, but to please them as well..
This is further evidenced by the following passage:
„As in all churches of the saints, the women should keep silence in the churches. For they are
not permitted to speak, but should be subordinate, as even the law says. If there is anything
they desire to know let them ask their husbands at home. For it is shameful for a woman to
speak in church.‟(1 Corinthians 14:33-35).
It can be noted from the above passage that the public sphere is for males, while females are
destined for the private sphere, and religious sympathizers are quick to subtly justify
patriarchy by arguing that God‟s word should not be questioned. Such thinking subsequently
maintains the status-quo as females are confined to their traditional feminine roles. This is
further elaborated in the following passage:
„Wives, be subject to your husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife
as Christ is the head of the church…as the church is subject to Christ, so let wives also be
subject in everything to their husbands‟ (Ephesians 5: 22-24).
It is evident from the ongoing discussion that religion is an integral social institution in the
construction and perpetuation of gender stereotypes and inequalities. This is revealed in the
following passage:
„A capable wife who can find? She is far more precious than jewels. The heart of her
husband trusts in her… She does him good, and not harm, all the days of her life… and
works with willing hands… She brings food… she rises while it is still night and provide
food for her household‟ (Proverbs 31:10-15).
The above passage clearly illustrates females‟ subordinate position and the reproductive roles
they undertake in the home and the wider society. .Maybe this explains why females at
whatever age wake up earlier than their male counterparts, especially in the Zimbabwean
context. By the time males and other children wake up , they are certain to find their bathing
water warm and their food ready on the table. And to justify that the public sphere is for
males, consider the following passage:
„Her husband is known in the city gates, taking his seat among the elders of the land‟
(Proverbs 31:23).
Such is the situation in most Zimbabwean families house holds w here the females are
confined to their traditional reproductive roles in the private sphere, and males are under
perpetual societal pressure to participate in the public sphere

CONCLUSION
This part of the unit has attempted to highlight the role played by religion in not only
constructing but maintaining gender inequality.
GENDER AND THE WORK PLACE
INTRODUCTION
Sex stratification has had mostly negative effects for women, the work world remains
designed for men and tends to benefit men (LaBeff, 1988).Henceforth, in this section we
look at gender inequality at the workplace. Although women have moved into the paid labour
force in large numbers in Zimbabwe, they continue to experience a wide range of
discriminatory practices.
From the activity above, you may have realized that in spite of the major strides made to
bring about gender harmony at the work place in Zimbabwe, women still experience various
prejudices. These range from income inequality to employers unwillingness to hire them or
unable to believe that they are capable. Women continue to shoulder the overload of
performing demanding jobs on top of being wives and mothers. They continue to struggle to
provide adequate economic support as single parents, and they face sexual harassment on the
job.
Of these problems, the issue of income inequality has received greater attention. Because
women predominate in low-paying clerical and service jobs and men in the higher-paying
positions in business and professions, men continue to earn much more than women. Even
within the same occupation, the average salary of women is always lower than the average
salary for men (Macionis,1989).
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE INCOME DISPARITY BETWEEN MALES

AND FEMALES
From the activity, it maybe observed that several factors are responsible for the income
disparity between the two sexes. As you may have established, males and females tend to
hold different occupations, and this fact strongly benefits men. Most women work in low-
paying , dead-end service jobs ,such as waitressing and clerical positions. Men on the other
hand , dominate high-paying managerial jobs such as Company Secretary, Executive, or
Director. Less than one-forth of all professional, managerial, and technical jobs are held by
women, and most of these are in school-teaching (Richardson,1981).
Women in traditionally masculine professionals are often referred to in terms of their gender:
for example, lady lawyer, female physician- just as men in traditionally feminine jobs are
referred to in terms of their gender-E.G.: male nurse. It has also been noted that women are
rarely found in higher –paying blue-collar jobs such as carpentry, masonry, and other crafts.
The majority of women in Zimbabwe are employed in traditionally feminine occupations
such as secretary (not Permanent Secretary), nurse, receptionist, typist, and office orderly.
The salaries for such jobs are pathetically low in Zimbabwe and are far much lower than
masculine jobs of doctor, dentist, and professor.etc. A critical analysis of the situation reveals
that even in the same occupation, women on average do not make as much as men
One major reason to this scenario is that male workers have somewhat better educational
qualifications than their female counterparts. In short, the higher the educational
qualifications, the closer women come to making as much as men. But despite this
observation, the gap still remains in every occupational field.
As you may have observed, this income gap may be partially explained by several factors.
First, women tend to be newer entrants into fields such as law, medicine and lecturing, and
have yet to reach positions of seniority and better pay. Second, some women work on an
intermittent basis, shaping their jobs or careers to fit with their husbands‟ jobs and with
bearing and rearing children. Some women drop out of the labour force while their children
are young: when they go back to work, they will have lost several months or years that would
have gone towards advancement and have lost seniority to others younger than them. Third,
men are more likely than women to have jobs that permit overtime and part- time work,
which further increases their income.
Finally, the issue of discrimination on the part of employers and institutions cannot be over-
looked. Women may be discriminated against in the hiring phase by being offered lower –
level jobs than equally qualified men are offered. Moreover, women maybe passed over for
promotion a number of times in favour of men who may better suit the traditional image of
the business or occupation. Employers may feel that women are less able and therefore are
not willing to pay them higher salaries. Although laws have been passed to make such forms
of discrimination illegal, those laws are often not rigorously enforced. In most cases, the
women involved must take the time and spend money for a lawsuit before a company is
forced to change informal practices of sex discrimination.
As women move into traditionally masculine jobs, they also face potential resentment for
upsetting the status-quo, or for contradicting accepted notions regarding gender role
stereotypes. In the ZRP\ZNA EG; men may react to women entering patrol with resentment
and hostility. The man may fear that they are in more physical danger when working with a
female partner or when a female partner responds as a back-up to a crisis situation. Martin
(1980) found that women police/ army officers are pressured into feeling a sense of
inferiority by a variety of verbal and non-verbal cues, including phrases used to describe
them, joking, gossip, traditional gender role etiquette, and sexual harassment. Such negative
male reactions act as barriers to full acceptance and co-operation, and are perhaps the most
serious problems faced by female officers in particular and female workers in general.

Conclusion
The experience of women in the paid labour force is but one instance of our society‟s overall
devaluation of women. Schur (1984) suggests that women experience systematic
inferiorisation in society, which then becomes self-fulfilling and self-perpetuating. However,
despite the obstacles created by sex stereotypes at the work place, women have made
considerable gains in the Zimbabwean society. Of late we have seen the first woman in the
Zimbabwean Presidium, the first women officer cadets , the first women Vice Chancellors,
Permanent Secretaries, ministers,etc, but still, more needs to be done to see w omen in
decision- making positions in companies, organizations and professions.
5.5.0 GENDER AND HIV/AIDS
5.5.1 INTRODUCTION
AIDS/HIV has , in a period of just one and a half decades, reached unprecedented crisis
levels in Zimbabwe. It is estimated that up to 25% of people aged between 15 and 49 years
are infected with HIV in Zimbabwe(GOZ,1999). This section therefore examines the issue of
HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe with particular reference to women and children , as they are the
most vulnerable in the Zimbabwean society due to a number of reasons some of which are
the subject of this discussion.
Gender analysis suggests that slightly more males than females are infected with HIV/AIDS
in Zimbabwe(UNICEF,1994). However , the current situation shows that women and girls
are disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe(UNICEF,2003). According to
UNIAIDS(2004), nearly 50% of the 38 million people living with HIV /AIDS globally are
females. On average, there are 13 women living with HIV/AIDS for every 10
men(UNICEF,1994), and the gap continues to grow. In most countries, women are being
infected with HIV/AIDS at earlier ages than men. Recent studies show that there are on
average 36 young women living with HIV/AIDS for every 10 young men(UNAIDS,2004).
.
Activity 5.25
(1)What makes women more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection in your country?
(11) What measures may be put in place to alleviate the problem?
5.5.2. WHY WOMEN ARE MORE VULNERABLE HIV/AIDS
5.5.2.1 Biological vulnerability

According to UNICEF (1994), women can far more easily become infected through
penetrative sex than men, and vaginal and/or anal sex is much more risky than other modes.
To explain this situation, Gender links and the AIDS Law Project (2004) came up with the
following reasons;

 The vagina and anus have larger areas of exposed and sensitive skin
 The virus can survive for longer in the vagina and the anus than on the surface of the
penis
 There is a higher viral load of HIV/AIDS in the semen than there is in the fluids of
the vagina or anus
 The vaginal and anal walls are much more likely to be ruptured during vaginal or
anal sex, especially if the sex is violent or coercive or when a woman is very young
and the cervix is not yet fully developed. Cuts, scrapes, and bruises allow easy
access for the HIV/AIDS VIRUS into the blood stream.
5.2.2.2 Socio-Economic Status
In Zimbabwe, AIDS appears to be present among the professional elite and could result in
severe disruption in administrative and economic activities. At the same time , as a virus that
thrives on poverty ( UNICEF,1994 ), HIV/AIDS is likely to advance to its terminal stage
fastest among the most disadvantaged economic groups who have a poor nutritional status
and little access to social services such as health and education . With fewer opportunities in
the formal and informal sectors, more and more women may resort to selling sex for an
income, putting them at greater risk of infection. This situation is particularly rampant among
female university students in Zimbabwe.
ACTIVITY 5.18
(1)Who is more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS male or female students in Zimbabwean
universities?
(11) What could be done to reduce their vulnerability?
UNAIDS(2004) FOUND OUT THAT;
 Women may be unable to negotiate safer sex or the use of condoms. Marriage does
not protect women from HIV/AIDS infection because more than four-fifth s of new
infections in women result from their husbands or primary partners.
 Women in Zimbabwe are mostly economically dependent on their husbands‟ or
partners and fear rejection and/or violence if they insist on condom use
 Poverty undermines women‟s opportunities to seek the knowledge , power or time to
be concerned about safer sex
 Women are expected to bear children to demonstrate their fertility and fulfill their
roles as mothers
 Because women are traditionally perceived as care-givers the „burden‟ of care that the
HIV/AIDS epidemic has created more frequently falls to women than men
 Women and young girls may use sex as a commodity in exchange of goods , services
, money, accommodation or even status. This situation is rampant in Zimbabwean
universities and tertiary colleges , more often than not with older men.

ACTIVITY 5.19
(1) What measures may be adopted by the Zimbabwean Government to curb the rise of
HIV/AIDS infection in general, and among female students in tertiary colleges?
CONCLUSION
The issue of HIV/AIDS vis-a- vis gender equality needs serious consideration from all
stakeholders and the Government if gender equality is to be a reality rather than an elusive
myth in Zimbabwe. This calls for focused attention on developmental policies and processes
with a „human face‟ if we are to achieve the objectives of the Zimbabwe National Gender
Policy and curb the increasing rise of HIV/AIDS infection .
POVERTY AND GENDER
INTRODUCTION
This part of the unit looks at poverty in relation to gender issues in Zimbabwe. We begin by
looking at the various dimensions of poverty.
WHAT IS POVERTY?
Defining poverty is not an easy task. With the constantly changing features of the modern
economy as well as the conceptions of what is necessary and what is not in modern life, it is
difficult to establish who is considered poor.
Although poverty always signifies deprivation(Brym,1995), the concept is commonly used in

two different ways, relative poverty and absolute poverty. According to Haralambos and
Holborn (2004), relative poverty refers to a state of deprivation of social resources in
relation to some standard of greater privilege.
ACTIVITY 5.12
(1) In Zimbabwe, is there equal access to social resources such as land, capital and
technology?
(2) What can be done to ensure that equal access to resources is achieved?
(3) Do men and women access resources equally in Zimbabwe?
(4) What measures may be implemented to achieve equal access to resources between the
two sexes in Zimbabwe?

From the exercise above it may be noted that there are disparities in accessing social
resources in Zimbabwe based on race, ethnicity, social class and gender. This implies
deprivation of vital resources useful for social mobility. A much more serious matter is
absolute poverty, which means a state of deprivation of social resources that is life-
threatening (Haralambos and Holborn,2004). Being in a state of absolute poverty is not a
matter of comparing oneself with others, rather, it means that survival itself is in doubt.
Judging by the current Zimbabwean situation, most families , both urban and rural fall into
this category of poverty, where they survive on either two meals, or worse still on one , that
is ,if it is there at all.
ACTIVITY 5.13
(1) What constitutes poverty in Zimbabwe?

(2) How can levels of poverty be reduced in Zimbabwe
POVERTY AND GENDER
Poverty does not affect males and females equally. Consequently, growing attention has been
directed towards the ferminisation of poverty which means „ a trend by which females
represent an increasing proportion of the poor (Macionis,1989:273).
ACTIVITY 5.14.
(1) Is the above quotation a true reflection of the situation in Zimbabwe?

