Philosophical Magazine A

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Function of hydrogen in intergranular fracture of

martensitic steels

M. Nagumo & H. Matsuda

To cite this article: M. Nagumo & H. Matsuda (2002) Function of hydrogen in intergranular
fracture of martensitic steels, Philosophical Magazine A, 82:17-18, 3415-3425, DOI:
10.1080/01418610208240452

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Published online: 04 Aug 2009.

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 Taylor ti Francis
PHILOSOPHICAL A, 2002, VOL. 82,
MAGAZINE Taylor h Francis Croup

NO. 17/18, 3415-3425

Function of hydrogen in intergranular fracture of

martensitic steels

O ~H. MATSUDA~
M. N A G U Mand
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Waseda University,
Okubo 3-4-1, Shinjuku, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan

ABSTRACT
The mechanism of intergranular-mode fracture in hydrogen-related failure of
high-strength martensitic steels has been investigated. Pronounced degradation
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of tensile properties appeared with increasing manganese content in a slow-

elongation-rate test under concurrent hydrogen charging. The fracture mode
was intergranular with tear traces along martensite lath boundaries. The tear
traces disappeared and the average surface roughness decreased with increasing
manganese content. Thermal desorption analysis of -hydrogen charged to
deformed specimens has been conducted using hydrogen as a probe of defects.
It was revealed that the density of point defects increased owing to straining and
was more noticeable in steels with a higher manganese content. In common with
transgranular-mode fracture, the primary function of hydrogen in intergranular-
mode fracture is thought to be one of stabilizing and increasing the density of
strain-induced vacancies that lead to the formation of microcracks or microvoids
in the vicinity of boundaries. The constraint of plastic deformation a t grain
boundaries due to boundary phases is likely to determine the susceptibility to
hydrogen-related failure induced by strain concentration.

9 1. INTRODUCTION
Intergranular fracture is a mode that often appears in martensitic steels having
high susceptibility to hydrogen-related failure. The tendency towards intergranular
cracking increases with increasing segregation of impurities (Yoshino and McMahon
1974, Briant et al. 1978) or the presence of second-phase particles along grain
boundaries (Inoue et al. 1981, Gerberich et al. 1988). A mechanism was proposed
in terms of the brittle fracture model that presumed a reduction in the cohesive
strength (Troiano 1960, Oriani and Josephic 1974), through a concomitant effect
of hydrogen with impurities or an accumulation of hydrogen at second-phase
particles to a critical concentration.
In precise examinations of the fracture surface of a hydrogenated AISI 4340
steel, Gerberich et al. (1988) observed fingers or striations on the intergranular
surface. The origin was assigned to the tearing of ligaments between microvoids
that originated in non-metallic inclusions or hydrogen traps along martensite lath
boundaries. It is an indication that plasticity is involved in intergranular fracture and

7 Email: nagumo@waseda.jp.
1Present address: Honda Research and Development, Ltd, Tochigi Research and
Development Center, 4639 Shimotakanezawa, Hagamachi, Tochigi 321-3393, Japan. Email:
hideki-matsuda@n. t.rd.honda.co.jp.

Philosophical Mngazirie A ISSN 0141-8610 print/lSSN 1460-6992 online 0 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www. tandf.co.uk/journals
D01: 10.1080101418610210155735
 3416 M. Nagumo and H. Matsuda

