APPENDIX 1106 Mathematical Operations A.1_ EXPONENTIAL NOTATION “The mumbers use in chemistry are often either extremely lage or extremely small Such numbers ae conveniently expreseed inthe forth Noca0e ‘where Nisa number between 1 and 10, and Is the exponent Some examples ‘ofthis exponent nolan, which sao cae siete rata, alow 1,200,000%51.2 x 10 (read “ome point eo times ten tothe sth power") (0.000604 is 6.04 x 10° (read "sx point zor fur times ten tothe negative fourth power") A positive exponent, a inthe fest example, tll us how many tes 2 smamber must be multiplied by 10 give the long, form ofthe number 12 10 = 12% 19% 10 X 10x 10 % 10 % 10x tens) = 1200000 This also convenient think ofthe postice exponent asthe numberof places the decal poiat must be moved to thee to aban a urier preter han Tan les than TI we begin with 3480 and move the decimal point thee places to the eft, we end up with 345 % 10 Tia relaed fashion, negative exponent tell us how many times we must lividea number by 10 fo give the lng form ofthe number 608 a 0b 104 = 0.000604 1 convenient to think ofthe negutive exponent asthe number of place the ‘decimal print mathe moved to the right to obtain a nmber greater than 1 Bt less han 0; Irwe begin with 0.0048 and move the decimal pont three paces the ight, we end sp wth 48 10° Inthe system of exponential notation, with each shift ofthe decimal point ‘one place to the righ the exponent decries by 1 30 = 48 x04 ‘Silly, with ech shit of dhe decimal point one place to thee the exponent increases by I rea Many scientific calculators have a key labeled EXP or EE which suse to ‘enter nuaibers in exponential notation, To enter the umber 38 X 10? on such ‘eaeulator, the key sequence is Se (On some calculators the display will show 5.8, then a space, followed by 03, the exponent On other calculator, a small 10 shown with an exponent 3 048 x 107“Toenters negative exponent use the key labeled +/~, For example, tent ‘the muimber 36 % 10°, the key sequences Be hon entering « munber i exponent rotating do mat key i the 10 you ase Ie EXD or FE ttn In working with exponents iis important to real that 108 = 1, The foe lowing rules are useful for carrying exponents trough calculations, 1, Addon ond Subtraction In onder to ad or subtract numbers expressed in ‘exponential nolauon, the powers of 10 mustbe te same (622 x 108) ~ G21 x 10) = (2 « 104 = Gal x 16} 7 525% 10" (6 signticat Figures) 525 x 108 = (625 10%) ~ (0577 x 10%) (625 x 0°} = 77 x 10%) = 567 10? (significant figures) When you use a calculator toads or subtract, you nee not be concerned ‘with having numbers ith the samt exponen, because the calculator au Vomatially takes eave of tis atte Multiistio and Dison _ When numbers expressed in exponential nota: tion are multiplied, the exponents are added: when numbers expressed in ‘exponential notation ae divided, the exponent ofthe denominator i ub tracted from the exponent ofthe numesstor (64 x rohy@ x 10 = ayn) « 108 Sabae Loeat (a woven cso) = 0829) 09 = 39308 aac ag Bach 0409 cat ii SEE 80 ogre a7 ck 53, Powers and Raols_ When numbers expresod in exponential notation are raised toa power, the exponents are mlipied by the power When the ‘ool of numbers expressed in exponential aolaton are taken, the xpo- rents re divided by the oot (12 x 10% = 1.27 10% 17 x10 Was xe = W25 x 108 1s x18 ‘Seinti calculators usualy have keys beled # and VF for squaring and taking the square root of «numer, ceapesvey To ake higher powers ot roots many calculators have "end VY (or INV g") hays. For example (0 aveyf pesform the operation \/7S > 10“ on such aclculatr, you would key in 75 x 10°, press the VW key (or the INV and then the keys), enter the oot 3,and finaly press =. Tha resultis 9.1% 107 ‘AA Exponential Notation 1105;1106 APPENDIX A Mathematical Operations "SAMPLE EXERCISE 1 | Using Exponential Notation Pato ach ofthe folowing peraton, sing Your aeuatr where posse (a) We te namber DS stndra exponen notation 0) G0 x1) + 7x 10°), (e@ (588 «108237 107) a Visa® soution (3 Brcs we move the decal point he places othe ght to convert OM 10 Sa feet saxo Seti clues are generally abet convert number to exponential notation ‘Sg to to xpos Cell our ntrcion mama iso now Bus pe ‘on tssccompls on your elas (0) od hse nies Langhand, we ast contest ham othe same expen (60 x 1) + (47 x 10%} ~ 0+ 047) x 10 (ate that he sult ony to sgncan gues) To perform this operation ona GSEEAES we cert Sat uote cho ie hey Beno elo set ‘nde the hy. 1 Perorming i operation Jonghand, we have (698 277) 109 = 166 « 10" = 1466 x 10 (Om a scenic cleltr, we enter 5.98 ¥ 10 pros the % hy, enter 277% 10, Sha press the = hy = {ah operons th operaon on alcalatay, w eter the number pas the $F key (Gude RV and y hs) ener and press the = hay. The sults 15% 10" sm practice exincise Peo he flowing operons (2) We 700 teen potatin showing to giant gue © Ga8x 10>) fa x10 — {0 aan oye 10) Ad) (6.67 xP Anse) 7% 10 0) 8228 30°69 247 108,297 10 A.2_ LOGARITHMS Common Logarithms ‘Tho common, or base-10, logarithm (abbreviated lg) of any number isthe ‘power fo which 10 ust be raised to equal the autaber, For example, the cox ‘mon logarithm of 1000 (writen log 1000) is 3 becuse raising 10 tothe third power gives 100 10" ~ 1000, therefore log 1000 = 3 Further examples are Jog 0? ogi =9 (Remember shat 0? — 1) log 10-8 = -2 In these examples the common logarithm can be obtained by inspection, How {ever itis not posible o obtain the logarton of a mamber such 3531.25 by i “pecton, The logarithm of 31.25 fs the number ¥ tat satises the following ‘elatonship wt = 3125‘Most clctronic calculators havea key labeled LOG that can be used to obain logarithms For example, on many calculators we obtain the value of og 31.25, by elerng 31.25 and pressing the LOG key, We alain thefllowing raul og3.25 = 1484 [Notice that 31.25 preter than 10 (10) an les then 100 (109, The vale fo log 3-25 accordingly between log, 0 ar ng 100, tht, between 1 and 2 Significant Figures and Common Logarithms For the common logarithm of « manured quantity, the mmber of digi fer ‘he decimal pont equal the number of significant figures inthe orignal ma bet For example if 285s measured quantity (three significant igres, then Jing 285 = 1371 (hoe significant Figures afer the decimal pont), Antilogarithms ‘The process of determining the number that coresponds to a certain logaritn {snow as ablaining ananloarid. Its the eoverse of aking loge, Forenample, wes ebove that log 23.5 ~ 1371. This means that the aio ‘han of 1371 gals 233, og 285 = 1571 anil 1371 = 235 ‘The process of aking the antlog of umber is the same as raising 1010 & power equ to that aumber antilog 1371 = 10! = 235 Many calculators have ska’ labeled 10" that allows you to obtain anos rec: On other willbe necessary 0 pros ak labeled INV fr fee) Towed by the LOC key Natural Logarithms ‘Logarithms based onthe umber ae called natural, or bas logarithms (ab- broviated In). The natural log fa nusber ithe power to which (which has ‘he value 271828... must be raised to equa therumber. For example, the nat Uta log of 10 equals 2303, +8 = 10, therefore 10 = 2308, ‘ous calculator probably has key nbeed LN that allows you to cbiin natu logarithms Bor example, 4 obtain the natural og of 468, you enter 46nd res the LN ey. nse = 3.846 “Thenaturalantogafs