(2) What could be the possible reasons for this situation?
(3) Suggest possible solutions to alleviate the situation.
From the activity above, we may notice that the majority of poor Zimbabweans are females.
The problem of poverty is most serious for women who are the heads of house holds
(UNICEF,1994). They often have the financial burden of raising children, and if working, the
majority typically hold low-paying jobs. This leaves them vulnerable to prostitution as they
struggle to make ends meet.
ACTIVITY 5.15
(3)
(1) What are the major causes of prostitution in Zimbabwe/

(2) Who is more vulnerable to prostitution in Zimbabwe ,males or females?
(3) What could be the possible reasons for this?

Zimbabwe has experienced serious macro-economies instability with limited foreign
exchange, rising inflation and negative growth since 2000 (UNICEF 2003). This scenario has
led to increased poverty among many Zimbabwean households increasing poverty continues
to seriously undermine the country‟s ability to ensure adequate access to quality basic
services that include health and education. This has resulted in the increased vulnerability of
children and females as they find themselves excluded fro growth and development.
Consequently because of poverty, some females married or not, find themselves as small
houses as they struggle for survival. The most hard hit are children of the poor particularly
the girl child. These depend on the resource allocation decisions of adults who often cannot
properly feed and clothe themselves in the current Zimbabwean context. According to
UNICEF 2003, children of unmarried mothers especially unmarried adolescent mothers may
be particularly disadvantaged because of their mothers‟ immaturity, poor social position and
educational deficiencies. Poor children especially girls are disadvantaged by the lack of
continuity as they often assume the adult roles of caring for younger siblings and working
including engaging in child labour and commercial sex thereby exposing themselves to
HIV/AIDS.
The Impact of Poverty

Poverty has had negative effects on the Zimbabwean society, with a profound impact on
women who must see that their families are fed. The inflationary pressures and high cost of
basic commodities has torn many families apart. Stunting chronic under- nutrition has been
on the increase. A deficiency and anaemia have remained a perennial problem with about
31% of women of child-bearing age affected (UNICEF, 2003). The rise in hospital and
medical fees has affected access to health-seeking status for children and women in
Zimbabwe. The effects of HIV/AIDS and the related demands on the health sector have
compounded the situation.
The effects of poor or inadequate access to quality basic social services are wide-ranging.
Indications are that school enrolment and retention of teachers and medical experts have
declined over the last couple of years, particularly because of the increase in poverty and
effects of fees and other related costs. Such a situation makes the poor females vulnerable to
abuse.
CONCLUSION
Unequal access to socio-economic resources is a major cause of poverty in Zimbabwe.

Inequality has continued to be severe particularly in relation to income, access to credit, land
and other vital productive assets (UNICEF, 2003).Equally significant as a cause of poverty
has been the HIV/AIDS pandemic. HIV/AIDS has undermined most families‟ ability to
secure stable incomes and expand their asset bases. The relationship between poverty and
HIV/AIDS is controversial and debatable, but poverty causes people, especially young
women to engage in sexual activities to alleviate their financial problems. Poverty remains a
serious impediment to gender equity and equality, and it remains the greatest challenge the

Government and stake holders need to address if equality between the two sexes is to be
achieved in Zimba
UNIT 6 : GENDER ISSUES IN EDUCATION IN ZIMBABWE
Tenson Tawanda Mugodzwa
Discussion Questions
1. Critically examine “the part played by schooling in the socialization of young girls and
thus in determining their occupational choices and eventual level of achievements”
(Mahoney: 1985:11)
- Particular attention should be given to aspects of the hidden curriculum, e.g. the
portrayal of women in textbooks, the classroom/school climate/environment,
curricular vis-à-vis teacher attitudes and expectations, and career choice.
2. Schools are partriarchal institutions, which have served, and continue to save to
perpetuate women‟s subordinate position in society” (Lemmer; 1993;7) . Critically
assess the validity of this statement.
3. Assess the role played by the hidden curriculum in the creation and perpetuation of
gender stereotypes and gender inequality, in Zimbabwe educational institutions.
6.o ITNRODUCTION
 In all societies and at all times the education of girls and women has been considered
less important and has assumed a different form from the education of boys and men
(Gilbert and Taylor, 1994).

 Social scientists have of late begun to reappraise the role played by the school in
determining the status and life outcomes of women.
 It has now become pertinent to analyse the way in which educational practices and
processes shape women‟s social and educational inequality. This involves examining
the process of education and activities in schools rather than the outcome of that
education. In this unit, we look at gender issues in education in Zimbabwe ,focusing
on how females are discriminated in the various subtle ways in the school system.

6.1 OBJECTIVES
BY THE END OF THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
 Explain giving examples, the various ways in which the girl child is
discriminated against in the school system.
 Discuss the role played by the hidden curriculum in the social reproduction of
gender inequality in Zimbabwe.
 Examine the part played by schooling in socializing the girl child and thus
determine her occupational choices and eventual achievement.
 Suggest some recommendations towards a gender responsive environment in
schools in Zimbabwe

6.2 The school as an agent of socialization
 The school is seen as a formal agent of gender role socialization (Dekker and
Lemmer,1993). Gender role socialization refers to the means whereby social
expectations regarding gender – appropriate characteristics are conveyed to the child.
These expectations are usually based on stereotyped beliefs. Gilbert and Taylor
(1994) conclude that gender role socialization has a dual significance for children ;

i. It provides them with a model for present behaviour , and
ii. It prepares them for adult life.
 Gilbert and Taylor (1994) also noted that differential gender role socialization for
boys and girls occurs largely through the processes of formal schooling and the
effects thereof are best discerned in,;
i. unequal educational outcomes e.g. the different patterns of achievement

ii. aspiration and self evaluation shown by males and females.
ACTIVITY 6.1
What reasons may be used to explain the usually unequal educational outcomes between
boys and girls in Zimbabwe? Suggest solutions to alleviate the unequal outcomes.
The Curriculum
The school transmits culture to its learners in the form of knowledge and skills which
together with aims of the school and education system as a whole, are detailed in the official
curriculum.
 The school curriculum operates on two levels,
i. intentional and official and

ii. unintentional and unexamined, which is called the hidden
curriculum.
 While it is possible that the transmission of culture which takes place in schools via
the curriculum can improve the life chances of the disadvantaged, it can also
perpetuate existing class, racial and gender divisions in society (Haralambos and

Holborn, 2004). In this respect the hidden curriculum is recognized as a potent agent
in communicating gender appropriate behaviour
Toys
Toys are an important means of informal learning, particularly during the pre-primary phase
of schooling. Research findings show that “masculine toys were found to be more varied,
complex, active and social and encouraged spatial, mathematical and scientific skills whereas
feminine toys were simpler, and focused on passive and solitary activity” (Lemmer;
1993;10). Kelly (1981:1981) and Samuel (1981) similarly found that toys which orientate a
child to mathematics and science are marketed virtually exclusively for boys.
Learning and Resource materials
A major source of unintentional teaching and learning about gender roles takes place through
educational materials and media. According to Gilbert and Taylor (1991) textbooks present
limited portrayals of women and girls and although attempts have since been made to reverse
this trend, more recently published school textbooks are still narrow in their representation of
gender roles.
Textbooks
Preschool and primary school textbooks especially basic reading books, provide children
with models against which they measure their own parents and also provide models of
acceptable behaviour. Mostly males are portrayed in a variety of occupations whereas
female occupations are confined either to FANTASY ROLES, such as witch and princess, or
to a narrow list of traditional female roles, such as housewife, mother and nurse. A more
recent publishing date does not necessarily signify an end to gender stereotyping.

- Secondary school textbooks have also been criticized for their unbalanced
portrayal of women. The main charge against history books is that women, their
social history and their achievements are conspicuous by their absence (Lemmer,
1987).
- Although Mathematics and Science are traditionally considered to be impersonal
and even neutral subjects, analyses of textbooks used in schools have shown a
qualitative and quantitative difference in their portrayal of men and women.
Women are associated with stereotyped occupations, illustrations favour males,
books frequently refer to the students exclusively as “he” and texts suggest that
Science and Mathematics represent a male preserve (Killy, 1981). Moreover,
according to Bazler and Simonis (1992), editions of science texts published in the
1980s show no significant improvement in the portrayal of women.
Teachers
Teacher attitudes, teacher expectations and the positions occupied by male and female
teachers within the school hierarchy are important components of the hidden curriculum and
contribute to the way in which children perceive themselves.
Teacher Expectations
Teacher expectations of pupils‟ performance and abilities can operate as a self fulfilling
prophecy within the classroom, i.e. there is a tendency for the performance of the pupil to
conform with the expectations prescribed by the teacher.

 Unspoken assumptions about gender roles and the attitudes towards women
maintained by teachers have a potent influence on the gender role socialization of
male and female pupils. Research suggests that in spite of the professed egalitarian
ideals of some teachers, educators often act according to sub-conscious prejudices in
the classroom (Stanworth, 1983). Consider the following aspects as illustration;
Behaviour
Teachers generally consider girls to be appreciative, calm, cooperative and sensitive but less
independent, creative and autonomous than boys in the classroom. Pupils who do not
measure up to the teacher‟s gender expectations are considered deviant. Teachers also
cherish implicit expectations about the social roles that males and females should play both
in the classroom and in adult life e.g. teachers expect girls to enter subordinate occupations
and to have their careers disrupted by marriage and they communicate these expectations to
pupils.
Achievements
Teachers believe boys to be more logical and quicker to grasp concepts; girls to be neater and
more precise at written work. This is clearly illustrated by Spender‟s (1982) study in which
teachers on five occasions and in three countries were issued report cards which sometimes
featured the name of a boy and sometimes featured the name of a boy and sometimes the
name of a girl. Teachers were asked to make recommendations about the future of the
children on the basis of identical information on the reports. In all cases teacher expectations
of boys wee more varied, challenging and prestigious and more financially rewarding.
Teacher - Pupil interaction

It has been noted that teachers treat children according to expected gender roles in the
classroom e.g.
 Talk – teachers spend about two thirds more time talking to boys, who are in turn
allowed about two thirds of pupil talk (Spender, 1982). Boys receive significantly
more assistance from teachers as a result of this increased verbal communication.
 Waiting – teachers encourage girls to seek attention by conventional methods e.g.
raising of hands whereas boys are more likely to make verbal requests which usually
result in more immediate to response. Teachers ignore girls for longer, periods of
time, boys obtain attention by rowdy a social behaviour, girls are addressed
collectively, boys by individual names (Mahoney, 1982).
 Identity – Teachers tend to know more personal detail about the boys they teach than
about the girls. Girls are an anonymous group, “faceless bunch” about when little
personal detail is known (Stanworth; 1983:45)
 Reward and Punishment – children‟s self esteem is not only shaped by the quantity of
teacher attention they get but also by the quality of that attention. Rewards and
punishment meted out within the classroom differ for boys and girls and thus also
reinforce gender role expectations. Boys are regarded as aggressive unruly but
essentially intelligent and are given more attention in the form of rewards and even
punishment. Boys‟ failures are seen as the result of a lack of effort rather than lack
of skill (Safilios – Rothschild, 1982). Girls are more often rewarded for conforming
behaviour and are encouraged to be compliant but not autonomous.
Effects of biased interaction
The overall effect of biased interaction in the classroom is that girls experience the inferior
status afforded to them within the intimate sphere of the classroom daily. It can be
concluded that this does not constitute the kind of climate in which confidence and a sense of
personal worth is inspired. Sadker and Sadker concluded that day to day life in classrooms

has remained fundamentally unchanged with boys receiving overall preferential treatment
during formal education, despite the implementation of various equity programmes.
Teachers as Models
Measor and Sikes (1992) have observed that teachers provide important role models for
children, in this regard, concern has been expressed by educators about the under-
representation of women in positions of leadership in the education system and the
identification of male and female teachers with specific age groups.
 Most school teachers worldwide are female, with the greatest concentration of women
in pre-primary and primary school teaching. In contrast, women are under
represented in headships and other positions of leadership. This reinforces the
perception that women teach and men control. The employment of women teachers
is accompanied by overt and covert discrimination in terms of promotion and tenure
practices. Global patterns also show that women teachers tend to be under
represented in certain subjects such as Mathematics and Science and concentrated in
stereotyped women‟s fields, i.e. the care of young children and teaching so called
girls‟ subjects such as Home Economics, Languages and the Humanities.
 Occupational choices are made from primary school onwards and the school assists
directly and indirectly in this process. Literature on the pattern of job selection and
career choice of adolescent girls suggests that the majority indeed “drift into a career
or job” (Dobie, 1993:149) with parents and teachers taking a far more passive role
when advising girls than when advising boys. The career choice of girls is further
complicated by issues concerning the formation of the personal, social and sexual
identity which reaches a crucial phase during adolescence.

