FEED MILL

Dr / Hesham KOTB
Alwadi Poultry Company
Veterinary Section Head
 1- MILL
• 1-Types
2-Hammer
3-Screen
4-Ventilation system
5-Efficiency
6-Roller
 Types of mill
• 1. Hammer mill

• 2- Roller mill
 Hammer mill
• Hammer mill used for making various
nutrients crumbled. This kind of mill in
processing oil seeds such as soybean,
sunflower, canola, etc. and also for excoriating
and milling them out (nutrients with high
protein grinded often oil extraction).
 Advantages of hammer mill:
• -Milling with range of nutrients.
• -Useable for fibrous and tender nutrients
• -Less payment than roller mill
• -Low maintenance cost
• -Simple and comfortable application
 Disadvantages:
• -Less energy efficiency than roller mill
• -High heat production
• -Making particles in different sizes (less
uniformity)
 parts of hammer mill include
• 1 - Electrical engine
• 2 - Feeder
• 3 - Rotor
• 4 - Hammers
• 5 - Screen
• 6 - Mill output
• 7 - Chassis and stand
• The amount of crushing is related to number
of hammer: six of hammer, abrasion, crash,
speed, machine power, the screen, diameter
of screen pores, rate of milling and cereals
quality (humidity, hardness, weight test, stuff
density and kind of cereal).
 Hammer pattern
• The number and order of hammers in a mill
called hammer plot or pattern. Hammers with
the length of 4.25 cm are used in hammer
mills with thick hammers. Using heavy pattern
is appropriate for crushing most of materials.
 Impact speed

• Impact speed is calculated by multiplication of propulsion rotating

speed (round per minute of shaft) in turquoise of hammer tip as
formula below:
•
• Minute per F.t = (πD*rpm)/12 in/Ft
• Π = 14.3 D: diameter of
hammer rpm: round per minute of shaft.
•
• Impact speed is usually between 16000 to 23000 Ft per minute
(5000 to 7000 per minute).
• Low impact speed= less than 13000 Ft per minute
• Medium impact speed = 13000 to 18000 Ft per minute
• High impact speed= more than 18000 Ft per minute
• Medium impact speed is suitable for manufacturing
grain-shape products from corn/wheat and sorghum
hammer mills with medium speeds between 13000
to 18000 Ft per minute will bring about producing a
high-quality product and appropriate capacity and
efficiency.
• High impact speed is picked for soft milling of
fibrous and hard materials such as soybean chaff
and mixture with animal proteins, because too much
energy is needed for milling. This kind of materials
and more impact speed is also needed for better
utilization of energy when hammer and particles
meet one another. Too high impact speed (25000 Ft
per minute) is appropriate for materials with high
efficiency and capacity to be soft.
 screen
• The most erosion seen in screen plate of mill. The best
way to reduce milling costs and maintain the efficiency
capacity and producing quality, is to replace the mill
screen. The screen should be usually replaced before
replacing hammer when using mills with set of hard
hammers more replacement is needed. It is not usual to
replace screens with very small holes (1 mm or less)
during 8 to 24 hours of operation in aquaculture feed
manufacturing. Holes with checker pattern and angle of
60 degrees are more suitable. The ratio of 55 cm2 per
one horse power is suitable for cereal milling, if there's
no sufficient area, produced heat will transfer to cereals.
Heat increased over 44 to 46 °C causes a 50% reduction
in mill capacity.
• Particles with desirable size will be produced.
If ratio of screen to horse power and the
distance between hammer and screen is
accurate.
• Materials which did not passed through screen
subsidence on screen surface because of high speed of
hammers rotation. Presence of these materials behind of
screen and their compaction cause abrasion of this part
and energy losses as heat, thus will bring about economic
efficiency less. In some mills two part screens were
designed. For reducing materials pressure on screen
surface, upside curvature of hammer should be
increased, when using bigger materials. Effective factors
on open area of screen included: holes size, holes
periodicity, surface angle and size.
• Two lows related to mill screen and it is relation with
horse power contains below:
• 1- Mill should never have screen less than 3.90 cm2
per one horse power (better to be more).
• 2- Mill should never have open area 8.25 cm per one
horse power.
 Ventilation system
• Ventilation system controls hammer mill area
and cause materials moving from lacuna to
screen holes. Ventilation system causes on
increase in milling efficiency, uniform product
with low heat and controlling dust around the
machine. Air suction capacity should be two
times more than the high capacity of hammer
mill (on m3/min) in hammer mill.
 A reduction in air flow may occur
because of below:
• -A reduction in milling efficiency
• -Very soft end-product
• -Needing more energy
• -Increasing heat during milling
• -Faster abrasion
• -Too much dust
 Efficiency
• Efficiency and the speed of material
circulation:
• G(kg/h) = kw * D *JKW
• G = hammer mill efficiency per
hour
D = screen holes' diameter
• KW = genuine engine
power
JKW = milling coefficient of feed
 Milling coefficient of some feed
ingredients are as below:
Oat = 27 Corn = 55 Soybean meal = 70

Rice bran = 15 Coconut powder = 50 Meat meal = 50

Wheat = 40 Sunflower meal = 50 Fish meal = 12

Barely = 14 Sugar beet bagasse = 11 Salt = 75

Rye = 20
 Circulation speed in hammer mill
• Each nutrient has a specific circulation speed
in a mill (on m/s):
Millet = 48 Corn = 52 Wheat = 65

