Circulation as Ordering Mechanism Our experience of the built environment is a temporal-spatial one. We experience space temporally (sequentially), that is, as a succession of perceptions, and from this sequence we develop an understanding of our spatial environment ‘This chapter explores circulation as a means of structuring experience and as a generator of form. It begins with the movement of people, looking at pe destrian circulation as movement, material, design consideration, linkage and visual system, spatial ex- perience, and temporal experience. It then explores other types of circulation systems, looking most closely at the system for movement of automobiles (including trucks) and then touching briefly on bus, rail, ai, and. water transie systems, PEDESTRIAN CIRCULATION The design of the pedestrian circulation system in- volves the simultaneous consideration of many issues. ‘These include the manner in which the pedest moves, the surfaces over which people move, and vi sual, spatial, and temporal concerns, Circulation as Movement (Our perception of the world is usually formed as we move from place to place, As in any assessment, this perception is not entirely an external one. It is also affected by the character, nature, and speed with which we move, ‘The character, nature, and speed at which we flow is influenced by the circulation path. Therefore, when designing, we must be able to get on the point of our pencils and understand the manner in which the land: 150 scape would be displayed as we moved. We also need, to understand the forces that affeet the manner in which one moves and that affect perception, Character of Flow The specific character of movement affects not only ‘our mood as we averse the landscape, but also the images we receive. As we peruse the line characters shown in Figure 10-1, and imagine moving along these lines of movement, our perceptions of the world ‘would differ based upon the character of flow. Direct movement wediacy and purpose; indirect movement of tension or mystery. Fluid movement would allow for efficient travel and would promote a feeling of leisure. Meandering, movement would impart a pensive or melancholy feeling. A circuitous route might cause one to stop and linger if there was time, but might be quite dis tressing if time were short. Energized, angular lines of movement can impart energy and a frenzied, or even schizophrenic feeling. miparis a sense of im Nature of Flow In addition to the character of the line of movement, its nature also affects our perception of place. If we enter by ascending, we focus on the overhead as we look to the sky (Figure 10-2). We struggle to the top, moving slowly, but have a feeling of accomplishment upon arrival. If we descend into a place, on the other hand, our attention is focused downward, We become very sen- sitive to the ground surface, paving details, and so- forth, We move with case, but sometimes at an-_——_>- Be oe Fig Figure 10-1. Character of flow. uncomfortably quick pace. Ease of movement is usu- ally accompanied by a feeling of withdrawal, coupled with the realization that the descent may necessitate a future struggle back to the top. Dendritic flows allow for intersections in a loosely shythmic fashion, with few conflicts and a minimum. of turbulence. Coalescing flows build to a crescendo; dispersing flows diffuse these energies and can give a feeling of abandonment. Most flows are rhythmic in nature. For example, when asked to describe their cross-campus journey 10 class, most students would do so by describing a series of movements (o places along the way. As in most journeys, the mental images stored as a result of movement are a rhythmic flow from landmark to landmark, through an otherwise less memorable con text Intersections impart a rhythmic nature to flow as they change the rate of movement, either through congestion or by inducing one to stop to access alter: natives, or to watch the movement of others. Intersec Circulation as Ordering Mechanism — 151 ‘Asoont Dendtitc ‘coalescing Dende: Dispersing Rhythmic Rhythmic: Imereecting Figure 10-2. Nature of flow, tions usually serve as events along the path of movement. Rate of Flow Our perception of place changes with the rate at which we move. Moving quickly, we are relatively un: aware of details. As we slow, we become more aware of the world around us, As the path becomes more narrow, we intuitively accelerate and become more goal-oriented and less intimately aware to our context. As it widens, we re lax, and become attuned: our senses come alive (Fig: ure 1033), Forces That Affect Flow Appropriate circulation character, nature and rate of flow are determined by many factors operating inte: gratively. The distance to be traveled, the time avail: able, and the innate need for sensual stimuli152 Design Influences (enrichment) all affect pedestrian perception and therefore rate of flow. These variables should be ef fectively manipulated as the circulation system is de- signed. If speed or economy is the goal, paths should be direct, reasonably wide, and flat. Impediments to flow (such as intersections) should be minimized. Con: versely, if the design intent is sensory