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    Seymour Lipschutz - Schaum's Outline of General Topology-McGraw-Hill (1968)

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    GENERAL TOPOLOGY SEYMOUR LIPSCHUTZ SS _____ The perfect aid for better grades =_ Covers all course fundamentals and supplements any class text Teaches effective problem-solving Features fully worked problems Ideal for independent study THE ORIGINAL AND MOST POPULAR COLLEGE COURSE SERIES AROUND THE WORLD SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF kORY AND PROBLEMS oF GENERAL TOPOLOGY Ry SEYMOUR LIPSCHUTZ, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Mathematics Temple University SCHAUM’S OUTLINE SERIES McGRAW-HILL ROOK COMPANY New York, St. Louis, San Francisco, Toronto, Sydney Copyright © 1965 by McGraw-Hill, Ine, AI Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored Ina retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, oF otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher BTO88 284567890 SHSH 7210698 Preface General topology, also called point set topology. has recently become an essential part of the mathematical background of both graduate and undergraduate students. ‘This book is designed to be used either as a textbook for a formal course in topology or as a supplement to all current standard texts. It should also be of considerable value as a source and reference hook for those who require a comprehensive and rigorous introduction to the subject Each chapter begins with clear statements of pertinent definitions, principles and theorems together with illustrative and other descriptive material. This is followed by graded sets of solved and supplementary problems. The solved problems serve to illustrate and amplify the theory, bring into sharp focus those fine points without which the student continually feels himself on unsafe ground, and provide the repetition of basic principles so vital to effective learning. Numerous proofs of theorems are included among the solved problems. The supplementary problems serve as a complete review of the material of each chapter. ‘Topics covered include the basic properties of topological, metric and normed spaces, the separation axioms, compactness, the product topology, and connectedness. Theorems proven include Urysohn’s lemma and metrization theorem, Tychonoff’s product theorem and Baire’s category theorem. ‘The last chapter, on function spaces, investigates the topologies of pointwise, uniform and compact convergence. In addition, the first three chapters present the required concepts of set theory, the fourth chapter treats of the topology of the line and plane, and the appendix gives the basic principles of the real numbers. ‘More material is included here than can be covered in most first courses. This has been done to make the book more flexible, to provide a more useful book of reference, and to stimulate further interest in the subject. I wish to thank many of my friends and colleagues, especially Dr. Joan Landman, for invaluable suggestions and critical review of the manuscript. I also wish to express my gratitude to the staff of the Schaum Publishing Company, particularly to Jeffrey Albert and Alan Hopenwasser, for their helpful cooperation. Seymour LipscuuTz Temple University ‘May, 1965 CONTENTS Page Chapter SETS AND RELATIONS . : 1 Sets, Subsets, Set operations. Product sets, Relations, Equivalence relations. Composition of relations Chapter FUNCTIONS i 7 Functions. Indexed sets. Cartesian products, Generalized operations. Associated set functions, Algebra of real-valued functions. Chapter CARDINALITY, ORDER 22 Equivalent sets. Denumerable and countable sets. Continuum. Schroeder- ts. Subsets Chapter TOPOLOGY OF THE LINE AND PLANE reSa TAT Rest Tine. Open sets. Accumulation points, Bolzane-Welerstrass Uheoret Closed sets. Heine-Borel theorem. Sequences. Convergent. sequences, Sub- sequences. Cauchy sequences. Completeness. Continuous functions, Topology of the plane, Chapter TOPOLOGICAL SPACES: DEFINITIONS 66 ‘Topological spaces. Accumulation points, Closed sels, Closure of a. set. Interior, exterior, boundary. Neighborhoods and neighborhood systems, Convergent sequences. Coarser and finer topologies. Subspaces, relative topologies, Equivalent definitions of topologies, Chapter BASES AND SUBBASES A Ears se BT Base for a topology. Subbases. Topologies generated by classes of gets, Local bases. Chapter CONTINUITY AND TOPOLOGICAL EQUIVALENCE ... 