numbers raised toa power equal to that msmber. your calculator can calculate natural logs, wll aso be abet calculate nat- ‘ra anlogs. On some clelators there i key labeled e that llows you to calculate natural anos dvety on others lt wll be necessary 10 Fist pss {be INV key followed by dhe LN hey. For example dhe natural anlog of 1.479 gventy Natural atlog 1679 = 6" = 5.36 “The relation between cornmen and natural logarithms is follows Ing Mog ¢ [Notice that he fair eating the two, 2303 the natural log oF 10, which we calculated above Aa Logacthms 07108 APPENDIX A Mathematical Operations Mathematical Operations Using Logarithms Because loganthas are exponen, mathematical operations involving loga- sith follow theres forthe use of exponents For example, the product of and 2 (where zis any number) is given by ‘Similar, the logarithm (either common or natural ofa product equals the sm ofthe logs ofthe individual numbers. loa For the log of quotient, log(ayh) = log ~ log tnt) = Ina ~ nb Using the properties of exponents, we can also derive the rales fo the logs rithm of 3 number raised to. certain power Joga + log nab = Ina = feb nina loge! = loge tne = (Um) tna pH Problems ‘One of the mos requent uss for common logarithms in general chemistry isin ‘working pH problems. The pi! le defined ae —log(l¥"|, where (H"] isthe hydrogen ion concentration of solution (Section Tet). The ollowing sample ‘vere illustrates this application, Tl SAMPLE EXERCISE 2 | Using Logos (a) What seh pf ton whose hydrogen on concentzation O15 (0) the pea slution AB waste Nydeogen ton concentaton soution 41, Weare given the value of [f°] We me the LOG hey of our calelator to alee the vale of og" The pice by changing the sgn ofthe vue {and (Be ure to change the spn ae ky nega) or] = ams ogi] = -182 signee gure) pH = 1) = 182 2 ‘Toobin the hydrogen on conceniraton when given the pH, we st ake the nibog =p pit = “lott” = 380, leg" = 380 [1] = antog(-S0) = 10°" = 18 10M Im PRACTICE EXERCISE aor he flowing operations (log % 10 ae ‘Aner: a) 450, (3487, (34 % 10% (8) 15 107 (0) 327, (8 ating —347, A.3_ QUADRATIC EQUATIONS An algsbrai equation ofthe form as? + br + ¢ = Ocal & guadratic eua- tn, The vo solutions to such an equation ae given by the uadrae formula VeaAA Graphs 1108 [SAMPLE EXERCISE 3 | Using the Quadratic Formula ra the values thatsatiy the aquaton 2 » Ae = sowwrion “Tosole the gven equation fo, we must is puttin the fom etebte=o en Using the gundetfrmula wheres =2,8 = fande Lwehave (fen chem prbiems the neue rtion has no py meine only the pomive anes AA GRAPHS Cften the clearest way to represent te ntreatonship between wo variables RANE Sto graph them. Unuly te varuble Wut is bang exprinental varied, Called the idgenden corals shown along the horworal xis (ean). ERPCMWE Prue ‘Thevarnble at eaponds to be change in endependercvarabealedthe | ice pede vrei hen show along the vera as (ran). For example, “200 au Conder an experiment in which we vary the tempertue of amendowed fas 200 aust Sd messure i prenure The Independent varabe = pera, andthe 200 ‘ie anpendent varie posure. The atashownin ble ATS canbe cbuined 500 ae tbymears af this expertnent. These data are ahown grephir alvin Figure A 1p. The elon between temperatare nd pressure is inet, The equation for any srightine raph as the form ona yomesy ul ‘wheres the slope ofthe ine and the intercept with {be yas the case of gure |, we could say thatthe Intonship Between terperstre and. peeure taken the foxen Pres) Pant 46 “ wher Pig presen at and Temperate in"C.AS gf tet = 8824 ShowninFgure I tesopels440% 0atm/Crandihe °° intcept—te pint wher he ie cones he yan—is UU tm Theeoe be eguan forthe ie aa a a Temperature) (410. 