enrichment, then an indirect, circuitous or meandering character is more appropriate. In this case, lines of flow should. present an evolving, stimulating, and interesting jour: ney through a highly varied environment with rich sensual imagery. Variations of light, materials, tex: — Relaxed SS Figure 10-4, Movement as the pursuit of goals ture, form, and scale would be appropriate, with this variety structured temporally in response to circul tion form as one moves along the path. Usually the design of pedestrian circulation systems includes both alternatives so that the viewer can select the appro: priate path based on time availability and desired en: richment. Human Tendencies AS we design circulation systems and specific cle ments within these systems, there are certain human tendencies that should be kept in mind. For example, we tend to move toward goals, that is, sensual land: marks, Longer trips ments to intermediate goals (Figure 10-4). In moving, to these goals, we usually travel the easiest route and tend to pursue a particular direction until forced to, deviate from it, If time is not short, we seek the most pleasant experience, both physiologically and psycho: Togically. On a hot day, we seek shade, on a cold day. the sun. We also seek variety, We vary our speed as the path changes its width or slope and as the richness land stimulus load of the environment changes. We are enticed by movement, by objects at eye level, by hints of experiences to come, and by breaks in the perceivable pattern. As ani \pestination Goals. ve structured as a series of move nals that evolved in vegetative ecotones, we —=> “The Route to and from Work Often Varies as One Tends to Move Forward, Only Turing When Failure to Do So Would Lengthen the Tap.Circulation as Ordering Mechanism 153 Prelerrod Zone - offering Belge ite ut Spucinistening A Sten ete fom Yow Figure 10-5, Vegetative edge and perceived security Figure 1046, Wasted effort. instinctively feel more secure along the edges of spaces. We prefer to move along these edges rather those across large openings (Figure 10-5). In super- human-scaled space, we desire enclosure; yet in overly confined spaces, we desire freedom, We also desire environmental understanding and sensory enrich: ment. As we move, we tend to avoid places that are unsafe, disordered, ugly, or uncomfortable. We avoid steep grades and steps up (particularly as we get older). We avoid obviously wasted effort, such as the elevated road crossing (even through it may afford increased safety), or intersections that do not align vertically (Figure 10-6). We pause or stop as we reach an intermediate goal (such as a landscape feature), when we experience an environmental change (such as a change in paving material), or when we alter divection or gradient. We also feel an urge to stop when movement is restricted, when we come to a decision point or a place with Figure 10-7. Directional character. strong identity, personality, or physical or sensual amenities such as a view, a bench, shade on a hot day, or sun on a cold di Our movement is influenced by the di characteristics of the place, by the nature of the cir culation path itself, and by visual sequences (Figure 107), Circulation as Material ‘The palette of materials from which circulation ele. ments may be built is quite large. The appropriate. ness of any given material is determined by functional and sensual issues and other design considerations. Each of these materials has its own unique character: istics, potential to respond to these design considera- tions, and constraints that they place on design. The sensitive designer is particularly adept at matching circulation need with appropriate material154 Design Influences Functional and Sensual Issues In the design of pedestrian circulation systems, cer tain pragmatic considerations affect the appropriate. ness of a surface material for use in a given situation. The type and amount of traffic, weather conditions under which use will occur, surface temperatures, and ‘maintenance considerations are only a few of these pragmatic considerations. ‘Type of Traffic, The pedestrian moves relatively slowly and in direct contact with the environment. Vi sual characteristics of the landseape such as line, form, color, texture, rhythm, proportion, balance, scale, and directionality are therefore quite important, Walking is a relatively nonconstraining type of movement. It places few limits on design, For exam: ple, the pedestrian's weight is spread over a reason: ably large ground contact (especially those of us with E width shoes), and the human body is capable of ne- gotiating steep grades and abrupt changes in direc tion, Design of the pedestrian circulation system is therefore, not a factor of physical limitations of the body, but rather of physical comfort or psychological issues, such as the sensual experience as one moves vom place to place. Materials are selected or rejected in part for the way they feel, or for their ability to evoke certain sensations or associations. For example, soil and sod are resilient to the touch and are psycho logically relaxing; grass is cool but soggy in rainy weather; concrete can be