The Rationale
Education is a basic human right. The 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child re-affirmed the right of every child to education irrespective of colour, race, creed, sex,
ability, disability and socio economic status (Gordon and Chimedza (1995).
 Unfortunately groups such as these are often denied both the right of access to
education, and equal treatment in educational institutions, which leads to unequal
educational outcomes and life chances for these groups.
 Article 3 of the World Declaration of Human Rights is concerned with universalizing
access to, and promoting equity in education emphasizing that Education For All
means ensuring that particular attention is directed to the education of the under
served (Gordon and Chimedza, 1995).
 As well as being a basic human right, education is a necessary condition for the
upward social mobility of disadvantaged members of society. Knowledge gained
through education is a means by which they can improve the quality of their lives.
 Equity of access to education and equal treatment in the school are essential
conditions for all forms of social equity (Gordon, 1994).
 Equal educational opportunities for all maximizes the possibility of equal educationa l
outcomes, and thus equal opportunities for all members of society to secure
employment.
 Equality of educational opportunity is necessary if women, are to become self
sufficient producers of wealth, charity, the goodwill of individuals, organizations and
the state.
National Policies For The Education of Girls and Women in Zimbabwe
 Its not possible to isolate national policies for the education of girls and women in
Zimbabwe, from socio economic policies and the economic, legal and political
statuses of women. Educational policies both prior to and since independence have

been an integral part of overall government policies, all operating within the context
of a patriarchal society.
 Since independence the stated policy of the government has been based on the policy
of the rising party, ZANU (PF). Of the fundamental human rights and freedoms
recognized by ZANU (PF), one is gender specific, i.e. the right of women to equality
which men “in all spheres of political, economic, cultural and family life. Men and
women will enjoy equal pay for equal work”. (ZANU (PF) Manifesto, 2015).
 Education is seen as a human right and necessity and an important instrument for the
achievement of equity.
Girls and Education since Independence
 Despite the tremendous increases in educational provision countrywide and the

introduction of non gee paying primary education, fewer girls than boys attend
primary school (Gordon, 1994) and worse still only 41% of secondary school pupils
are girls (Gordon, 1994).
Constraints to the Education of Girls
The issue of sexual equality of educational opportunity has of late received some attention in
Zimbabwe. In particular, emphasis to schooling for girls, and more recently, upon the higher
drop out rates for girls.
 Little attention has however been given to what happens to girls in the schools, i.e.
the treatment experienced by girls within the schools. Equality of educational
opportunity involves not only equal access to schooling, but also equal treatment of
boys and girls within the school itself (Gordon, 1995).

1. To what extent and in what ways do teacher attitudes and expectations affect the
academic and social self concepts of girls, and thus their aspirations and academic
motivation?
2. How do teachers explain the poor performance of girls?
3. Do they perceive themselves and the school as contributing to the problem?
Equality of Educational Opportunity
 At Independence in 1980 the government embarked on a programme of educational

reconstruction and expansion in an effort to make access to education a reality for all
Zimbabwean children. Equality of educational opportunity for all was a stated aim of
the government and education was perceived not only as a human right but also as an
important means by which deponents and the redress of social inequalities inherited
from the colonial period could be attained.
 Yet the girl child remains disadvantaged in the Zimbabwean education system.
 Dropout rates in every cohort in Zimbabwe since 1980, as elsewhere in the sub region
(Duncan, 1989; Hyde, 1991), have been higher for girls than for boys (Gordon, 1995).
The drop out rate for girls increased particularly in the upper levels of primary and
secondary school.
 In Zimbabwean secondary schools the ratio of male to female pupils is 3:1 (Gordon,
1995).
 It has also been noted that girls perform more poorly than boys in all public
examinations up to form IV. The under achievement of girls is a critical factor for
their further education and training and employment opportunities.
 Girls in Zimbabwe, as elsewhere in the world, particularly under achieve in
mathematics and science. As a result girls and women are under represented in the
sciences at „A‟ level and in tertiary education.
 Arguments that schools are failing to provide the equality of opportunity that is part
of their mandate could be the basis for explaining the disadvantaged position of girls
in education.

 Schools are actually accused of perpetuating social inequalities from one generation
to another (Bowles, 1972). One particular component to this argument is the notion
that teachers engage in subtle forms of discrimination within classrooms, and thereby,
set in motion self-fulfilling prophesies.
 Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) examined in depth the alleged processes of the self-
fulfilling prophecy. They found that teachers get just what they expect from students
in the way of performance in schools. If teachers expect post performance from
certain children, these children will perform poorly in school.
 The linkage of this argument to the broader issues of opportunity and the maintenance
of social un equalities across generations is fairly straightforward. Social class and
sex differences in achievement, self esteem, aspirations and so on, are explained in
terms of the relative degree of fit between the child and the school.
How do girls (primary and secondary) socialization fit into the school culture and the
education system as a whol
Unit 6
Redressing Gender Imbalances
By Daniel Mawere, Winfrida Matsa and Efritha Chauraya
6.0 Introduction
In this unit we are looking at „redressing of gender imbalances‟. Let us start by getting the
meaning of the word “redress”. What do you think is meant by this word: redressing? You
are correct! To redress is to put right a wrong or an injustice. An imbalance is a lack of
evenness; therefore a gender imbalance is a lack of evenness in treatment of males and
females. Redressing gender imbalances therefore looks at ways in which treatment of males
and females can be created, so that equality between the two sexes is achieved. This equality
does not mean that women and men are going to be the same in the sense of the word
„sameness‟. It is equality in the sense that their enjoyment of rights, opportunities and life
chances are not governed or limited by whether they we born female or male. There are
many ways in which gender imbalances can be redressed. In this unit we are going to look at
the following key ways: enactment of gender responsive policies and laws; creation of
gender responsive environments, carrying out gender research and gender analysis; education
and empowerment programmes as well as engagements of gender projects. Following is a
brief exposition of each of these ways.

6.1 Objectives
By the end of this module you should be able to:

 6.1.1 Identify and explain gender responsive policies and laws.
 6.1.2 Highlight the interrelationship between physical, social and academic

environments in creation of gender responsive environments.
 6.1.3 Assess the extent to which gender research and gender analysis contribute to
redressing gender imbalances.
 Examine the extent to which education and empowerment programmes contribute to

redressing gender imbalances.
 Evaluate the role of gender projects in bringing about a gender equal society.
Enactment of gender responsive policies
Kabeer (1992) quoted in March, Smyth and Mukhopadhyay (1999:20-21) makes a gender
classification of policies as follows:
 Gender blind policies which recognize no distinction between the sexes. Such
policies make assumptions, which lead to a bias in favour of existing gender relations.
In view of this therefore such policies tend to exclude women.
 Gender-aware policies recognize that both women and men are development actors.
How ever the nature of women‟s involvement is determined by gender relations
which make their involvement different and unequal. As a result women may have
different needs, interests and priorities which may conflict with those of men at times.
Within gender- aware policies, Kabeer further distinguishes between gender-neutral,
gender-specific and gender redistributive policies.
* Gender-neutral policies use the knowledge of gender differences in a given

society to overcome bias in development interventions, in order to ensure that
interventions target and benefit both sexes effectively to meet their practical
needs. Gender-neutral policies work within the existing gender division of
resources and responsibilities.
* Gender-specific policies use the knowledge of gender differences in a given

context to respond to the practical needs of women or men; they work within
the existing gender division of resources and responsibilities.
* Gender-redistributive policies are intended to transform existing

distributions of power and resources to create a more balanced relationship

between women and men, touching on strategic gender interests. They may
target both sexes, or women or men separately.
In the context of Zimbabwe, a National Gender Policy (NGP) was introduced to show the
country‟s commitment to promote gender equality and equity. The policy provides guidelines
and institutional framework to engender all sectoral policies, programmes, projects and
activities at all levels of society and economy.
Affirmative Action Policies are made to allow females to enter or qualify for certain jobs or
education opportunities with lower qualifications. Affirmative Action means positive steps
taken to increase the representation of women and minorities in areas of employment,
education and business from which they have been historically excluded. Affirmative Action
involves preferential selection on the basis of race, gender or ethnicity. An example is when a
university guides the recruitment procedures by stating that at least 50% of the admitted
students should be female. Another Affirmative Action Policy is the Midlands State
University Bridging Programme for girls aspiring to embark on Mathematics and Science
related degree programmes.
Gender imbalances and legal redress:
This section is linked to UNIT 8 especially section 8.5. Here we are looking at how the law
can help to redress gender imbalances. We are turning to the law for removal of barriers that
put men and women in differential positions. The law is also being looked at using the
gender lens to see if it has biases that lead to differential treatment of men and women. The
major aim of doing this is to enable women and men to exercise and enjoy their rights to the
full.
The legal redress of gender imbalances involves the following:
 Enactment of gender equality act.
 Gender audit and review of all legislation to make it gender sensitive and responsive.
 Gender training for state administrators and law enforcing agents
 Legal literacy.
 Legal education and sensitization.
 Community gender and human rights training.
For a successful legal redress of gender imbalances there is need for a thorough gender
analysis of the law and of the issues concerned. This analysis will show where the problem
lies. The problem may be on the implementation and meaning of the law, knowledge of the
law among other issues. When these factors are addressed it is hoped that the law will be
doing its best to promote gender equality. This analysis will also enable us to group laws as
either progressive or retrogressive.

Retrogressive Laws are against gender equality. They do not promote equal treatment of men
and women before the law. At times they even worsen the condition of the disadvantaged sex
in a particular context. For more information on retrogressive laws see unit 8 (8.2 and 8.3).
Progressive Laws promote gender equality. They promote the rights of all sexes, regardless
of race colour, sex, or belief.
Creation of gender responsive environments
Gender responsive environments respect human rights and ensure that issues of gender
equality and equity are promoted. A gender responsive environment is one in which both
males and females are empowered to achieve their highest possible potential. The Forum for
African Women Educationists has referred to these environments as Centres of Excellence
(COE). The focus in creating gender responsive environments is on physical, academic and
social environments in the context of the school.
 The Physical Environment refers to the infrastructure , for example, in a school
setting, this includes , school buildings, fences, toilets, hostels, health facilities,
library, laboratories, amenities for sports, water, electricity and sanitation. Adequate,
secure and gender appropriate infrastructure is emphasized. This is achievable when
parents, the community, students and teachers mobilize adequate resources.
 The Academic Environment refers to:
* Students who are empowered, good academic performance, bursaries for

needy students, access to carrier guidance and students who are well grounded
in democratic practice.
* Teachers who are gender responsive, empowered, innovative and creative,
adhering to the teachers‟ code of conduct and ethics.
* Adequate and gender responsive teaching and learning materials.
* School Management which is gender responsive and championing the
transformation of gender responsiveness.
* The Social Environment refers to teacher- student, student-student, teacher-teacher,

boy-girl, girl-boy, boy-boy, girl-girl, school management-teacher relationships which
should be gender responsive.
Gender Analysis
We looked at gender analysis in unit 4 where we learnt that gender analysis examines the
relationships between women and men. It examines their roles, their access to and control of
resources and the constraints they face relative to each other. As a strategy to redress gender
imbalances, gender analysis should be integrated in carrying out needs assessment or
situational analysis to ensure that gender-based injustices and inequalities are not exacerbated
by likelihood interventions. Gender analysis starts with the smallest unit, that is, the

household to understand how each family member participates, what role they play and what
they need in order to improve their well being, for example, one could ask what factors affect
access to services. Who obtains resources? Who decides on the use of resources? Through
gender analysis we get an insight into cultural understanding of the different roles of men and
women. For example a widow or single mother as „head of household‟ has serious
implications in terms of access and control to goods and services. The analysis of relations
and roles can help us to identify vulnerabilities, potentials for backlash and also solutions to
critical issues in a bid to promote greater equality and justice in gender relations.
Gender Research
Gender Research is another way of redressing gender imbalance, intended to empower

students with skills and knowledge of investigating gender related problems, issues and
concerns in society. Gender responsive research probes into the gender dimension of
constraints at all levels of the educational process (policy, community, household, school and
classroom levels). Gender research explores problems that are researchable such as: Causes
of poor performance, school drop out, classroom participation, teachers, attitudes and skills
in handling gender related issues and problems in the classroom. The knowledge so gained
will enable students to use gender responsive research as a strategy to solve gender related
problems they come across in their own endeavours. In addition it will enable them to
recommend strategies that will address the constraints which hinder girls and some boys
from enrolling, performing, staying and transiting to higher levels of learning.
Education and Empowerment programmes
Education and empowerment programmes go a long way into redressing gender imbalances.
Most obstacles in girls‟ social and academic development are rooted in the culture of silence
that is instilled in girls‟ socialization process. Hence these disempowered girls see those
obstacles as God given and they can not be challenged. However, boys also need to be
empowered in order to accept gender equality and be able to cope with empowered girls. In
most circumstances, it is taken for granted that boys are born empowered but the truth is the
opposite. For a detailed understanding of how education and empowerment programmes
bring about gender balance we refer you to Unit 7.
Engagements of gender projects
Gender projects are support programmes for the disadvantaged males and females. They
normally offer economic support in the form of special tuition, legal support as well as socio-
political support. How ever they may also be in the form of general support, for example,
food schemes. These projects normally target groups rather than individuals, as beneficiaries,
note they are of interest to gender because, through benefitting say all orphans, they will be
benefitting say the girl child orphan who has been the object of discrimination historically.
With most care-taker families, in times of shortages and a choice is made on who between
the girl child and the boy child to pull out of school, research has shown that it is the girl