the understanding was that hydrogen promotes microvoid initiation at hydrogen-

accumulated sites as a result of blockage of hydrogen transport by moving disloca-
tions. On the other hand, an in-situ transmission electron microscopy observation by
Robertson et al. (1984) of crack propagation in nickel, iron and nickel-based super-
alloy thin foils under a hydrogen atmosphere revealed that fracture occurs in the
vicinity of but not in the grain boundary itself. Their observation implies that plas-
ticity in the localized area vicinal to the boundaries is deeply involved in crack
propagation, in accord with the hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity (HELP)
model of hydrogen-related failure proposed by Birnbaum and Sofronis (1994) and
Sofronis and Birnbaum (1995).
One problem is whether fracture is due to intrinsic intergranular cracking or
plastic strain vicinal to the boundaries. Regarding the role of hydrogen, both the
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brittle fracture and the HELP models are based on the assumption of high hydro-
gen density in boundaries, as revealed directly by tritium autoradiography
(Taguchi 1979), secondary-ion mass spectroscopy (Takai et al. 1996) and a micro-
print technique (Overjero-Garcia 1985). However, the function of hydrogen has
not been conclusive. The concept of critical hydrogen concentration has been
widely employed as the criterion for failure (Gerberich et al. 1996, Pound 1998),
but its function is still a matter to be examined, even when the presumed quantity
can be employed. Most hydrogen in steel is in a trapped state at various defects. A
key issue in the mechanism of hydrogen embrittlement is the state of hydrogen
crucial to embrittlement and its function in the fracture process. We must also
understand the mechanism of the microstructure dependence of the susceptibility
to fracture.
By means of hydrogen or tritium thermal desorption analysis (TDA), a substan-
tial increase in hydrogen absorption was shown to take place accompanying plastic
straining in ferritic (Nagumo et ul. 1999) and martensitic (Suzuki et al. 1994) steels.
The major defects acting as the trap sites were identified as point defects. As for the
fracture process, it was shown (Nagumo et al. 2000) that the increased density of
point defects, created by the constraint of slip extension by second-phase particles
along grain boundaries, decreases resistance to ductile crack growth. This implies
that ductile failure is strongly affected by a dynamic process of defect creation. Our
recent finding on hydrogen-related failure (Nagumo ef al. 2001b) is that the delayed
fracture of martensitic steel is accelerated under a condition of alternating hydrogen
charging. In that case, the failure took place earlier at a lower hydrogen concentra-
tion than that under a constant-charging condition. Delayed fracture with a
decreased hydrogen concentration was also reported by Kushida (1997) in an
exposure test under a natural environment. The findings imply that the hydrogen
concentration itself is not a decisive factor in the failure.
Another finding (Nagumo et al. 2001a) is that the susceptibility to delayed frac-
ture of martensitic steels correlates well with the stabilization of vacancies created by
straining. From such findings, point defects (presumably vacancies that are created
in the course of plastic straining) have been thought to be intrinsically associated
with the susceptibility to hydrogen-related failure. It has been proposed that the
function of hydrogen in embrittlement is to stabilize and increase the density of
vacancies.
In view of the preceding results, the tendency towards intergranular fracture
should be examined with respect to the defects associated with straining. The objec-
tive of the present paper is to investigate the function of hydrogen in the inter-
 Hydrogen in intergranular fracture of martensitic steels 3417

granular-mode fracture in hydrogen-related failure of martensitic steels. Focusing on

strain-induced defects, hydrogen has been used as a probe for detecting the defects
by means of TDA.

9: 2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
The materials were medium-carbon steels with different manganese contents as
shown in table 1. Asahi et al. (1989) reported previously that decreasing the
manganese content suppressed intergranular-mode fracture in hydrogen-induced
cracking of steels for sour-oil steel pipes. The steels were oil quenched after
being austenitized at 950°C for 15 min and tempered at 450°C for 1 h. Their
susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement was evaluated in a slow-elongation rate
test (SERT) at 5.6 x s-' under concurrent hydrogen charging. The gauge
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geometry of a flat specimen was as follows: width 10 mm; thickness, 2 mm; length,
150 mm. Hydrogen charging was conducted by means of cathodic electrolysis using
a 3 % NaCl aqueous solution containing NH4SCN (0.5 gl-I) at a current density of
0.5 mA cmW2.The fractographic features were examined by scanning electron
microscopy as well as scanning laser microscopy (Laser Tech 1LM21) for a quan-
titative roughness measurement.
The hydrogen absorption capacity is a measure of the density of defects acting
as hydrogen traps. In order to use hydrogen as a probe of defects, hydrogen was
introduced into heat-treated or strained specimens and was analysed by means of
TDA. The TDA of hydrogen was conducted using a gas chromatograph calibrated
with a standard mixture of hydrogen and argon gas. A linear heating rate of
100"Ch-' was applied to specimens placed in a quartz tube in a furnace. The
desorption rate was defined as the amount of hydrogen desorbed in lmin per
gram of specimen. The time for the start of TDA after hydrogen charging was
completed was set at 15min so as to keep the pre-TDA loss of hydrogen constant.

5 3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Substantial degradation of tensile properties appeared under hydrogen charging
as shown in figure 1. While the tensile properties were almost the same for the three
steels under an ambient atmosphere in the absence of hydrogen charging, the effect
of manganese on the susceptibility to degradation was evident in the decreases in
fracture stress, elongation to fracture and reduction in area.
The fracture initiation site under hydrogen charging was always located near the
corner of the specimen. Around the initiation point, intergranular-mode fracture
predominated and proceeded to quasicleavage and dimple patterns together with
crack advance. No carbide cracking was observed on the fracture surface. A con-
spicuous characteristic associated with the manganese content was the tear patterns
on the intergranular fracture surface as seen in figure 2. Figure 2 is an assembly of

Table 1. Chemical compositions of the tested steels.