used in all weather condi: tions, but is visually and physically hard, hot, reflec: tive, and generally unfriendly. Coarse surface textures can be very uncomfortable as they strain the ankle joints and leg muscles. When the pedestrian dons a bicycle, speed in creases and environmental awareness and scale per- ception change. Surface textures become even more critical, coarse textures more problematic. Joints, cracks, and misalignments become downright danger The weight of the passenger and bicycle are distrib: uted over a very small area, especially now that the narrow tire, ten-speed bicycle has become the norm, Bicycleways must therefore be surfaced with a strong, firm, and consistent material with tight joints Amount of Traffic. Frequency of use also affects the appropriateness of materials used for circulation ele: ments, Whi lawn surfaces (and in dry weather generally finds the experience refreshing), this surface is able to tolerate only limited use. Under heavy traffic, grass will die and soil will erode. As compared to lawn or ground ss paved surfaces can sustain heavy use. the pedestrian can walk comfortably on ‘Therefore, high-traffic circulation elements should be paved, Weather Conditions. Unpaved surfaces are generally fairweather ones and will be muddy or impassible ‘wet periods. On the other hand, paved surfaces main: tain their rigidity in various conditions, making them all-weather pathways. They also resist erosion by wind ‘or water. Smooth surfaces tend to be dangerously slick, when wet or icy. Surface Temperature. Lawns and ground covers a sorb solar energy and use it through photosynthesis to power life processes, They are also evaporatively cooled by plant evapotranspiration. The air above these surfaces remains cool as do the surfaces them- selves. Wood has a low conductivity. It absorbs and gives Off heat very slowly. As such, it is sensed as being at or near skin temperature and i pleasant to walk on in most temperature conditions. On the other hand, brick, stone, concrete, and bituminous conerete ab sorb and release heat quickly. They are hot in the summer and cold in the winter, In addition, the air above them is often characterized by unpleasant cen perature extremes. Maintenance. Although initially more costly, paved. surfaces are usually much easier to maintain than are nonpaved ones, Soil requires raking, ground covers require fertilizing, watering, and weeding. Lawns re quire these maintenance activities as well as frequent Edge Character. Paved surfaces maintain a clean, crisp edge and a more assertive line character than do, nonpaved surfaces. Unpaved surfaces, and paved ones where adjacent materials are allowed t encroach, provide a much softer naturalistic edge. Circulation as Design Consideration Circulation surfaces can respond to, and communi cate, design considerations. These would include con: cerns for use, form, safety, scale, and directionality. Use When the intended use of a surface changes, the dif ference in use can be communicated by a change in ‘material (Figure 10.8). These changes can occur in re- sponse to differing physical needs, or can occur to, convey important information, for example, in visu:ally announcing a change in intended use, or level of safety. Material changes can also serve as subliminal cues to induce a desired change in behavior as one moves from one area to another. Form material, color, or texture can change to communicate form, For example, the brick and concrete plaza in Figure 10:8 gives distinguish- able form, visual significance, and unique sense of place to the brick seating area. Figure 109, on the other hand, expresses this area as merely an extension of the plaza form, ‘The surface, or Safety Changes in the circulation material or surface cond tion can draw attention to physical hazards. As one moves along the brick walk in Figure 10:10, for ex ample, the asphaltic street is perceived as a hazard. ‘The pedestrian is cued to an inherently unsafe com dition By allowing the walk material to extend into and across the street, the design implies the pedlestrian has the right of way and alerts the driver to be especially cautious and to keep a watchful eye for pedestrians (Figure 10-11), The designer must take care, however, hot to create a false sense of security for the pedes: trian and must be certain that the driver ean see and understand the meaning of the material change i Figure 10.8, Material change to reinforce a change in use, Circulation as Ordering Mechanism 155 Figure 10-11, Material as cue to driver156 Design influences Scale The design of circulation elements affects the per ceived size of a place. The width of the clement im- plies scale, as does the size of the space at intersections. (Figure 10-12). Pedestrian paths 3 to 6 feet in width impart an intimate human scale; those 6 to 15 feet wide, a human scale; those 15 to 40 feet wide, a public human seale, Spaces up to 48 feet in size (whieh often ‘occur at circulation intersections) support an intimate hhuman scale; those 48 (o 72 feet a human scale; those up to 500 feet, a public human scale, Most ground surface materials (except grass, ground, cover, sand/set unit pavers, and