97 Continuous functions. Continuous functions and arbitrary closeness, Con- tinnity at a point, Sequential continuity at a point, Open and closed functions Homeomorphie spaces, Topological properties. Topologies induced by functions Chapter METRIC AND NORMED SPACES M1 mnetrie spaces. Properti of metric vpologies, Huivalent metrice: Metreation problem. Isometric metric spaces, Euclidean m-space. Hilbert space. Con- CONTENTS Page Chapter 9 — COUNTABILITY 5 131 First countable spaces. Second countable spaces. Lindel6t's theorems. Sep- arable spaces, Hereditary properties Chapter 10 SEPARATION AXIOMS 7 7 139 Ty-spaces, Hausdorff spaces. Regular spaces, Normal spaces. Urysohn’'s lemma and metrination thearem Fiinctions that xenarate mainte. Completely regular spaces. Chapter 1] COMPACTNESS Se eee ee ener eee aris Covers. Compact sets. Subsets of compact spaces. Finite intersection prop- erty. Compactness and Hausdorff spaces. Sequentially compact sets, Count. ably compact sets. Locally compact spaces. Compactification. Compactness in metric spaces. Totally bounded sets. Lebesgue numbers for covers. Chapter 12 PRODUCT SPACES 167 Product topology. Base for a finite product topology. Defining subbase and defining base for the product topology. ‘Tychonoff product theorem, Metric product spaces. Cantor acl Chapter 13 CONNECTEDNESS Bie tode slatted 180 Separated sets. Connected sets. Connected spaces. Connectedness on the real Tine. Components. Locally connected spaces. Paths. Arewise con- nected sets. Homotopic paths. Simply connected spaces Chapter 14 COMPLETE METRIC SPACES recesses 195 Cauchy sequences. Complete metric spaces. Principle of nested closed sets. Completeness “and contracting mappings. Completions, Baire’s category theorem. Completeness and compactness. Chapter 1§ | FUNCTION SPACES Peter cs 207 Function spaces, Point open topology, Pointwine convergence, Uniform convergence. Function space (0,1). Uniform boundedness. Equicontinuity, Ascol’s theorem. Compact open topology. Topology of compact convergence. Puuctiounls on normed spaces. Appendix PROPERTIES OF THE REAL NUMBERS zinens ig 225) Field axioms. Real line, Subsets of R. Positive numbers. Order. Absolute value, Least upper bound axiom, Nested interval property DEX OF SYMBOLS 239 Chapter 1 Sets and Relations SETS, ELEMENTS ‘The concept set appears in all branches of mathematics. Intuitively, a set is any well- defined list or collection of objects, and will be denoted by capital letters 4,B,X,¥, The oujecis comprising the sei are caiied iis eiemenis or members and will be Genvied by lower case letters a,,,y,.... The statement “p is an element of A” or, equivalently, p holonge ta A" ie writ pea ‘The negation of p A is written p ¢ A. There are essentially two ways to specify a particular set. One way, if it is possible, is by actually listing its members. For example, 2A = (a,6,i,0,u) denotes the set A whose elements are the letters a,¢,i,0 and uw. Note that the elements are separated by commas and enclosed in braces { }. The other way is by stating those properties which characterize the elements in the set. For example, \B = (a: ais an integer, x >0} which reads “B is the set of x such that « is an integer and = is greater than zero,” denotes the set B whose elements are the positive integers. A letter, usually z, is used to denote an arbitrary member of the set; the colon is read as ‘such that’ and the comma as ‘and’. & Example 11: The act B above ean also be written as B= (1,2,3,...