child who normally enters the school last and is the first to leave school. In other cultures,
girls feed after boys have fed. In this way the education of and general welfare of girls and
women has always been compromised. These projects therefore protect human rights and
promote equality through provision of assistance to the vulnerable groups. Following are a
few examples of gender projects:
 The Zimbabwe Basic Assistance Module(BEAM) which offers financial support to
orphans;
 The Zimbabwe legal Foundation which offers free legal support to males and females
who do not have the capacity to hire a lawyer to represent them in times of need;
 The Musasa Project Centre which offers free socio-political support to the males and
females through offering gender education, gender empowerment and free counseling
services to affected males and females especially when it concerns domestic violence
and other forms of gender based violence.
 Men‟s Forum for Gender (MFG) (Padare) which is a gender organisation formed by
a group of men to campaign against Domestic Violence. In Zimbabwe it is known as
Padare. It has challenged fellow men to contribute towards national development by
getting involved in gender issues. The group, the first of its kind in Zimbabwe and
perhaps in the sub-region has embarked on activities to promote gender sensitive
attitudes and behaviour. The organization is concerned with the problem of gender
inequality as a moral and political challenge. Society is viewed as continuing to
promote a culture and attitudes based on domination and exploitation of women by
men. These need to be constructed. Source: Lopi, B. (1998) for SARDC in Beyond
Inequalities : Women in Zimbabwe ZWRCN.
 Other gender projects include; Forum for Gender, Zimbabwe National Platform for
Action, Zimbabwe Women Resource Centre and Network, National Aids Council,
Women Leadership and Governance Institute, SHAPE Zimbabwe, Women of
Zimbabwe Arise (WOZA), Young Women Christian Organisation (YWCO), Young
Men Christian Organisation and Girl-Child Network, among others.
Conclusion
Redressing gender imbalances should be conceptualized as a process and not an end in itself.
Although efforts are being made to address the issue, resistance, negative attitudes, poor
funding, inadequate resources, misconceptions of gender issues and many other factors
hamper progress. If the intention is to achieve gender equity and equality, then there is need
to seriously consider alternative ways of solving the problem. All stakeholders and interested
parties should continuously review their approaches to the problem

UNIT 7
Gender Empowerment
By
Manuku Mukoni and Charles Chikunda
7.0 Introduction
In Unit 6 we learnt about gender issues that act as constraints to gender equality. In this unit
we will explore in detail the concept of gender empowerment which is one of the strategies
that can be used to redress the imbalances caused by these issues. For details see Unit 8. In
this unit focus will be on the various types of empowerment, models of empowerment as well
as strategies of empowerment.
7.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to
 Define empowerment as it applies to men and women
 Identify the various types of empowerment
 Describe the models/ frameworks of empowerment
 Examine the various approaches to collective empowerment
 Recognize an empowered man and an empowered woman.
7.2 Understanding Power

To understand the term empowerment we need to analyze the idea of „Power‟ which is the
root of the term empowerment. For this purpose we need to understand the various forms in
which power is interpreted, because power means different things to different people.
Therefore it is important for us to explore the perceptions of power
Albert (1985 :12) define power as the capability of human beings to organize or manipulate
their environment ( including other human beings, their thoughts, motivation, needs and
desires as well as their creations and artefacts) for human end. Adair and Howl (1989:20)
define power as the ability to do what one chooses. Power is the ability to make others do
what we want regardless of their own wishes or interests ( Weber in Czuba 2003 : 2)
Traditional social sciences emphasize power as influence and control often treating power as
a commodity or a structure divorced from human action (Lipps, 1991). Conceived in this way
power can be viewed as unchangeable or unchanging.
If we look at Albert (1985), Adair and Howl (1989) as well as Weber‟s definition of power. -
They give us a key word beyond this limitation by recognizing that power exists within the
context of relationship between people or things. They show that power does not exist in
isolation nor is it inherent in an individual. By implication this shows us that since power is
created in relationships then power and power relationships can change making

empowerment as a process of change possible. A brief activity makes the importance of this
discussion clear
For most people words that come to mind when we think about power often revolve around
control and domination. Focusing on these aspects of power limit our ability to understand
and define empowerment while to other people power is a zero sum it is something you get at
the expense of others. Such an understanding of power cuts most of us off from power. A
zero sum conception of power means that power will remain in the hands of the powerful
unless they give it up, for example men will not voluntarily relinquish that patriarchal power
which gives them privilege over women and which give them less work than women but a
larger share of the rewards. Although this is certainly one way that power is experienced, it
neglects the way power is experienced in most interactions, power can be understood as
operating in a number of different ways.
7.2.1 Forms of Power

There are various forms of power. Do activity 7.2 below to brainstorm on forms of power
Activity 7.2
1. What do you understand by
(a) Economic power
(b) Political power
(c) Social power
(d) Inter-person
The activity above on power and the definition of power by Weber (1946), Albert (1985),
Adair and Howl (1989) in section 7.2, shows that power exists within the context of a
relationship between people or things. Hence we have various forms of power as discussed
below:
Power over- this form of power involves an either/ or relationship of domination /
subordination.
 This is whereby an individual or a group in authority uses their power to make
decision and control others
 .It is when one uses power to get another person or group of people to do
what they do not want.
 This form of power is based on socially sanctioned threats of violence and
intimidation
 It requires constant vigilance to remain and it invites active and passive
resistance.
 .In this case power is finite the more power one has the less the others have
 .It is coercive
 E.g. most man has power over woman. If a woman makes more money or
attaints a position of power, violence can result.

Power with –relates to the collective strength of people working together. Some researchers
and practitioners call this aspect of power „relational power‟ (Loppe and Du Bois 1994)
“generative power „‟ (Korten, 1987), “Integrative power „‟ (Kreisberg .1992)
 This is the type of power that is characterized by collaboration, sharing and
mutuality (Kreisberg, 1992)
 It involves people organizing with a common purpose or common
understanding to achieve collective goals
 It is by coming together and sharing each other mutual support that we are
in a position to challenge the zero type of power.
 It acknowledges the fact that power multiples with individual talents and
knowledge
 It is the form of power that lies behind the common sayings such as „united
we stand divided we fall‟ „one for all and all for one‟‟
 This form of power means that gaining power actually strengthens the
power of others rather than diminishing it such as occurs with domination
power.
Power to – This form of power relates to having decision making authority, power to solve
problems and being creative and enabling
 It refers to the potential in every human being to take action in their own life and the
world
 It is based on authority and mutual support and, it opens possibilities for joint action
 It refers to potentially transformative power which is in every person which enables
him/ her to take control of his / her life.
Power within- refers to self confidence, self awareness and assertiveness

 It relates to how an individual can recognize through analyzing own experience,
how power operates in one‟s life and gain the confidence to act, to influence and
change this (Williams et al 1994)
 It refers to creative, spiritual and emotional strength that resides within each person
 It comes from self esteem, self acceptance, self knowledge and self respect.
 It stems from the belief that „I am a human being and I am worth
Kreisberg (1992: 57) suggests that power defined as the capacity to implement is broad
enough to allow power to mean domination, authority influence and shared power or power
with. It is this definition of power as it occurs in relationship that gives us the possibility of
empowerment. Empowerment therefore involves the redistribution of power and this power
cannot be given it has to be taken (Longwe, 2001, Kabeer in March et al 1997)
7.3 Understanding empowerment
Empowerment is a construct shared by many disciplines and arenas: community
development psychology, education, economics and studies of social movements and
organizations among other. As a multidimensional concept it had wide variations and how it
is understood varies among these perspectives. To demystify the concept we need to
understand the term broadly:-
 Empowerment refers to the creation and expansion of one‟s knowledge, skills,
decision making and other power bases giving them the capacity and capability to

exercise influence and leadership on their own ( Zimbabwe National Gender policy
2004: 12)
 Empowerment is a process whereby individuals who are marginalized individually or
collectively become aware of how power structures, processes and relations operate
in their lives and gain the confidence and strength to challenge the resulting gender
inequalities ( Hannan ,2003)
McWhirter (1991) in Eade (1999) defines empowerment as a process by which people
organization or groups who are powerless.
(a) Become aware of the power dynamics at work in their life contexts and them
(b) Develop the skills and capacity for gaining some reasonable control over their
lives.
(c) Exercise this control without infringing upon the rights of others and
(d) Support the empowerment of others.
From these broad definitions of empowerment we can deduce that empowerment is
essentially a process which covers the following basic aspects:
 Actions involved in confronting and changing unequal power relations
 Acquiring the capacity (psychological readiness, social analysis, organizational skills)
and need to take action.
 It has both individual and collective dimensions.

Table: 1 What is empowerment then?
-In brief empowerment is about
 Bringing people who are outside the decision making process into it
 Individuals being able to maximize the opportunities available to them
without or despite constraints of structure and state
 Access to intangible decision making process
 Having power to exercise control over all aspects of your life, being in a
position to determine or decide their own destiny.
 Having freedom of conscience, expression, independent judgment and self
reliance
 Being able to maximize the opportunities available to one without
constraints
 Having the right to make choices
 Having education, information, authority and power in decision making on
issues affecting one and others.
 Undoing negative social constructions so that one can come to see self as
having the capacity and the right to act and influence decisions.
 Acting collectively in order to change or control
 Challenging the basic assumption about power, helping achieving and
succeeding An activity
on empowerment below will help elucidate the concept of empowerment further
Activity 7.4
Which statements below define empowerment?
1. Being able to engage in decisions on budget allocations
2. Women‟s improved socio- economic status
3. Women‟s improved levels of literacy or education
4. Taking account of gender differentials
5. Being consulted during the preparation of the poverty reduction support project
6. Giving a fair hearing to a women in a public meeting comprising of men and
women
7. Elimination of discriminatory legislation
8. Equality in the gender division of labor
9. Women‟s increased ownership of capital
10. Formation of unions for immigrant workers which allow them to negotiate working
conditions with employees
11. A battered woman is freed from the threat of violence and becomes able to make
decisions about her life
Statement 2, 3,4,7,8 and 9 above may contribute to the process of empowerment or may
result from the process of empowerment they cannot define what is empowerment for

example women‟s increased levels of literacy or education provided by an intervention does
not address the underlying patterns of discrimination which generally prevent woman from
obtaining education and which generally maintains their subordination and oppression. The
forms of power in section 7.2.1 revealed that power must be understood as working at
different levels including institutional household and individual, thus giving rise to three
dimension of empowerment as illustrated below.
7.4 The three dimensions of empowerment

Empowerment has three dimensions as shown below
Close relations
Personal
Collective
Adapted from Rowlands, 1997
7.4.1 Personal empowerment

 Is where empowerment is about developing a sense of self and individual confidence
and capacity, undoing the effects of internalized oppression
 It is based on the assumptions that
(i) People have inherent ability and power to evolve and progress
(ii) True power cannot be best owned but it comes from within
 It involves developing confidence in oneself, self esteem and a sense of agency
 It is all about realising the potential in oneself to perform and increase output
 It is being an individual who can interact with own surrounding and obtain results
 It is all about undoing the effects of internalized oppression and subordination
It leads to positive self concept, high self esteem, confidence, and self- development,
decision making ability to interact outside the home, breaking criticism and developing
communication skills
Sources of personal disempowerment

 Lack of exposure and encouragement
 Dependency an external motivation
 Self put downs, negative inner dialogue
 Lack of confidence
 Failure to take criticism
 Procrastination

 Not choosing one‟s battles
Steps to self personal empowerment

 Build self confidence
 Attitudinal tune up – think of the positive do not always put yourself down
 Develop communication skills – seek to understand and be understood. Increase the
ability to formulate and express opinions
 Teach and practice forgiveness, however begin with forgiving yourself for all the
mistakes you have done
 Allow yourself and others to say „NO‟
 Break the criticism pattern, focus only on the criticism that builds you up
 Understand the situation and get the power through other systems
 Acquiring certain skills that you lack so that you become more efficient
 Increase your ability to interact outside the home
 Participate in and influence areas of activity
Table 2 key elements in personal empowerment

__ in brief, the key elements to personal empowerment includes
 Self awareness (who are you?)
 Making decisions about issues that affect you, being in control
 Ability to share power as opposed to wielding power over others
 Personal development
 Independence
 Developing a positive self image
 Having self esteem and confidence
7.4.2 Close Relationship

This type of empowerment entails the ability to negotiate and influence the nature of a
relationship and decisions made within it. For example husband/ wife relationship, parents /
child and boyfriend/ girlfriend etc – individuals work together to achieve a more positive
impact.
7.4.3 Collective Empowerment

Individuals‟ abilities to negotiate communicate and defend their rights
It builds on individual empowerment. To achieve collective empowerment individuals must
have personal empowerment individual should be able to work together to achieve greater
impact in locality or surrounding than what one person could have achieved for example
pressure groups such as trade unions, workers committees, Affirmative Action Group (AAG)
in Zimbabwe, Women and Gender (WAG) in Zimbabwe It involves groups because it is

through involvement in groups that people most often begin to develop their awareness. Thus
empowerment occurs in a chain.
7.5 Chain of Empowerment