~

Amount (wt%)
C Si Mn Cr MO Al
Steel 1 0.47
Steel 2 0.3 0.44 0.93 0.52 0.48 0.035
Steel 3 1.42
 3418 M. Nagumo and H. Matsuda

Q 1100

00
0 05 1 IS 2 0 I 2 0 1 2
Mn content (wt??) Mn content ( wt% ) Mn content ( wto?)
Figure 1 Slow-elongation tensile test results for the steels with different manganese contents
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under concurrent hydrogen charging. ( O ) , without hydrogen charging, ( O ) , with

hydrogen charging

several micrographs, and the straight markings are the edges of each micrograph.
Fine tear patterns on the intergranular fracture surface were frequently observed in
the 0.5 wt% Mn steel, but the patterns disappeared and the fracture surface became
smoother with increasing manganese content. In order to reveal the origin of these
tear patterns, the correspondence between the tear patterns and microstructures was
examined by etching the fracture surface with saturated picral.
Figure 3 shows the same area of the fracture surface of the 0.5 wt% Mn steel
before and after etching. The arrays of fine white phases in figure 3 (b) are carbides
precipitated along martensite lath boundaries, indicating that tear took place along
these boundaries.
The fracture surface roughness was measured quantitatively by means of scan-
ning laser microscopy on typical hydrogen-related, that is smooth or rugged inter-
granular and quasicleavage, fracture surfaces. The distance 2 to the surface was
measured randomly at nine points on the fracture surface, and the average roughness
R, was defined as the average variance of the distance to the surface:
9

i= 1

As shown in figure 4 together with nine data points, the roughness varied sub-
stantially among the sites. However, the average roughness of each steel decreased
continuously as the manganese content was increased, associated with the change in
the predominance of quasicleavage, rugged or smooth intergranular surface.
The tear lines presumably formed as the linking of microcracks or microvoids
that initiated along martensite lath boundaries. In order to detect the defects that
might have formed preceding microcrack or microvoid formation, hydrogen was
used as a probe of defects as was done in previous studies (Nagumo et al. 1999,
2000). Hydrogen was introduced to specimens given various amounts of prestrain
and was analysed by means of TDA. Hydrogen charging was carried out for 8 h, the
period where hydrogen absorption was almost saturated, under the same condition
as for the SERT. Figure 5 shows TDA curves for the 1.5 wt% Mn steel, given various
amounts of strain. The desorption rate peaked at around 100°C, and the peak area
and peak temperature increased with an increasing amount of strain, indicating the
 Hydrogen in intergranular fracture of rnartensitic steels 3419
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Figure 2. Intergranular fracture surface of ( a ) 0.5wt%Mn steel, (b) I.Owt% Mn steel and
(c) 1.5 wt% Mn steel, showing the disappearance of tear patterns with increasing
manganese content. The straight marks in the micrographs are the edges of the
assembled micrographs.

creation of a higher density of defects. The peak area as a function of the manganese
content and the amount of strain is plotted in figure 6. While hydrogen absorption
capacities were almost the same for the three steels in non-deformed samples, the
effect of the manganese content appeared when strain was applied. Figure 6 implies
that steels with a higher manganese content displayed a higher density of defects due
to straining. The dependence on the manganese content corresponds to the increased
susceptibility to hydrogen-related degradation shown in figure 1 and the disappear-
ance of tear patterns shown in figure 2 for the steels with a higher manganese
content.
In order to examine the nature of strain-induced defects, the deformed samples
were then annealed at 250°C for 1 h and hydrogen charged. The TDA curves and
peak areas are shown in figure 7. Incremental desorption due to straining was totally
reduced by annealing at 250°C to the level of desorption from the original non-
 3420 M. Nagumo and H. Matsuda
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Figure 3. Intergranular fracture surface of the 0.5 wt% Mn steel (a) before and (b) after
chemical etching, showing the correspondence of tear patterns to martensite lath
structures.

.........*....................................
.........
Quasi-
1 - cleavage
n
......... .......................
E
=i.
v

t Intergranular
with slip traces
......... ..........................

0
......... I Smooth
intergranular
fracture
..........................