}. Note that 628, 362 and + €B. » example 1.2: Intervals on the real line, defined below, appear very often in mathematics. Here @ and b are real numbers with @ <6, Open interval from « to B ~ (ah) — eracney Closed interval froma tob = [a,b] = (x: a=2=b} Open-closad interenl from a tok — (a,b ~ (eta ee ZB} Closed-open interval from a tob = (a,b) = fe: a=2<5) ‘The apon-elosad and closed-open intervals are slen ealled half-open intervals ‘Two sets A and B are equal, written A=B, if they consist of the same elements, ie. if each member of A belongs to B and each member of B belongs to A. The negation of A=B is written A~B. FPrample 18 Tot R= (es wt 8r 2 = 0), P= (1) and C= (1,2,2,1) Then R—F~6. Observe that a set does not depend on the way in which its elements are displayed, A sot remains the same if its elements are repeated or rearranged, Sets can be finite or infinite. A set is finite if it consists of » different elements, where x is some positive integer; otherwise a set is infinite. In particular, a set which consisis of exacily one element is called w singieiun sei. 1 2 SETS AND RELATIONS [oHaP.1 SUBSETS, SUPERSETS Asset A is a subset of a set B or, equivalently, B is a superset of A, written ACB or BDA iff each element in A also belongs to B; that is, if +A implies x€B. We also say that A is contained m B or B contains A.’ ‘The negation ot ACB is written AgB or BHA and states that there is an c€A such that 7B. Example 21: Consider the sets A= {1,3,5,%...), B= (5,10,15,20,...) c (es 2 is prime, # > 2) = (85,711...) ‘Then CCA since every prime number greater than 2 is odd, On the other hand, BGA since 10€ B but 10€ A. Example 22: We will let N denote the set of positive integers, Z denote the set of integers, @ de- note the set of rational numbers and R denote the set of real numbers. Accordingly, NczcacR Observe that ACB does not exclude the possibility that A= to restate the definition of equality of sets as follows: In fact, we are able Defini ‘Two sets A and B are equal if and only if ACB and BCA. Tn the case that ACB but AxB, we say that A is a proper subset of B or B contains A properly. The reader should be warned that some authors use the symbol C for a subset and the symbol C only for a proper smbset Our first theorem follows from the preceding definitions. ‘Theorem 1.1: Let A, B and C be any sets. Then (i) ACA; (ii) if ACB and BCA then A=B; and (iii) if ACB and BCC then ACC. UNIVERSAL AND NULL SETS In any application of the theory of sets, all sets under investigation are subsets of a fixed sel. We call this sel the wriversul sel or universe of discourse and denote it in Us chapter by U. It is also convenient to introduce the concept of the empty or null set, that is, a set which contains no elements. This set, denoted by , is considered finite and a subset of every other set. Thus, for any set A, OCACU. Example 24: In plane geometry, the universal set consists of all the points in the plane, o. Example 22: Let A = (2:2? 4, # is odd). Then A is empty, ie. A = Example 33: Let B= {9}. Then BQ for B contains one element. CLASSES, COLLECTIONS, FAMILIES AND SPACES Frequently, the members of a set are sets themselves. For example, each line in a set of lines is a set of points. To help clarify these situations, we use the words “class”, “collection” and “family” synonymously with set. Usually we use class tor a set ot sets, and collection or family for a set of classes. The words subclass, subcollection and subfamily have meanings analogous to subset, Example 41: ‘The members of the class {{2,8), (2), (5,6)) are the sets {2,8), (2) and {5,6}. CHAP. 1] SETS AND RELATIONS 3 Example (2: Consider any set A. ‘The power set of A, denoted by P(A) oF 24, is the class of all subsets of A. In particular, if A = (a,,c}, then PIA) = {A, {a,b}, faye}, {b,c}, fa, (5), keh, O) ‘The word space shall mean a non-empty set which possesses some type of mathematical structure, eg. vector space, metric space or topological space. In such a situation, we will call the elements in a space points SET OPERATIONS ‘The union of two sets A and B, denoted by AUB, is the set of all elements which belong to A or B, ie., AUB — (z:x€A or r€B) Here “or” is used in the sense of “and/or”. ‘The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by ANB, is the set of elements which belong to both A and B, ie, ANB = (#:2€A and 2B) If ANB — @, that is, if A and B do not have any elements in common, then A and B are said to be disjoint or non-intersecting, A class of of sets is called a disjoint class of sets if each pair of distinct sets in of is disjoint, ‘The relative complement of a set B with respect to a set A or, simply the difference of A and B, denoted by A\B, is the set of elements which belong to A but which do not belong to B. In other words, ANB = (2:24, 2@R} Observe that A\\B and B are disjoint, ie. (A\B) NB = 9. ‘The absolute complement or, simply, complement of a set A, denoted by A%, is the set of elements which do not belong to 4, ie, Ae = (a: 2€U, 2€A) In other words, A® is the difference of the universal set U and A. Example 51: The following diagrams, called Venn diagrams, illustrate the above set operations. 