Empowerment occurs at various levels such as individual, group and community ,hence to
achieve group or community empowerment, empowerment should start at the personal level
since without empowerment at personal level it is very hard for individuals to be active
collectively. Because to have a sense of empowerment in relation to other people is
associated with and to a large extent, dependent upon self confidence, self esteem and sense
of agency. It also depends on the individual‟s ability to negotiate, communicate and defend
his or her rights.
Personal Relational Collective

Empowerment empowerment empowerment
7.6 Understanding Gender Empowerment
Society instills a culture of silence in women during the socialization process hence these
disempowered woman see these obstacles as God given and they cannot be challenged.
Empowerment programmes hence think only women need to be empowered to challenge
these internalized views. However men need also need to be empowered in order to accept
gender equality and be able to cope with empowered women. In most situations it is taken for
granted that men are born empowered hence they are always deprived opportunities to
acquire gender responsive empowerment skills
7.6.1 Sources of disempowerment of women
 Culture, social and physical conditions in which women live and the gender role to
which they are expected to conform.
 Myths, proverbs, stories , stereotypes and language
 Economic – most women do not have access and control over resources
 Political- few woman participate in decision making yet it is within the public space
that decision that affect them are made.
 Elements of oppression under which women live both as female and as poor people
 Culture of machismo, alcohol consumption and other vices and the among culture of
violence
 Legislation e.g. in Zimbabwe customary law is given precedence in some areas
6.2 Effects of lack of empowerment

Women Men
 Not speaking out  Uses force instead of negotiating
 Being harassed including  Shout out instead of speaking out or
sexual harassment communicating
 Risk of being HIV infected  Being sexual harassed by other men/
 Lack of self confidence older women
 Low self esteem  Become violent and aggressive
 Negative self concept  Failure to share their problems and
 Dependent feelings
 Passive  Harassing women
 Shy  Risk of being infected with HIV
 Inferiority  Dependent
 Confusion  Low self esteem ( inferiority)
 Unwanted pregnancy  Dominance / superiority
 Confusion
 Alcoholism
 Clumsiness‟
 Alienation/isolation
From the effects of lack of empowerment in man and women discussed above. It becomes
clear that both man and women need empowerment hence we talk of gender empowerment.

Table 3 What is gender empowerment then?
 Is the process of enabling women and men to take an equal place and to
participate equally in the development process
 It entails recognizing one‟s strength and exploding sexist misconception,
challenging socialization ideas that breed the feeling of inferiority and
superiority attitudes among women and men respectively
 It is a process through which men and women increase their capacity to shape
their own lives and environment
 It also calls for the transformation of the structures and practices in the
institutes to those that does not reinforce or perpetuate gender discrimination
and social inequality
 It is an evolvement in men and women‟s self awareness, stratus and efficiency
in social interaction giving them increased opportunity to control their lives
 It gives men and women the power
1. To make decision
2. Have their voices heard
3. Put things on the agenda
4. Negotiate on something that is not negotiable
5. Challenge past customs
7.6.3 Understanding women’s empowerment

Women‟s empowerment is enabling women to take an equal place with men and to
participate equally in the development process in order to achieve control over the factors of
production on an equal basis with men (Longwe, 2001)
* Women Empowerment means

 Having control or gaining further control
 Being able to define and create from a women‟s perspective
 Being able to influence social choices and decisions affecting the whole society
 Being recognized and accepted as equal citizens
 Being able to make a contribution at all levels of society and not just in the home
 It is having one‟s contribution recognized and valued
 Having a say and being listened to
Thus empowerment for women brings to the process of empowerment an existing experience
and history, as women bring to the process of empowerment societal values stereotype,
myths and beliefs which for a long time have made women accept inferiority. Women
empowerment involves the undoing of internalized oppression and the rejection of the
definition of femininity
7.6.4 Understanding men’s empowerment

Men‟s empowerment is the ability to understand and accept gender equality. It is the
liberation of men from false value systems and ideologies of oppression leading to a situation
where men become wholly regardless of gender and use their fullest potential to construct a
more human society for all.

From the above definition of gender empowerment and our previous discussions it s evident
that the idea of power is at the core of
empowerment.(Hannan,2003,Williams,1994,Kabeer,2003)
According to Czuba (2003) the possibility of empowerment depends on two things first
empowerment requires that power can change. If power cannot change. If it is inherent in
positions or people then empowerment is not possible nor is empowerment conceivable in
any meaningful way. In other words if power can change then empowerment is possible.
Secondly the concept of empowerment depends upon the idea that power can expand. Thus
empowerment is more than simply opening up access to decision making it must also include
the process that lead people to perceive themselves as able and entitled to occupy that
decision making space and so overlaps with the categories of „power to‟ and „power within‟
Empowerment therefore comes from within. It involves individuals themselves setting the
agenda and managing the pace of change. Outsiders such as development cooperation
agencies non governmental agencies can only play an important facilita ting role through use
of established frameworks or models.(Kabeer,2003)
7.7 Model / Framework of Empowerment

A framework is a system of ideas or conceptual structures that help us see the social world,
understand it, explain it and change it (Wallace and March 1991)
When applied to empowerment an empowerment framework or model therefore is a
systematic way of examining how the empowerment process can be achieved in this section
the Sarah Longwe empowerment framework and the Tuseme model of empowerment will be
discussed
7.7.1 Sarah Longwe empowerment framework

It is also known as the women empowerment framework. Though a feminist model it can be
applied to empowerment. For details see unit 4
The framework is used as an empowerment model as well as a gender analysis framework
see unit 4. It comprises of two tools
1. women‟s empowerment tool 1: levels of equality
2. women‟s empowerment tool 2: levels of recognition
This framework / model is based on the notion of five different levels of equality. as
discussed in unit 4 The extent to which these are present in any area of social or economic
life determine the level of empowerment as illustrated in the diagram below
Control
Participation
Conscientisation Increased equality increased
Access empowerment
Welfare

These levels of equality are hierarchal. If a development intervention focuses on the higher
levels, there is greater likelihood that women and men‟s empowerment will be increased by
the intervention than if a project focuses on lower levels If the intervention concentrator only
on welfare, it is unlikely that women and men will find it empowering. For example equal
participation in decision making process about certain resources is more important in
achieving women and men‟s empowerment than equal access to resources. We need to note
that although the levels, of empowerment are hierarchal, they are not really a linear
progression as discussed in unit 4 but rather circular.
The Empowerment Cycle
Welfare
Control
Empowerment
Access
Mobilization
Conscientisation
Adapted from Longwe (2001)
The achievement of women‟s increased control leads into better access to resources and
therefore improves socio- economic status. The process of empowerment is also self
propelling and self reinforcing that is issues at one level provides a better basis for success at
other levels. It is therefore a synergic process The levels of the framework are therefore not
intended to be interpreted as steps in a linear sequence but rather as interrelated elements in a
cycle or spiral of self reinforcing process Do activity 7.5 below to enhance your
understanding of this model
7.7.2 Tuseme Model of empowerment

„Tuseme‟ is a Swahili word that means let us speak out
Origins
The model was initiated in Tanzania in 1996 by FAWE to empower boys and girls
Applicability

The model can be used in an academic institution to empower boys and girls so that they can
overcome problems that hinder their academic and social development
The Tuseme model of empowerment is carried out in nine stages. It involves the entire
school community (teachers, workers and students) as participants in the activities of the
difference stages (FAWE, 2004)
Stage 1 Preliminaries
Facilitators discuss with the school authority about the intention to carry out a Tuseme
process. They inform the school community about the intention and dates
This is done to ensure that the school authority and community are ready for process
Stage 2: Familiarization
The purpose of this stage is to have a better understanding of the working environment
and to get preliminary information on the subject matter. To achieve this facilitators
introduce Tuseme to the relevant authorities in order to familiarize with the social set up
of the school community- these are major groups that constitute the school community,
relationship with the neighborhood.
The physical set up of the school- boundaries, library, facilities, Sports ground to
determine whether they are adequate or not.
The academic performance of the school in general and the cohort groups in particular.
Stage 3: Data Collection

This is done to get information on the issue of concern that impedes social and academic
development of boys and girls. Participant are divided into small research teams and
assigned to carry out interviews with a certain number of community members about
issues related to the goals and objectives of Tuseme, its strengths and constraints. The
teams are asked to submit their findings in writing.
Stage 4 Data Analysis

This is done to get a deeper understanding of issues as well as to acquire skills in
analyzing issues. It is also done to get a better understanding of the community‟s
potential in solving some of the issues. Data analysis process is undertaken as follows.
1 List all the findings
2 Cluster / group the findings leaving out the findings / issues that are not related to the
topic.
3 Verify the authenticity of the findings
4 Prioritize the finding in the order of urgency
5 Classify the findings according to their similarities and differences (clustering and
collapsing)
6 Find out root causes of the findings
7 Find possible solutions to the problem
8 Identify responsible people or parties to help solve different problems.
Stage 5 Theatre Creation

Discuss in groups which issues from the data analysis you want to include in your
performance. Select forms of arts which you are competent and comfortable to use.
Create you performance in such a way that it can provoke discussion. Prepare a Joker
(one, who leads the post performance discussion). Organize the performances for the
stage presentation. Ensure that costumes, pups and scenery are designed and are available
NB all cohort members should participate in theatre creation
Stage 6 Performance
Discuss with the participants and the school administration about the possible day and
time to do the performance .Make sure that the entire community is invited to the
performance
Stage 7 Post Performance Discussions

Make sure the Joker involves all stakeholders in the discussion
Joker should avoid answering but challenging the audience to answer the questions.
The joker should make sure that all issues are discussed thoroughly
Stage 8 Action Plan

Carry out this exercise either immediately after the performance or the following day.
It usually involves the Tuseme cohort group although it is also possible to do it with the
entire school community. Whatever the case the action plan should be endorsed by the
school administration for it to be effected. The exercise is done on a chart which indicates
the following.
1. The problem
2. Root causes
3. Solution
4. Activities
5. Time frame
6. Responsible person /part
7. Resources / budget
8. Indicator
Stage 9 Creation of Tuseme Club

These are a functioning student based management system formed in the school
They are established in order to encourage students to speak out as a way of empowering
them. Elections should be held to nominate office, bearers. They provide a forum for
students to discuss their academic and social problems critically. The main functions of
the Tuseme club is to.
 Help each other in academic matters through group discussion, debates, individual
consultations and sharing learning material
 Link students ( Tuseme club members) with teachers and the school administration
 Reinforce discipline amongst club members
 Speak out about day to day problems arising in the schools
 Provide peer support, guidance and counseling.
 Access role models

 Share experience with students from other school
 Produce material for use in the Tuseme club e.g. newsletters , magazines
 Design annual action plans at the school level
 Use theatre for development as a tool for research, empowerment and participatory
planning
 Develop leadership qualities among Tuseme students
Strengths of the Model

 It uses theatre for development approach, an approach that makes sure that as many
stakeholders as possible are involved as central participants in the process
 It always guarantees democratic and active participation of all the stakeholders at the
school
 Provides life skills through out its implementation that empower girls and boys at the
individual level e.g. it provides skills for speaking out, assertiveness, leadership,
decision making and so on
Limitations of the model

 Only applicable to a learning / academic environment
Let‟s do activity 7.6 below to enhance our understanding of this model
Activity 7.6
1. What do you consider to be the school‟s
(a) Academic Environment?
(b) Physical Environment?
(c) Social Environment/
2. In what ways does the above environment hinder the social and academic
development of boys and girls?
3. Conduct a Tuseme process in your institute to identify the academic, physical
and social constraints that impede your academic and social development in the
institute
The physical environment generally refers to the infrastructure of the school which
includes such things as building, the compound of the school, toilets, water, power supply
boarding facilities, first aid and medical facilities, amenities for games and sports,
laboratory and library. Research has demonstrated that inadequate or poor physical
facilities adversely affect the quality of education. It has also been proven that in such
environments the girl child always comes off the worse because of the tendency has been
that the poorer the physical facilities the less gender responsive they are. The special
needs of the girl child especially at puberty tend to get ignored
Academic environment refers to the curriculum content and its relevance, the teachers
and their attitudes, the school management system, teaching methodologies and
approaches, teacher/ student interaction, the students and their attitudes, the teaching and
learning material. The teaching environment if not gender responsive can lead to poor
academic performance and output
The social environment refers mainly to the community and cultural surroundings of the
school. It normally includes parents and other relatives of the girls, the district
commissioner, village leader the chiefs and assistant chiefs, local religious leaders, local
educational leaders, other stakeholders as well as other residents of the area near and
around the school, Research has shown that cultural practices such as the female genital
cutting, early marriages, improper attitudes and the economic status of the community are
factors that influence girls enrolment and retention in school. On a more global scale, the
country‟s gender polices‟ are an important part of the social environment
7.8 General strategies of empowerment

According to Homelink (1994: 33) empowerment can be the outcome of an intentional
strategy which is either initiated externally by empowerment agents or solicited by
disempowerment people. Whilst its acknowledges that empowerment is a personal thing
since true power cannot be bestowed it should be noted that some people can act as
agents of empowerment by providing access to a new body of ideas and information that
can not only change a person‟s consciousness and self image but also motivates one to
act. Empowerment by external agents will therefore involve:
* Awareness-raising
* Building of self confidence
* Expansion of choices
* Involvement in decision making
* Increased access and control (Hannan, 2003)
Thus in the long term empowerment will result in :