asphaltic concrete) re- quire expansion joints to accommodate temperature changes within the material, Rigid pavements also need these joints to accommodate soil expansion without structurally cracking. In a design sense, these joints can be used as lines of continuity to relate pieces of a ground composition, or to relate ground surfaces to adjacent buildings. These relationships will be dis- cussed in detail in Chapter 12. Expansion joints can also affect the perceived size or scale of a circulation element, When expansion joints are nonexistent or understated, the viewer per- ‘ceives the size of the entire element. When joints are pronounced, the units formed by expansion joints be- come the perceived visual size and the paving scems smaller in scale (Figures 10-13 and 10-14), Perceived Scale Decreases > Figure 10-13. Joints and scale perception, Figure 10-14, Material change ‘modification, nd joints for scale * tnimel Humdh Scale Public Human Scale Figure 10-12. Circulation elements and scale.Directionality Circulation elements usually have a linear character, that is, they imply direction (Figure 10-15). These di rectional characteristics can be modified by changes in materials and by the joint pattern, Figure 10-15. Linear nature of circulation elements Materials ‘ccontvate Matorls Directional tiga acter Directional ce Gharacter Figure 10-16, Material change to affect directionality. Figure 10-17, Joints and directionality Circulation as Ordering Mechanism 157 Materials, Changes in materials that run the length of the path can strengthen the linear nature of a circu: lation clement and make the path seem narrower and longer. Conversely, changes in material, as bands across the path, ean decrease directional character and make the path seem wider and shorter (Figure 10-16). Joints. Joints within the surface can also affeet direc ‘ional character. Many materials, such as stone or ma: sonry, are modular units, that is, the surface is built by a large number of smaller units. The manner in which these modules are laid, and their jointing pat tern, affects directional character (Figure 10.17). Like changes of material, joint patterns that run lengthwise make the walk appear longer and narrower; crosswise patterns make the path appear wider and shorter, Control joints and expansion joints in pavings (both modular and monolithic) can also be used to either increase or decrease the directional character of cir culation elements (Figure 10-18). Figure 10-18. Control joints and directionality158 Design Influences Circulation as Linkage and Visual System Circulation systems, in their most basic sense, have ree components: traffic generators, linear connec tors, and events along these connectors (Figure 10-19). The generators serve as goals, which by their presence create a certain number of wips along the connectors The number of trips and the conditions under which they must funetion affect the size, material, and de- sign of the connectors. Events occur along the cor nectors, most commonly in the vicinity of traffic generators, or where connectors cross, that is, inter section points The junction of traffic generator and connector is usually considered a special place. Often the con- nector will expand in response to this place, for ex: ample, the plaza at the foot of a church, or at the base of a high-use building Figure 1020. ‘The intersection of circulation connectors also has unique placeness. It is at these plices that flows cross and at which people must make decisions. The con gestion that results here usually requires greater di: tensions, In addition, the chance encounters that ‘occur when pedestrianways cross, makes intersections special places to stop and talk, The path usually re sponds to these forces as it opens into plazas with benches and other amenities that encourage one to linger (Figure 10.21). Linkage In a purely functional sense, cireulation paths link generators of traffie. The first step in designing cir- culation elements usually involves the identification and connection of these traffic generators. Gonerator/ Artval Event G — Connector Intormaciate Event ¥en yg In the earliest stages of designing a circulation sys tem, functional issues such as traffic generators and, desired linkages are often communicated via circula: tion diagrams, These diagrams are usually drawn to show, via line width or numbers, the relative or ab- solute flow (Figure 10-22), Visual System In addition to their functional aspects, circulation el: ‘ements and the systems they comprise have major form significance. Visually speaking, it is usually de- sirable that circulation elements read not as unrelated lines, but as an integrated system of form (Figure 10- 23). As a system, these lines relate one to another. Building a Figure 10-20, Traffic generator as place. L * Generator/ ‘Arval Event ee oe 5 ces a er wre 10-19, Circulation as generator, connector, andFigure 10-21. Intersection as place. Circulation as Ordering Mechanism 159 as system of form, Trafic Generator L Tratic Gonerator [ ‘Teatfic Genorator Figure 10-22, Circulation as linkage. Whereas Figure 10-22 can be seen as a functional di agram of desired linkage, the