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Mn Content (wt?!)
Figure 4. Roughness of the hydrogen-related fracture surface measured by scanning laser
microscopy. The average roughness R, ( 0 )is shown together with the data points
(0).

deformed sample. It implies that strain-induced defects are point defects, which
coincides with previous results observed for low-carbon ferritic steel (Nagumo
el al. 1999). One difference from the ferritic steel was that there existed some
desorption from non-deformed or annealed samples of the martensitic steels,
indicating the presence of a high density of intrinsic hydrogen traps in martensite
such as fine precipitates, dislocations and lath boundaries.
 Hydrogen in intergranular fracture of martensitic sieels 3421
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0 50 100 I50 200 250

Temperature ("C)
Figure 5. Hydrogen thermal desorption rate curves of the 1.5 wt% M A steel given various
amounts of strain prior to hydrogen charging.

1.2
n
fl 1.0
.@
3 0.8
0
c
3d 0.6
20.4
X 2.5% 0 2.0% A 1.8%
0 1.5% 0 0%
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.o 1.5 2.0
Mn content (%)
Figure 6. Increase in the hydrogen content in terms of the TDA peak area as a function of
manganese content. Various amounts of pre-strain were applied prior to hydrogen
charging.

0 4. DISCUSSION
Increased susceptibility to hydrogen-related failure with increasing manganese
content in martensitic steel is evident from the SERT results shown in figure 1. The
degradation was associated with intergranular fracture as shown in figure 2. As for
the effect of manganese on plastic deformation, it can be seen in figures 6 and 7 that
manganese increased the density of point defects, presumably vacancies, on strain-
ing. Creation of point defects on straining is a general feature as revealed previously
for ferritic and martensitic steels (Suzuki et al. 1994, Nagumo et al. 1999, 2000). On
 3422 M. Nagumo and H . Matsuda

50 1
-

Non-deformed
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0 50 100 150 200 250

Temperature (“c)
Figure 7. Hydrogen thermal desorption rate curves of the 1.5wt% M n steel specimens, non-
deformed, pre-strained to 2 % and annealed at 250°C for 1 h after straining.

the other hand, the tendency toward a smooth intergranular fracture surface with
increasing manganese content, as shown in figure 4, implies a decrease in plasticity at
the time of fracture. However, the apparent smooth fracture surface does not always
imply the absence of strain localization near boundaries. The creation of point
defects associated with straining could have taken place prior to final failure. In
our previous studies (Nagumo et al. 2000, 2001c), it was shown that the constraint
of slip extension by second phases along grain boundaries increases the density of
point defects and decreases ductile crack growth resistance, with these phenomena
being more conspicuous in the presence of hydrogen.
The creation of vacancies associated with plastic deformation can take place by
various mechanisms. The model proposed by Essmann and Mughrabi (1979) pre-
dicted a high density (about lop3)of vacancies due to the annihilation of non-screw
dislocations on closely neighbouring glide planes. The sites where such a process
preferentially operates are dislocation-rich sites such as dislocation cell walls in slip
bands as predicted theoretically (Essmann and Mughrabi 1979, Mecking and Esterin
1980). The vicinal areas of prior austenite grain boundaries are the sites of high
dislocation density resulting from constraint of slip, in collaboration with the inter-
sections with martensite lath boundaries.
The decrease in ductile crack growth resistance associated with a high density of
vacancies (Nagumo et al. 2001c) suggests that vacancy condensation leads to micro-
void formation. In actuality, microvoid arrays along dislocation cell walls were
observed in a strained hydrogen-charged ferritic steel (Nagumo et al. 1980).
Microvoids can be formed without second-phase particles (Van Stone et al. 1978,
Wilsdorf 1982). It was shown experimentally (Chen et al. 1995) and theoretically
(Cuitiiio and Ortiz 1996) that gradual vacancy condensation leads to the formation
of nanovoids. In highly dislocated martensite structures, it might be very difficult to
observe vacancies and their aggregates. However, the fine tear patterns shown in
figures 2 and 3 imply that microcracks or microvoids formed along martensite lath
boundaries prior to linking by tearing. This is in accord with the model that micro-
voids are formed as a result of vacancy condensation. Microstructural change
 Hydrogen in intergranular fracture of martensitic steels 3423

associated with vacancy condensation leading to microvoid or crack formation may

definitely show the mechanism of hydrogen-related failure. At present, the vacancy
agglomeration model is still speculative, but a related observation of microstructural
changes will be published in the near future.
The possible functions of manganese are twofold. One is segregation along grain
boundaries thus increasing local hardness and the other is the tendency to promote
the precipitation of boundary carbides. Both mechanisms act to enhance the con-
straint of slip at boundaries. In the present study, manganese segregation could
not be confirmed beyond the experimental accuracy limit of scanning transmission
electron microscopy. On the other hand, precipitation of boundary carbides was
significant, although a quantitative difference associated with the manganese content
was not definite.
While the definite function of manganese is not evident, intergranular fracture is
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apt to be induced by vacancy clusters that accumulate with strain concentration in