 Changing consciousness and attitudes
 Identification of areas needing change.
 Developing strategies and actions to be taken
 Monitoring these actions and outcomes
To achieve all these outcomes the following strategies of empowerment can be employed see
also unit 9
 Education- It helps to expand human capability such as being able to read and write
and gain knowledge and skills
 Networking See unit 4
 Participation See unit 4
 Mobilization -This involves coming together as a group and demand space as well as
change. e.g. women‟s support groups in Zimbabwe for details see unit 4
 Capacity building see unit 9
 Sensitization see unit 9
 Public awareness campaigns see unit 9

 Legal instruments See unit 8 and 9
 Aid related projects e.g. income generating projects see unit 9
 Policies See unit 9
 Affirmative action to increase participation See unit 9
7.9 manifestations of empowered women and men
7.9.1 Making the modern women
The „ disempowered „women „ Empowerment “The empowered women‟‟

process
The rational mind
 without a plan  organized
 Ignorant  knowledgeable
 Emotional  analytical
 Fatalistic  vision for the future
 Caught up in own emotions  able to solve problems
 Does what she has always done  innovative
 Dreamer  realistic
 The autonomous self
 Insecure  self confident
 Self effacing  self aware
 Relies on others  autonomous
 Externally driven  self determined
 Recipient of decisions  decision maker
 Lack of shame  sense of dignity
 Dependent  independent
 Childish  responsible
 Can‟t stand up for herself  assertive
 Does not know what to say  strong negotiating skills
 Low self esteem  high self esteem
 Only looks pretty in public  involved with public life
 The disciplined self
 No control over own body  plan‟s family size
 Accept drinking / drinks herself  objects to alcoholism
 Dirty  hygienic / clean
 Bad mother / wife  good mother / wife
 Victim of diseases  healthy family
 Control over time and space
future orientate
 Static  mobile
 Lazy  hardworking
 Squanders resources/ consumes  investor
 No particular effort to educate  sends children to school

children
 Doesn‟t know how to talk  articulate
 Universalism
 Stuck in traditional peer group
 Doesn‟t vote  group member
 Doesn‟t feel entitled to anything  involved with public life
 Transactions medicated by  aware of her rights
personal ties  transact successfully using
 Passive money
 active
Adapted from Fiedrich and Jellema, 2003
7.9. 2 Making the Modern Man
“Disempowered man” Empowerment process “Empowered man”

 Uses force / he is  Does not use force but
aggressive and violent negotiates.
 shout instead of speaking  communicates instead
out of shouting out
 dependent  independent
 alienation / isolation  group member
 dominance/ superiority  accept gender equality
 low self- esteem  high self esteem
Men display these qualities in addition to the qualities displayed by women.

7.11 Conclusion
This unit focused on gender empowerment trying to answer the following questions: what is
gender empowerment? How can we recognize it? Evaluate it? It also showed that gender
empowerment is a bottom up process and cannot be bestowed from the top down. Although
the outside professional can facilitate empowerment, he or she cannot expect to control the
out comes of authentic empowerment Unit 8
Gender Law and Human Rights

By Nyevero Maruzani and Doreen Mazambani
CONTENTS
8.0 Introduction
8:1Objectives
8.2 Understanding Gender and the Law
8.3 How the law institutionalizes gender inequality
8.4 Progressive and retrogressive legislation
8.5 Gender analysis of laws

8.6 Legal redress of gender imbalances
8.7 Gender and human rights
8.8 Linking gender and human rights
8.9 Conclusion
8.0 Introduction
In the previous units an attempt has been made to define the term gender. Various concepts
have been looked at in an attempt to clarify the fact that gender is a social construct. From
that foundation, this chapter seeks to unveil how the law acts both as a legitimiser and
regulator of asymmetrical gender relations. The critical role that the law plays in maintaining
sexual stratification and shaping the inferior social and economic position of women in
society will be discussed. It is also the aim of this chapter to show how the law reflects and
shapes fundamental social values. Considering that gender is a variable that operates in a
social context the interrelationship of gender and human rights will also be discussed
8.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Highlight the interrelationship between gender, law and human rights

 Highlight progressive and retrogressive laws on gender issues
 Highlight the interrelationship between gender and human rights
 Assess knowledge of gender ,law and human rights through tasks
8.2 Understanding Gender and the Law
The law reflects and shapes fundamental social values as postulated by legal sociologists
Nadder and Todd:
Law has many functions. It serves to educate to punish and to protect private and public
interests, to maintain the status quo, to maintain class systems and to cut across them, to
integrate and to disintegrate societies, all these things in different places at different times
with different weightings (1978:1)
This evidences the fact that there are legal contradictions at work in society and that the law
is not a finished product of historical social processes. Thus the law can be both an
instrument of social change and an obstacle to it.
What is the law?
It is important that you understand what we mean by the term “law”. For this reason you
need to be clear in your mind about the various divisions within the body of the law. An
understanding of these divisions of the law will enable you to correctly classify the wrongful
act thereby enabling the parties concerned to determine their rights.

The law according to David and Colin (2002) may be defined as a rule of human conduct,
imposed upon and enforced among the members of a given state. Rules or laws are therefore
drawn up to ensure that members of a society ,that is you and me ,may live and work
together in an orderly and peaceable manner.
The law is the official rule that people must obey. It refers to the collection of rules imposed
by authority. Laws have often been described as gender neutral and others as gender specific.
Gender neutral laws are those that apply equally to everybody regardless of one is a man or
woman. Most laws generally fall into this category. At least on paper such laws apply
equally to everyone without discrimination even though in reality their effect on men and
women maybe different. Although most countries today have laws which give equal rights
to men and women the fact is that such laws tend to affect men and women differently
because of the different roles and paths in life that each follow. This is often referred to as the
difference between law in the book and law in reality.
Gender specific laws on the other hand are laws that apply specifically to either men or
women. This is mainly because men and women are different biologically so there maybe
instances where women require special laws when the reality of their biological differences is
taken into account. Laws on breast feeding and maternity leave are gender specific in that
they apply to women because they are the ones directly affected by pregnancy and childbirth.
In pursuit of gender equality especially in the caring of children paternity leave has been
introduced to allow fathers to take time off to look after their newly born children.
The law as given by Reynolds and Russell (1981) can be divided into two major categories
that is the public and the private law as follows:
Public-law – deals with relationships between the state and individuals e.g.
criminal law, administrative law and constitutional law.
Private Law: deals with relationships between individuals amongst

themselves e.g. law of delict, law of contract, law of property, law of
succession, law of obligations and family law.
Procedural Law: deals with how the rules governing state and individual
relationships are administered and enforced e.g. criminal procedure,
civil procedure and law of evidence. This type of law falls under
public and private laws(Reynolds and Russsel 1981:39)
Public/private dichotomy
The public sphere (work and politics) and private dichotomy (domestic life home and family
is deeply ingrained in the law. Regardless of the operative legal system or cultural context
laws concerning the public area e.g labour law have been modernized and brought in line
with more enlightened thinking while family and personal matters in the private sphere have
for the most part left untouched by the state e.g Section 23 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe
which permits discrimination in issues of customary family and personal law.

Applying the concept of gender to the law means that we must seek to understand how each
law affects men and women differently. If a law is gender neutral it does not mean that it
affects men and women in a similar way. A gender analysis of the law requires that we
appreciate sameness as well as differences between men and women. In any society laws we
also need laws that recognize the differences between men and women.
A gender analysis of the law is also important because simply changing the law does not
mean the end of discrimination. Often even after a law is changed there is need to
understand the different factors that prevent that law from being effective. There are many
reasons why the law may not be effective. Administratively those who apply the law may not
be doing the best they can to make sure that it works effectively. Equally important is that
society‟s attitudes and beliefs may also prevent the law from being effective. If we
understand what these attitudes are, then we can work effectively towards changing them.
8.3 How the law institutionalizes gender inequality
Four mechanisms are key to this process:

 Unjust formal law that are discriminatory and limit the scope of
women.
 Prejudicial enforcement of laws favourable to women by
administrative and state enforcement agents such as police,
courts and prisons.
 Lacunae/gaps in the law. In some instances women‟s inferior
status results prejudicial social practices not changed by the
law.
 Remoteness of the law. There is general ignorance of the law
despite the prescription of awareness which makes ignorance
of the law not a defense ignorance of the law and law making
processes especially by women who tend to be unaware of their
status of the rights they posses, of the effect laws have on than,
or the role they might play in changing the law.
Societies regulate the acquisition and control of land, jobs credit and other goods and
services through their legal systems and adjudicative processes. Women‟s subordination
based on unequal gender relations is manifest in the law in several key areas particularly
labour law, criminal law and civil law which governs legal capacity, rights and obligations in
marriage, guardianship, inheritance income, land rights and participation in public affairs.

Laws reinforce women‟s oppression by legitimizing hierarchical gender relations, proprietary
relations of men over women unequal division of labour and power over the allocation of
resources.
8.4 Progressive and retrogressive legislation
Examples of retrogressive legislation
a) Constitution of Zimbabwe Section 23

b) Companies Act Section 171(3) (b)
c) Communal Lands Act and land reform programme
d) Customary marriages Act
e) Guardianship of minors Act
f) Land Acquisition Act
g) Mining Act
Constitution of Zimbabwe Section 23
Section 23 of the constitution of Zimbabwe is the non-discrimination clause. It makes

discrimination on the grounds of among other things race, colour, creed, tribe, and religion,
sex impermissible. This section was amended in 1996 by Amendment 14 to add „gender‟ as
another impermissible basis for discrimination. This same section excludes discrimination in
matters relating to „adoption, marriage, divorce, and devolution of property on death or other
matters of personal law‟. What this means is that while the constitution purports to protect
women against gender-based discrimination, it excludes from constitutional regulation,
family, personal and customary law yet these are the areas of law in which gender
discrimination is mostly entrenched.
Section 173(1) (b) Companies Act
The section reads:

Disqualification for appointment as director:
(1) (a) a minor or any other person under legal disability
(!) (b) provided that a woman married in community of property may be director if her
husband gives his written consent and that consent is lodged with the Registrar of
Companies.
What this means is that only a woman requires the husband‟s consent for her to become a
director but the woman‟s consent is not required for the husband to become a director. This
stems from the issue of power where the husband as head of family and home decision-
maker should sanction any actions of other members of the household including the wife
especially where such actions can result in legal and financial liability to the matrimonial
estate.
Communal Lands Act (1982)

In communal areas land should be apportioned in accordance with the customs and practices
of the people of the area in consultation with traditional leaders and the district administrator.
There is no enabling legal framework to ensure equality in the redistribution of land.

Colonial land tenure arrangements that discriminated against women have been perpetuated
in the present day through the Communal Lands Act. Under this law, women in communal
areas, where most rural Zimbabweans live, are still expected to depend on men for land,
denying them land tenure rights. Even though section 16 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe
stipulates that every citizen has an equal right to ownership of property, another
constitutional provision, section 23 has permitted discrimination against women under
customary law. Given the fact that customary law places heavy emphasis on land rights
being enjoyed by the head of the household who in the context of Zimbabwean customary
law is generally considered to be male, women‟s land rights are not adequately protected.
The fact that women lack access to and control over land makes them unable to acquire
credit, marketing facilities and excludes them from decision making powers over agricultural
production activities and benefits.
Land reform programme
In October 2000, the Government of Zimbabwe undertook to allocate at least 20% of all land
identified for resettlement to women. It was discrimination in itself to allocate only 20% to
women when they make up 52% of the population. Despite this, by August 2002 when the
President announced that the fast Track Land Reform Programme had been officially
completed, the land quota for women had not been put into law and the number of females
allocated land was very low countrywide. According to the 2003 Utete land Audit Report,
female-headed households who benefited under model A1 (peasant farmers) constituted only
18% of the total number of household while female beneficiaries under the Model A2
(commercial farmers) constituted only 12%.
Guardianship of Minors Act
Guardianship involves having the capacity to make decisions on behalf of a minor in both
contractual and judicial matters and pertaining to the child‟s welfare. This law makes the
father of a child born in wedlock (in marriage) the natural guardian so entitled to make
decisions pertaining to the child‟s welfare and his consent is required un juridical acts like
acquisition of birth certificates, passports and performance of surgical processes. There is no
joint guardianship with the mother.
This emanates from the social norm that children belong to the father whose name they take
after. The woman is just a medium reproduction of that which does not belong to her.
For children born out of wedlock (out of marriage) the mother of the child is the sole
guardian. The father does not have any rights towards the child except for purposes of
maintenance if the mother so wishes to claim it.