form shown in Figure 1028 provides for these connections, requires only minor adjustments to desired travel, and makes a uni- fied form statement. The inexperienced designer of ten succeeds in diagramming circulation, but tries to apply this diagram literally to the site, usually with lie visual meaning or experiential success. The perienced design srprets the circulation gram, applying elements and principles of design to exeate an integrated form that facilitates desired con: nections while helping to establish the intended char- acter of the place. Circulation as Spatial Experience The circulation system does not occur in a visu: uum, Our visual perception of place is prim: spatial experience. If reulation form i to ba rele de designed so To do so, circulation form must visually relate to spa tial form, It must place the viewer in an appropriate relationship to site spaces and must establish compat: ible circulation and spatial character. The € of moving along the circulation system must also or160 Design Influences — PLN ITTF Tm AE Li an a SECTION AA Figure 10-24, Circulation and spatial statement, ze spatial sequences in a meaningful manner. It must finally address temporal characteristics as one moves across the site, The first two issues will be dis cussed in the remainder of this section; the third in the next section, Circulation Form and Spatial Form If Figure 10-23 were seen as an enclosed courtyard, sur rounded by glass walls, and with doors serving as traffic generators, the circulation system would con. nect and accommodate movement betwe doors. It would also present a unified form statement. However, it would do little to reinforce the design statement of “rectangular space within the overall mass.” Figure 10-24, on the other hand, provides for necessary linkages and establishes unified form, while supporting the design statement, Movement is only slightly more eireuitous, and the circulation form be: ‘comes an integral component of an overall spatial in: tent While our visual perception of place is primarily spatial, the manner in which we perceive space is usu: ally determined by the circulation path. It determines where we move, our point of reference, and our re- lation to the place. It affects also our perceptions of spatial size and character and our sense of security When we move through a large open space, as shown in Figure 10.25, we feel dwarfed and insecure. n these Figure 10-25. Insecurity in large open spacesPrehistoric man as an edge species, found safety in the vegetated edge and soon discovered that ventur ing into the open was patently unsafe. The reptilian recesses of our brains that still determine instinctive behavior continue to perceive insecurity in large open spaces. On the other hand, if circulation occurs either near 10, or enclosed within, the edge of major spaces we feel more comfortable (Figure 10-26). With the above in mind, the relationship between spatial form and circulation system design becomes a powerful one. The designer can impart mystery by concealing space, security by implying refuge from it, or suspense by leaving the viewer exposed within an uncomfortably large space. Circulation and Spatial Character The character of the space and that of the circulation system should support a common design theme. In order to do so, both must have compatible form. In addition, circulation form should place one in the ap: propriate position so as to maximize perception of, the spatial character and composition, Formal spatial compositions imply entering on axis, informal ones an asymmetrical approach, Large-scale spaces are made to feel more expansive by a confined and smallscaled approach; small ones are made more confining by an expansive approach. Movorat Along Edge * Figure 10.96. Exe security in large open spaces. Giveulation as Ordering Mechanism 161 Circulation as Temporal Experience Perception addresses the relatedness of events in space and time, and the individual cognitively re- sponds to sequential stimuli, The circulation system affects our location as we move through th ment, the speed at which we move, and the temporal sequences we perceive. The designer determines the irculation form and spatial form, creating the story line from which perception is built, This story line should inclucle the appropriate cues, inducements, psychological f rich the quality of the experience, Girculation story lines can include different modes of transportation, such as the story line of pedestrian movement from the corporate office, automobile travel through the urban and suburban roadway sys te tomobile and pedestrian movement on site, culminating with arrival inside the house, In an effectively designed story line, the mode of transpor tation, character of the path, designed mood of the place, and behavior of the user should all be choreo: ‘graphed into a meaningful designed experience. Most story lines are progressive, that is, they move toward something. In this movement, they may be ex sual, seemingly unplanned, and informal (Figure 10- 27). Conversely, progression can be formal, highly regular, forcefully ordered, and obviously planned s, assurances, and placeness to en: and