the vicinity of the boundaries prior to the final failure. The smoother fracture surface
associated with a higher manganese content and disappearance of tear patterns are
indications of the increased density of microcracks or microvoids as a consequence
of the higher density of vacancies. This means that the vacancy-cluster model devel-
oped for the transgranular mode fracture of hydrogen embrittlement of martensitic
steels (Nagumo et al. 2001a, b, c) can be applied to the intergranular fracture mode.
The fracture appearance is similar to that reported by Gerberich et al. (1988) for an
AISI 4340 steel, but the mechanism of void formation is thought to result from
vacancy condensation rather than the accumulation of hydrogen to a critical con-
centration.
In the present study, as indicated in figures 5 and 6, hydrogen was used as a
probe of defects present in pre-deformed steels. Various defects in martensite, such as
dislocations, precipitates and grain boundaries, are thought to act as hydrogen traps.
The hydrogen content in non-deformed specimens was attributed to the intrinsic
defects. However, the strain-induced increment of hydrogen was mostly from
point defects, as shown in figure 7. The reason why dislocations are not the major
sources is not certain, but tritium autoradiography and a hydrogen-microprint tech-
nique have also showed the creation of substantial hydrogen trap sites that are
annihilated by annealing at a low temperature. The results will be published sepa-
rately. In hydrogen-related failure, dynamic interactions of hydrogen with newly
created vacancies are assumed to take place in the course of deformation.
Theoretical calculations by Fukai et al. (1997), Iwamoto and Fukai (1999) and
McLellan (1988) and McLellan and Yang (1995) showed a substantial increase in
vacancy density when vacancies combined with hydrogen. Their calculations were
for a thermal equilibrium, but similar interactions between hydrogen and strain-
induced vacancies are thought to occur in a SERT under concurrent hydrogen
charging. In actuality, the density of strain-induced defects increases when deformed
in the presence of hydrogen compared with that when deformed without hydrogen
charging (Nagumo et al. 2001a). Concomitantly, the decrease in ductile crack growth
resistance associated with constraint boundary phases (Nagumo et al. 2000) was
more prominent under a concurrent hydrogen-charging condition (Nagumo et 01.
2001c).
While the previous findings support the applicability of the vacancy-cluster
model to the present case, because of the increased hydrogen content versus
manganese content (figure 6) there remains a possibility that the hydrogen content
 3424 M . Nagumo and H. Matsuda

is critical for enhanced susceptibility. In the case when the susceptibility is related to
the hydrogen content, it would be difficult to identify the primary factor. However, a
study has been reported in which the apparent hydrogen content did not correlate
with increased susceptibility (Nagumo et al. 2001a, b). In that study, the hydrogen
thermal desorption curve profiles showed alterations that suggested an increase in
the vacancy creation rate. The present results only indirectly suggest the role of
vacancies in enhancing susceptibility, but they add to the general understanding
about the relation of hydrogen states to failure, the functions of microstructures
and their involvement in the fracture process.

4 5. CONCLUSIONS
The mechanism of intergranular-mode fracture in hydrogen-related failure has
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been investigated with high-strength martensitic steels containing different amounts

of manganese. Pronounced degradation of tensile properties appeared with increas-
ing manganese content in a SERT under concurrent hydrogen charging. The fracture
mode was intergranular with tear traces along martensite lath boundaries. The tear
traces disappeared and the average surface roughness decreased with increasing
manganese content. Hydrogen absorption capacity in the non-deformed state was
unrelated to the manganese content. However, using hydrogen as a probe of defects,
TDA results revealed that the density of point defects increased as a result of strain-
ing, being more noticeable in steels with a higher manganese content.
Consistent with previous studies, the creation of a high density of point defects is
probably due to the constraint of slip at grain boundaries. With regard to the effect
of hydrogen in stabilizing and increasing the density of vacancies, intergranular-
mode fracture is likely to originate in vacancy clusters that lead to microcrack or
microvoid formation in the vicinity of boundaries. It is thought that hydrogen
functions to assist the formation of vacancy clusters, being common to transgranu-
lar-mode fracture in hydrogen-related failure.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present study has been conducted as part of a project sponsored by the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology under the Special
Coordination Fund for Promoting Science and Technology.

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