0-2 ota aeano APPENDIX A Mathematical Operations A.5_ STANDARD DEVIATION ‘Thestandard deviation frm the means, Iba common methee from describing ‘precision, We define the standard deviation as follows: Soins? SON N=T ‘where Nis the numberof measurements, isthe average (ls called the mean, and, zepresents the individsal measurement Fecronie ealulaors wih ‘builtin statistical functions can calculate s directly by inputting the individual ‘Aammaller vale of indicates higher precision, meaning thatthe data more closely clustered around the average. The standard deviation has stati Hea sigaicanc. Ths, i lange number of measurement s made, 6% ofthe reasared vale s expected tobe thin one standard deviation ofthe sve age, assuming only random errors are associated with the measurements Im SAMPLE EXERCISE 4 | Caleating an Average and Standard Deviation ‘he pen carton sug is ensued fur Uimes 42.01% 428%, 41.79%, and BSE Clana theswtage and) he andr Sevistn forte sree (3) The average is found by ading the quantities and viding by the mumber of (©) The sandr deviation it found using the equation above [Re-7 tnt etn tect Sy 1 on ily Dilfrence between Measurement Square of Dilference, snd heerage 3) os a 201-208-007 (-a07? = 0015 any n7—a08=-09 2 @s—eon-ax7 (oa? ~ om he sum ofthe quanti in the ast column's Siem = 00s + ome + 004 + 00a = 016 ‘Thus the standard deviations ‘sed on hoe earurmens woul be appropriate to represent the mesared perantctbo a6 28 "025, = aProperties of Water Density: 0.9857 im 80° +.o0000 g/m a °C 707 gio a125 °C (098888 g/mL a 100°C Heat fusion: 6.008 K/mol at 0°C Hestofvaporzaion, 4494 Kimo at0°C Haz kymol at 25°C 4067 ky/mol at 100°C Tonsprduct constant Kes 1.14 10° 10°C sot x 107 a125°C a7 x 107 at50°C Speciichest: —Ico(at~3°C) 2002 }/gK Water (t 145°C) 4184 fk Steam 109°C) 1.841 YK mnThermodynamic Quantities x for Selected Substances at a ° 2 298.15 K (25 °C) ag aay 3p Ssosince fac fino met X)__susunce fou Ae esta 20 en 7 oo mB ies ch Ag) nese) + Ag) +8) fgcis) |= —s Agi) 1 Ca ABICN a) > Ag) # 2CNa) xGx04) 1 2 —» BARN CoO) Nate) tet —= Ag) = AREOD;" a) |e > AB) + 25.059) AP) 36 —> Ale) HyAsO) 6250 a) 26 > Heda) * HO) aap te Ba) Ba) © 28a + 3e> — BG) +00) Be) 26° 9 2B) 2:05) + 2H) + Wet —+ Br + 61100 2COg) +2 Haq) + 26° — C0400 CaP ap +2 — Ca) Caan» 20° — Cab) Cel aq) + ea) ug) 2° — 2069) 2HCIas) + 2H) + 26° —+ ‘Chigh "21:08 Co%ap + HOI) + 2e° — Cray + 20H) 2C10yun) + 2H) + 1De” — chgh'reH:080 oP 2° Cot) CoM) +e — Co) Coan) +3 —> Cx) Coad Ca COP) 1 Ha) re co) + THAAD COP) 1 AH) 367 — ‘ExGinye) + S0H a) cata + Be — Cube) cote so — Cote) at) — Cal) Cc) +e > Cal) Ps) yyy 8 26°22) Fea) +26 — Fe Poa) Fe — Fe) BeCNIE fg) + — FONE) 2H ap 20° — HG) 17 Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C Hall Reacion 2HAKy | 26 Fa 20H HO) - HOO) + 2e—+ 30H) HOiap 6 2A) 1 2 —* BOD gy tay +26 —+ 2H) BHM) | 2 — asa gag) 4 Be — He Wy) #26 +2) HOC) | 12H") 4 06" — Tao st04h Ka) so Ke) Tq) te — Lis) Mata #26 — Mg) Maa) 26° —> Na) Moose) + Aa 4 26° > Nota + 21100 MaDe) Sib) = Se — Nolag + 41100, MO) 28,00) + 36° — + Noe) +4019) NOs) + Hop = & — NOW) +H. Ng) = 1,040 + 6° — 40H) = NH) Nag) + SH) = 4° — NH") NOs ay) +4) +e —> NO) + 214,00, Natag te — Na Ney +26 — Nie) Ought 4a) 8 = HOD (Og) +2 1.00) + 4e> — 401) (ug +2 Hay) + 20° — HON (0g) +2 Hap) + 26° > Ox) + HAO Poa) + 2e—> Pa POA) + HOA +39) + 2 8040) 2-00) Fes) Hag) 4 Bee — FH) + SOM PelMap + 26 —> P49) ACH) Sp) 4 2H) 6 267 —> HS) SOs) 4809) +47 — S94 AOD SOF Ua) ¢ SHU) 9 2— SOs) + 2200 sai) + 26° — Soe) Saag) + 26> — Sag) VOs a) 122%) Neo + VOM) HO 2a a) + 26+ Za) 5 0% sn 356 aan a) 7) he