Mining Act
The Act does not permit women from working underground in mines it seems to be based on
the notion of women‟s fragility and irrationality hence the need to prevent harm to
themselves and others since mining is considered a hazardous occupation.
Examples of progressive legislation
a) Administration of Estates Amendment 6/97

b) Deeds Registries Amendment Act
c) Income tax Amendment Act
d) Labour Relations Amendment Act
e) Matrimonial causes Act
f) Minimum Wages Regulations
g) Prevention of Domestic Violence and Protection of Victims of Domestic Violence
Bill
h) Sexual Discrimination Removal Act
Administration of Estates Amendment 6/97
The amendment now allows women to inherit from their husbands, although there is still
discrimination in polygamous marriages where senior wife gets a bigger portion in spite of
contributions by junior wives.
The Act also:
- Abolished concept of male heirship and male beneficiary in own personal capacity
and replaced it executorship where an executor usually surviving spouse is tasked by
the court to oversee distribution of estate and benefits from estate together with other
beneficiaries including surviving children both male and female.
- Surviving spouse (male or female) and children (male and female) now prime
beneficiaries of deceased estate.
Magaya V Magaya
This case involved inheritance rights. The Supreme Court of Zimbabwe made a landmark
decision that gave precedence to customary law over the constitution. The ruling that women
cannot be considered equal to men before the law in issues of inheritance because of African
cultural norms and the nature of African society was in itself discrimination on the basis of
sex.
A female eldest child was denied the right to inherit in preference of a younger brother. The
judge in the lower court held that:
“The claimant is a lady and therefore cannot be appointed heir to her father‟s estate when
there is a man…”

The judiciary backed up its decision by referring to Section 23 of the constitution of
Zimbabwe. The Constitution prohibits discrimination in Article 23(1) but in Article 23(3)
recognizes exceptions to this general prohibition against discrimination in issues relating to
among others adoption, marriage, divorce, burial, devotion of property on death or other
matters of personal law as well as the application of African customary law. Essentially, by
making this judgement, the Supreme Court elevated customary law beyond constitutional
scrutiny Outcry after the decision led to Amendment 6/97 as discussed above.
Deeds Registries Act
Women can now register immovable property in their own name (applies to urban and rural
commercial land where title deeds are obtainable.
Equal Pay Regulations (1980)

s
The Regulations provide for equal pay for work of equal value.
Income Tax Amendment Act
The Income Tax Act was amended in favour of women, in 1990. Prior to the amendment;
married women‟s income was taxed as part of the husband‟s income. Now spouses are taxed
separately. This resulted in women ending up with little money, because allowances such as
children‟s allowances were credited to men.
Labour Relations Amendment Act (2004)
- Non-discrimination in the workplace on the basis of sex or gender in recruitment,

promotion, training, retrenchment and other benefits.
- 98 days fully paid maternity leave for both public and private sector employed
women
- Prohibition of sexual harassment
Legal Age of Majority Act (LAMA) (1982)
In 1982, the Legal Age of Majority Act conferred on all persons of both sexes full legal
capacity on reaching 18 years of age.
- Section 3 thereof bestowed majority status on African women who were previously
considered perpetual minors upon attainment of the age of 18.
- Bestowed legal capacity on African women who previously lacked it so women can
now perform legal and juristic acts such as entering into contracts without the
assistance of male guardians and control over their sexuality. Women of 18 years or
above, not their guardians cannot sue for seduction damages.
- Reduced age of majority from 21-18 for both males and females.

Chihowa V Mangwende SC 84/87
The then Chief Justice held:

The legislature by enacting LAMA made women who in African law and custom
were perpetual minors majors and therefore equal to men who are majors.
Concern has been raised over the Act‟s failure to pronounce the legality or otherwise of the
payment of lobola. Some women believe that their oppression is rooted in this system and
recommend that it be made illegal. However there are dissenting voices on the issue.
Maintenance Act
Provides for maintenance claims for spouse and children or for children born out of wedlock
against spouse of child‟s parent who is obliged to materially support dependents and has been
failing to fulfill the obligation and is financially capable of doing so.
Matrimonial Causes Act (1985)
The Act allows for equitable distribution of property between spouses on divorce in a
registered marriage. The Act empowered the courts to override customary law and to effect a
more equitable re-distribution of matrimonial property upon dissolution of a marriage. The
law takes into account a woman‟s economic or domestic contribution to the well being of her
family and thus ensures equitable distribution of matrimonial property between the spouses.
Unfortunately the Act does not apply to unregistered customary marriages, which are legally
not recognized as valid marriages except for purposed of African law and custom relating to
the status, guardianship, custody and rights of succession in the children.
Minimum Wages (1980)
Minimum wages for various unskilled occupations the majority of whom are women were
set. Seasonal workers (tobacco, tea and cotton pickers) were categorized as permanent for
purposes of pension benefits.
Sexual Offences Act (2001)
- Provides protection from sexual abuse to all children not only the girl child as was
previously the case.
- Both men and women are deemed capable of performing sexual offences including
rape.
- Protection of women from non-consensual sexual intercourse within marriage
(marital rape protection)
- Spousal liability for willful transmission of HIV

Prevention of Domestic Violence and Protection of Victims of Domestic Violence Bill
- Seeks to eliminate violence be it physical, verbal or economic in relationships of a

domestic nature e.g. husband/wife boyfriend/girlfriend, child/parent etc
- Both males and females can be perpetrators or victims of domestic violence
- Social, religious and cultural practices such as virginity testing, chiramu (in-law
flirtation), kuzvarira (pledging) chimutsamapfihwa (substitute wifing) etc are
outlawed as constituting domestic violence.
Matrimonial Causes Act (1985)
- Recognises a married woman‟s right to matrimonial property upon divorce.

- Introduced equitable distribution of matrimonial property upon divorce, which takes
into consideration domestic work input.
8.5 Gender Analysis of Laws
Case law is a body of available writings explaining the verdict in a case(Oran,1983: 5). It is
most created by judges in their rulings when they write their decisions and give the reasoning
behind them as well as citing precedents in other cases and statutes that had a bearing on
their decisions case law is often referred to as common-law in many regions of the world.
Oran(1983) also referred to it as judge made law. The term judge made law is derived form
the fact that while legislation is technically passed in most countries by a legislative branch,
courts are able to exercise moderate amount of quasi-legislative power through the use of
precedent case-law. Case law allows courts to transform decisions that may have taken a
great deal of time and energy to arrive at into a de-facto law, making future cases much
easier to decide.
Curzon(2002) concurs with Oran(1983) on the view that statutory or statute law is written
law set down by a legislative body. Statutes are enacted in response to a perceived need to
clarify the function of government, improve civil order, to codify existing law or for an
individual or company to obtain special treatment. Statute law refers to the law that has been
created by parliament in the form of legislation. It can also be described as an act of
parliament.
ACTIVITY 8. 3
 What is the advantage of doing gender analysis of laws?
 Who benefits from that analysis?
With the given explanations of case and statutory law we are going to look at the gender
analysis of certain laws. The idea of gender analysis will not be discussed here as it has been
looked at in detail in a previous chapter.
Examples of gender dimensions in Zimbabwe’s Law

Table 8.1
Law Gender Analysis
S23 of the Constitution The constitution grants equal right to everyone and
of Zimbabwe protection from discrimination on the grounds of race,
tribe, place of origin, political opinions, color, creed or
gender. However, its protection of customary law in
matters such as adoption, marriage, divorce, burial,
devolution of property, on death or other matters of
personal including rights relating to communal land
impact on men and women differently since customary
laws in these areas tends to disadvantage women. The
constitutional provisions relating to non discrimination can
be said to be worded in a gender neutral manner but they
impact on men and women in a very gender specific way.
The Legal Age of The legal age of majority Act is a gender-neutral piece of
Majority Act (Now part legislation in that it gives equal rights to everyone at the
of the general laws age of 18. however, it impacts more on women because of
Amendment Act how society has tended to regard their status as being
Chapter 8:07) inferior. Matrimonial causes Act contains guidelines on
distribution of property on divorce. It is largely gender
neutral but also contains some provisions, which can be
looked at from a gender specific viewpoint. Of
importance is the recognition amongst other things f
contributions made to the family by looking after the
home, and caring for the family as well as any other
domestic duties. It is mainly, though not exclusively,
women who are involved in this kind of work and
therefore stand to benefit more from a direct recognition of
housework.
The Labour Relations It contains some gender specific provisions particularly
Act those relating to maternity leave and breastfeeding rights.
The Deceased Persons It is a gender-neutral piece of legislation, which allows a
Family Maintenance Act person who was being maintained by the deceased to
claim support from the estate. It also protects the estate
from property grabbers. In reality when we look at the
effects of this Act, it is again quite clear that because of
the social realities that exist on the ground it tends to have
a different meaning for men and women.
Administration of Puts emphasis on the surviving spouse(s) and children as
Estates Amendment Act the primary beneficiaries of the estate. It can be descried
as being both gender neutral and gender specific at the
same time. It is gender specific in that it treats the
distribution of the estate of a polygamous man differently
from the death of one of his spouses. While widows can
expect to share 1/3 from the estate of each of his wives
should they die before him.

Infanticide Act Allows the court to examine the special circumstances of
women who kill their babies. Since it is women who give
birth, the Act is largely gender specific although it also
contains some provisions relating to the father of the child.
Customary Marriages This is an example of a law that is seemingly gender
Act neutral but favours men. It allows polygamy as a practice
for men only in that they can take on more than one wife.
8.6 Way Forward – legal redress of gender imbalances
- Enactment of Gender equality Act

- Gender audit and review of all legislation to make it gender sensitive and responsive
- Gender training for state administrators and law enforcement agents
- Legal literacy
- Legal education or sensitization
- Community gender and human rights training
8.7 Gender and Human Rights
What are Human rights?
Human rights refer to basic rights or legal claims to which all humans are entitled by virtue
of them being human(English and Stapleton,1997:7). Professor Jack Donnely in Chiweshe et
al (2003) define human rights as the rights that one has simply because one is human. He
goes on to say:
Human rights, because they rest on nothing more than being

human are universal, equal and inalienable. They are held up
by all beings universally. One either is or is not human
and thus has or does not have rights equally.And can no more lose
these rights than one can stop being a human being .No matter
how inhumane the treatment one may suffer. One is entitled to
human rights and is empowered by them(page 9)
To put it in simpler terms, human rights can be given as those freedoms or claims that every
human being is automatically entitled to, just because you are born a human being
Examples of rights and freedoms which are often classified as human rights include right to
life and to liberty, freedom of expression and equality before the law, economic, social and
cultural rights, the right to participate in culture, right to food, right to work and the right to
education. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of
brotherhood. Human rights are rights which people are entitled to simply because they are
human beings regardless of their nationality, race, ethnicity, gender or religion. These are
rights that every human being automatically qualities for at birth. No personal factors can
lead one being denied these rights. Central to the concept of human rights is the protection of
human dignity.

The gendered nature of human Rights
The promotion of gender equality remains one of the greatest challenges of our times,
globally and locally. At a global level there are many international human rights instruments
that on the face of it grant equal rights to men and women. Some of the major instruments
include the Universal Declaration of human rights as well as the Covenant on Social and
Economic rights.
From a gender perspective it is also important to understand how the different human rights
instruments deal or do not deal with issues of gender.
Human rights have often been spoken of in terms of different generation of rights depending
on what they deal with.
- First generation of rights Civil and political rights

- Second generation of rights Social economic and cultural rights
- Third generation of rights Collective/solidarity or group rights
The analysis below discusses briefly some of the criticisms that have been made against each
of this generation of rights in terms of how they deal with the gender issues.
First Generation of Rights: Civil and Political Rights
The major criticism against this generation of rights is that they are mainly founded on the
experiences of men in public as opposed to highlighting the experiences of both men and
women. Women tend to experience violations of their rights in the private sphere. In other
words, what has come to concern us under this generation of rights has largely excluded the
experiences of women as illustrated more fully in the examples below.
For example, the right to life which is a granted to all in Article 6 of the Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights, is criticized for being interpreted in a manner which treats the threat to
the right to life as coming from state actors only. The global interpretation is criticized for
excluding important spheres that also threaten the right to life for women when compared to
men such as:
- Abortion
- Infanticide (eg killing of girl children in cultures that favour male children)
- Malnutrition (e.g from feeding men first in some cultures)
- Less access to health care compared to men (death from pregnancy and lack of access
to health care)
- Violence against women, which can result in death
Freedom from torture is also criticized for being interpreted in a manner which assumes that
most torture takes place at the hands of public officials when for most women when

compared to men the greatest level of torture takes place in the home, the private sphere as
opposed to the public sphere.
The interpretation of the right to liberty and security of the person is also criticized for being
interpreted in manner which addresses actions of the state only and does not address
violations to liberty and security of the person that result from sexual violence against
women.
The right to privacy, another major civil political right is also criticized from a gender view
point for protecting the home and the family as private sites when they can be very dangerous
places for women because of the violence which often takes place inside them.
Second Generation Rights: Social Economic and Cultural Rights
The criticism of social and economic rights is that like civil and political rights, they have
tended to be interpreted in a manner, which takes men‟s experiences more into account
compared to the experiences of women. For example, Article 7 of the Covenant talks of the
right to work, equal remuneration of workers, favourable working conditions, equal
opportunities for promotion and so on. The bulk of women, when compared to men are
confined to work in the private sphere, yet the article is more concerned with work in the
public sphere.
Cultural and religious rights which are also guaranteed by this covenant are areas that often
present problems for women.
Another criticism is that state parties are regarded as central in achieving social and
economic rights when for most women, their rights are often negotiated through individual
men or groups of men.
Third Generation Rights: Collective or group rights
The right to development and the right to self-determination constitute some of the major
collective or group rights. They tend to emphasize the rights of groups and collectives as
opposed to the rights of individuals. From a gender perspective, these rights are regarded as
problematic for several reasons.
The right to development for instance has often been interpreted to suit male economic
needs. An example is land distribution that has tended to favour men at the expense of
women.
The right to self-determination has also often been interpreted in a manner that masks the
oppression of women. Women are often neglected in nationalists‟ movements.
The major criticism from a gender perspective of third generation rights is that they have
generally addressed male interests in political life rather than taking care of the interests of
both men and women.