4 SETS AND RELATIONS [cHAP.1 Sets under the above operations satisfy varions laws or identities which are listed in the table below (Table 1). In fact, we state é LAWS OP THE ALGEBRA OP SETS TWempotent Laws la, AUA =A 1b ANA =A ‘Associative Laws 2a, (AUB)UC = AU(BLC) 2. (ANB\NC = An(BNC) Commutative Laws Sa, AUB = BUA 3b, ANB = BOA Distributive Lowe 4a, AU(BAC) = (AUBIN(AUC) 4b, ANUS) = (ANB Identity Laws ba, AUD = A Bb, ANU = A 6a, AUU = 0 &, Ang = 9 Complement Laws ta, AuAC =U D Ande = 9 Ba (Age = A 8b, US=9, O=U De Morgan's Laws Qa, (AUB) = Ange 9b. (ANBY = AcUBE ‘Table 1 Remark: Each of the above laws follows from an analogous logical law. For example, ANB ~ (:2€A and 2€B) — (2: 2€B and 2eA) — BNA Here we use the fact that the composite statement “p and q”, written pq, is logically equivalent to the composite statement “y and p”, Le. gap. ‘The relationship between set inclusion and the above set operations follows. ‘Theorem 13: Each of the following conditions is equivalent to ACB: () ANB=A (iii) Beat (v) Buae =U (i) AUB=B (iv) ANBe= PRODUCT SETS Let A and B be two sets. The product set of A and B, written AX B, consists of all ordered pairs (a,b) where a€ A and bEB, ie., AXB = (a,b): a€A, DEB) The product of a set with itself, say A x A, will be denoted by A®, Example 6.1: The reader is familiar with the Cartesian plane RY = RXR (Fig. 1-1 below) Here each point P representa an ordered pair (a, ) of real numbers and vice versa, Let A = (1,2,8} and B= (a,d}. Then AXB = {ya}, (1,2), 2a), 2d), Bsa), B,b) Example 6.2: CHAP. 1) SETS AND RELATIONS 5 Fig. Fig. 12 Since A and B do not contain many elements, itis possible to represent A x B by coordinate diagram as shown in Fig, 1-2 above, Here the vertical lines through the points of A and the horizontal lines through the points of B meet in 6 points which represent A XB in the obvious way. The point P is the ordered pair (2. b) In general, if a set A has s elements and a set B has t elements, then Ax B has 2 times f elements, Remark: The notion “ordered pair” (a,b) is defined rigorously by (a,b) = ((a), (a,)}. From this definition, the “order” property may be proven: (a,b) = (¢,d) implies a=e and b=d The concept of product set can be extended to any finite number of sets in a natural way. ‘The product set of the sets Aj,...,Am, denoted by AM ASX X Amor TPE, As consists of all m-tuples (a:,a2,....dm) where a € A; for each i, RELATIONS, A binary relation (or relation) R from a set A to a set B assigns to each pair (a,b) in AR exactly one of the following statements: () “ais related to 6”, written a Rb (i) “a is not related to 6, written a ft 6 A relation from a set A to the same set A is called a relation in A. Example 71: Set inclusion is a relation in any class of sets. For, given any palr of sets A and B, either ACB or AGB. Observe that any relation R from a set A to a set B uniquely defines a subset R* of AXB as follows: es On the other hand, any subset R* of AB defines a relation R from A to B as follows: aRb iff @,bER* Im view of the correspondence hatween relations R from 4 to Rand subsets of AX R, we redefine a relation by i Definition:] A relation 2 from A to B is a subset of A x B. ‘The domain of a relation R from A to B is the set of first coordinates of the pairs in R and its range is the set of second coordinates, i., domain of R = fa: (a,b)€R}, rangeofR = {b: (a,b)ER} ‘The inverse of R, denoted by R~, is the relation from B to A defined by R* = (0,0): G0) ER} 6 SETS AND RELATIONS (CHAP. 2 Note that R-! can be obtained by reversing the pairs in R. Example 72: Consider the relation R= (4,2, 0,3), 23)) in A= (42,8). ‘Then the domain of # = (4,2), tne range ot 4 = (2,37, ana R= (BB, BM, 82) Observe that # and R-! are identical, respectively, to the relations < and > In (HER if a

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