Summary of criticism of mainstream human rights from a gender perspective
The process through which the rights were formulated did not include women and
therefore it is largely the experiences of what human rights are.
The priority given to civil and political rights marginalizes social and economic
rights.
Many issues of concern to women such as underdevelopment, illiteracy, gender

segregation, lack of reproductive choice, have either not been defined as human
rights in main stream instruments or are not binding in terms of enforcement.
Governments, in the name of culture often justify violations of human rights.
Women as compared to men are also seriously underrepresented in human rights

bodies.
Are Women’s Rights Human Rights?
One may wonder why this section asks about the rights of women only. You may be very
correct to wonder that way, may be you see the need for an address of the rights of women
or you are thinking otherwise but after reading this section I am sure together you and i can
justify our standpoints.
Women‟s rights are human rights. Why? Women are human beings! Women‟s equal dignity
and human rights as full human beings are enshrined in the basic instruments of today‟s
international community. From the Charter of the United Nations endorsement of the equal
rights of men and women (1945) to the universal declaration of human rights (1948) and the
subsequent international treaties and declarations.
The rights of women are central to our democratic society. These declarations and treaties
and even the Vienna Declaration of (1993) and the Declaration of Beijing (1995) stand in
sharp contrast to the daily realities for millions of women, of the 1.3 billion people living in
poverty 70% are women, the majority of the world‟s refugees are women, female illiteracy.
Women and girls are treated as commodities in cross boarder prostitution rackets and in the
pornography industry. Millions of girls are still subject to genital mutilations while women
in every country are regular victims of domestic violence, in many countries women lack
access to reproductive health care and everyday women are targeted in armed conflict.

Women‟s economic, social and cultural rights continue to be neglected. There can be no
peace, security or sustainable economic development in societies which deny human rights
including the human rights of women. Fighting for women rights is a positive struggle, which
recognizes the quality of women‟s contribution in every aspect of the community, in politics,
industry commerce, education, academic, agriculture and home. Women‟s rights are human
rights and the United Nations High Commissioner for human rights is committed to work in
partnership with UN agencies and programmes, governments, regional organisations,
academic institutions, the NGO community and women throughout the world to promote and
protect women‟s rights and to translate these rights to a better quality of the life for all.
Hillary Clinton at the fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing China presented a
speech in which he strongly pronounced that women‟s rights are human rights. Consider an
important quote, which says:
The human rights of women and the girl child are an inalienable, integral and
indivisible part of the universal human rights. The fall and equal participation of
women in political, civil economic, social and cultural life at the national regional and
international levels and the eradication of all forms of discrimination on the grounds
of sex are priority objectives of the international community (Vienna Declaration and
Platform of Action Part 1 Paragraph 18).
S
I am sure our discussion on the issue of women „s rights as human rights has been
justifiedAs you can see women are denied their rights due too a number of reasons .These
reasons may be big or small,economic,cultural and many others ,the point remains; some
rights are granted or denied due to one‟s sex .The next section highlights this aspect.
8:8 Linking Gender and Human Rights
Analysis of content and nature of human rights as well as measures to ensure their enjoyment
should be informed by gender based considerations. There are many processes at the
domestic and international levels through which the content of human rights is clarified and
their implementations occurs. The systematic integration of gender factors into these
processes, into measures for implementation and into domestic and international monitoring
is a global challenge.
In the enjoyment of rights women face constraints and vulnerabilities which differ from those
that affect men and which are of significant relevance to the enjoyment of these rights. This
variable mean that women maybe affected by violations of rights in ways that are different
from men. Women are disappropriately affected by poverty and social marginalization.
They suffer systematic and unsystematic discrimination which results in deep patterns of
inequality and disadvantage. The overall level of development and of resources available to
countries, women‟s literacy levels and women‟s access to information and to legal remedies
also have an impact on women‟s enjoyment of their rights. The gender based division of

labour with women being primarily responsible for reproductive work and work related the
family and men for productive work, also contributes to the perpetration of gender
inequalities.
Many women experience multiple barriers in gaining access to rights such as employment,
housing, land, food and social security. These barriers include the disproportionate burden of
reproductive and care-giving work performed by women, the sexual division of labour and
segregated employment practices, discriminatory traditional and cultural laws and practices,
unequal representation by women in political and other decision making structures at all
levels and the widespread violence perpetuated against women. Women‟s social position,
marital status class or membership in particular vulnerable groups such as refugees or
migrant women rural or urban poor women are often linked to discrimination.
When laws, customs, traditional roles family responsibilities or attitudes and stereotypes
provide women with fewer opportunities or place them at a disadvantage as they seek to
access opportunities remedial measures are needed to eliminate such disadvantages to
prevent them from recurring. When policies are designed in the context of respect for
promotion and protection of human rights then unequal outcomes for women in the economic
and social spheres oblige governments to design procedures in a way that reduces inequality.
Human Rights Instruments and Gender
Over the last decade the concept of gender has increasingly informed policy programming
and treaty interpretation both within and outside the UN system. The principle of equal
rights of women and men was recognized in the UN Charter and is contained in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and all subsequent international human rights instruments. The
need for women‟s participation in all spheres of society both in the public and private
domains and the recognition of inequality and discrimination in the private domain led to the
creation of specific standards for the protection of women‟s rights.
In (1979) the United Nations adopted the convention on the Elimination of all forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). CEDAW establishes women‟s right to non-
discrimination on the basis of sex and affirms equality in international law. It provides that
women and men are entitled to equal enjoyment and exercise of human rights and
fundamental freedoms in civil, cultural, economic, political and social fields. The (1993)
Vienna Conference of Human Rights the (1994) Cairo Conference on Population and
Development and the (1995) Beijing Women‟s World Conference recognized the need to
build on these principles to assert women‟s rights. These global conferences promoted the
review of policies and programmes from the perspective of their impact on women and men
that is the re-evaluation of policies and programmes from a gender perspective. This has led
to gender mainstreaming (discussed in Unit 1), which aimed at correcting disparities in
different policy sectors and ensuring their enjoyment of civil, cultural, economic political and
social rights. Gender mainstreaming also requires action to identify areas where gender
constitute a risk factor for violation or abuse of human rights for example gender based
violence. All in all gender mainstreaming is an organizational imperative so as to reinforce

the principle of non-discrimination on the basis of sex for the achievement of gender equality
and the enjoyment of human rights.
Implementation of human rights instruments on gender equality
The Women’s Convention: A Search for Gender equality?
Because of the limitations of the major human rights instruments in addressing gender issues,
women successfully lobbied for a major international human rights instrument dealing with
women‟ issues. It came into force on the 3 rd of September 1981. Its approach is to seek to
improve the lives of women by making them equal with men.
Among its provisions, the Women‟s Convention calls for the ending of discrimination
against women through constitutional and legal reforms. It also seeks for women‟s equality
in political and civil life. It also calls for equality in marriage and family life and specifically
addresses the rights of rural women.
The African Charter on Human and People’s rights
Regional Instruments are an important frame of reference for human rights in addition to
international instruments. In our case the Africa Charter on Human and People‟s Rights
plays as a crucial role in defining human rights from an African viewpoint. While the
Charter is largely gender neutral in its approach it contains some Articles that speak directly
to women. For example, Article 18 requires states to eliminate discrimination against
women and ensure the protection of women and children as required by international
instruments.
From a gender analysis viewpoint, the African Charter talks of preserving positive African
cultural values. Cultural values that are preserved should not be the ones that seek to oppress
women. Within the African context talk of cultural values raises important questions about
practices such as lobola, female circumcision and widow inheritance, to mention a few.
The Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of Women
Because of the limitations of the African Charter as a largely gender neutral document in
bringing gender equality particularly for women, the heads of state adopted an additional
instrument in 2002 called the Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of women. Like
the CEDAW, it seeks to address key areas where women need to be uplifted. It singles out
practices that need to be done away with if women and men are to achieve equality, such as
circumcision and widow inheritance and polygamous marriages.
While it is a progressive instrument the problem is that it can only come into force when at
least 16 African countries have adopted it at the country level. So far only four countries
have.
The SADC Declaration on gender and development

Another instrument which is of use in understanding gender issues is the SADC Declaration
on Gender and Development. It was adopted by the heads of state of the Southern African
Development Community in 1997. It is informed by the understanding of gender equality as
a fundamental human right and more significantly by the appreciation of the role of gender
equality in the sustainable development of the SADC region. It also acknowledges the
significant point that most SADC member countries have ratified CEDAW or are in the
process of doing so. As such, the SADC Declaration, as is the case with the African Charter
on Human and People‟s Rights, has to be in line with the letter and the spirit of CEDAW.
Also emphasized are the gains to be made from closer cooperation and collective action on
gender issues within the region. Areas identified as needing particular attention are the
gender disparities in decision-making, power sharing access and control over reproductive
resources, education, health and legal rights. Especially noteworthy is the undertaking to
repeal and reform all laws, amend constitutions and change social practices that continue to
subject women to discrimination.
National Effort
Zimbabwe is party to the major international human rights such as the Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights, the Covenant on Social and Economic Rights the Convention on the
Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women. It is also a party to the African
Charter on Human and People‟s rights. However, it has not yet adopted the Protocol to the
African Charter on the rights of women. While a lot of progress has been made at the
country level in terms of changing laws and adopting new ones that seek to equalize the
rights of men and women, the biggest challenge in Zimbabwe remains in the implementation
of these laws both administratively and at societal level.
A significant limitation from a gender viewpoint is that our Constitution as the highest law of
the land still contains provisions, which tend to protect customary law from the non-
discriminatory provisions. The constitution as the highest law of the land needs to be an
instrument that fosters equality without fear or favour.
8:9 Conclusion
From the foregoing it is evident that Zimbabwean society is relatively unequal in terms of
gender. This inequality between men and women is negatively impacting on income
distribution, political participation, power relations, access to, control and ownership of
economic and productive resources leading to impediment of human development efforts
aimed at addressing issues of equity, social justice and human rights. Various pieces of
legislation are in place to maintain the status quo. It can also be concluded that despite the
fact that 52% of the Zimbabwean population are women, men continue to have a higher
human development index as compared to females in terms of political participation,
decision-making and education. However, the government is making strides in attempting to

promote gender equality in both the public and private sphere but section 23 of the
constitution seems to be a provision carved on stone and has remained etched in the supreme
law of the land.

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UNDERSTANDING GENDER

1.2 Unit Objectives

1.3 Gender and related concepts.

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Table 1.1 Differentiating gender from sex.

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Gender Affirmative Action

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Gender practical needs

Gender strategic needs

1.4 Social Construction of Gender

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The Peer Group

The Mass Media

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TYPES OF GENDER SOCIALISATION

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THEORIES OF GENDER INEQUALITIES

2.2 Unit Objectives

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2.3 What is a theory?

2.4 What is Feminism?

Biology is not destiny and therefore stratification by Gender is

2.4.1 Rise of Feminism

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2.4.2 Common aspects shared by Feminists

2.4.3 Feminist Differences

2.5. What is Gender?

Table 2.1 Differences between Feminist and Gender Theories

Feminist Theories Gender Theories

2.6 Both feminist and gender theories agree on the following:

* Gender differences are socially rather than biologically constructed.

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2.7 Biological Theories

Table 2.2 Biological Theories

Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud

Biology and Practicality G.P. Murdock

2.7.1 Brain Laterisation and Hormonal Explanations

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2.7.2 Psycho-analytic theory (by Sigmund Freud)

2.7.4 Biology and Practicality

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2.7.5 Biology: Expressive and Instrumental Roles (Talcott Parsons)

2.8 MACRO-THEORIES OF GENDER INEQUALITIES

2.8.1 Liberal theory

It is the first documented form of feminism. According to Gaidzanwa in Meena (1992),

 Industrial Revolution in Europe especially Britain that created structural changes in

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2.8.1.2 Major Exposition

Giddens (2001:692) defines liberal theory as a:

Liberal feminists believe:-

 In individual rights for women.

Liberals propose the following as solutions to women‟s problems:

2.8.1.4 Applicability of the Liberal Theory

Headmaster - School Head

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2.8.1.5 Limitations of the Theory.

 .Do not addresses underlying causes of women‟s oppression (Bryson, 1992).

2.8.2 Marxist- Feminist Theory