Rye = 75 Oat = 88 Barley = 105

Bran = 110 Oat hey = 115

Effective parameters on efficiency:
An increase in Particles size analysis Milling efficiency

Periodic speed Decrease Decrease

Num. of hammer Decrease Decrease

Screen holes diameter Increase Increase

Screen thickness Decrease Decrease

Screen holes density Increase Increase

Inner layer surface Increase Increase

Air content Increase Increase

 Visit

Roller | s:
31

There is usually an immobile roller and other one mobile and the distance between
is manual or automatic adjusted. Roller grooves determined (softness) according to
type of materials and / or the first and the last size of particles. Large grooves are
used for large mills and high capacities; and small grooves used for soft particles in
lower capacities. For producing very soft product, using rollers with several grooves,
sometimes is needed. The type of (RBV Round Bottom Vee) is more applied among
various types of roller mills. Jagged shapes with various knobs and angled are used,
when using cereals high laminating are used when speed's less than 1000 (Ft./min)
and more than 2200 (Ft./min) (not when rollers speed is different). Different speed
of rollers means one roller rotates faster than another and this rotation difference
usually expressed as "Ratio". For instance, the foot speed of roller will be 1000 rpm
with the ratio of 1:1.5 and for slow roller 667 rpm.
 Mixer
• Types
Add liquid and oils
Mix time
 Types of mixer
Vertical mixer
Horizontal mixer
 Vertical mixer
• This mixer has vertical helix which put the
middle of main tank of mixer. Materials ether
from downward and go upward by this helix.
often that pour down from the top of mixer
(up to geomagnetism) and on the previous
materials. This make material circulation and
their gradual mixing. Vertical mixer is less
capable of producing feed than horizontal
ones. Time needed for a homogenous mix, is 5
times more than horizontal mixers.
 Vertical mixer contains:
• 1- Elevator helix
• 2- Metal tank
• 3- Helix roller electromotor
 Vertical mixer advantages
• 1- Very simple structure
• 2- Low initial investment
• 3- High efficiency
 Vertical mixers disadvantages:
• 1- High energy consumption (low
efficiency)
• 2- Long mixing time
• 3- Ununiformed
Reasons for incomplete mix in vertical
mixers:
• Kind of mixer design that prevents from
complete mix
• Mixer designing up to slow movement
• Insufficient mixing time
 Horizontal mixer
• This mixer has horizontal shaft which number of paddles
or ribbon put on this shaft (rotor) by rotation of this
shaft and movement of paddles or ribbons, materials in
mixer transferred and mixed from one side to another
like pendulum
• Kinds of horizontal mixers:
• A: Paddle mixer
• B: Ribbon mixers (helix)
• In other division, horizontal mixers divided into 2 groups
according to number of rotation shaft:
• A: Single shaft
• B: Double shaft
• It seems that double shaft one is more efficient.
• A: Paddle mixer
• In this mixer, lever or plates installed on rotor in
distinct distances which paste the axis of rotation
angled. Metal paddles pasted to the edge of arms.
Arm and paddle are moving by movement of
rotating shaft and ingredients mix with each other
circulating.
• B: Ribbon horizontal mixers:
• In this mixer, two or more ribbon connected on
rotor. By movement of rotor, ribbon transfers
materials from one side to another and spins. So,
materials mix together. They enter to vertical
mixer gradually and too much time to be wasted.
• Mixer parts may be a sequence of paddle or
ribbon.
• Paddle is plates which is perpendicular to central
shaft by secondary shaft. Paddle push feed
upward and provide mixing condition. But ribbon
is spiral and consecutive and jointed to central
shaft.
• Ribbon mix materials by pulling and pushing
them through mixer. Dead spots in mixer are
spots where there's no mixing there. By
increasing dead spots, there should be some
changes in mixing method, otherwise, machine
efficiency will be dropped.
 Horizontal mixers advantages:
• 1- High energy efficiency
• 2- Short mixing time and increasing efficiency
• 3- Increasing mixture homogeneity
• 4- Possibility of adding microelements to mixer
 Horizontal mixers disadvantages:
• 1- High initial cost
• 2- High maintenance cost
 Reasons for incomplete mixing in
horizontal mixers:
• - Kind of mixers design with incomplete mixing
• - Low movement of mixer
• - Over-filling of mixer and no mixture of upper
levels of feed
• - Ribbon kind which make no move back and
move ahead of feed
• - Long distance between paddle and mixer side
(paddle eroded and should be adjusted)
• - Making electrostatic conditions
 Main reasons for separating
ingredients in mixer are:
• - Free fall of separated particles during mix
• - Air pressure drop
• - Shaking and vibrating of machine or
equipment
• - Making electrostatic conditions
 2- Adding liquids and fat
• Take notice that newer spray liquids on metal parts of mixer (paddle and
wall) when adding liquids. Install nozzle at the top of mixer and after
covering paddle surface with feed, add liquid.
• This lessen ingredients sticking to minimum and spend less time for
cleaning.
• A: Adding fat: Increasing temperature, increasing fat absorption by dry
ingredients.
• Staining ingredient surface with fat cause materials slippery while passing
die and so, die resistance will be decreased. Added fat content to mixer
effects on pelletizing of these is extra fat, pellet quality will be decreased
because of pellet slippery.
• But less fat will increase probability of machine blockage. Difference in only
1 percentage effects on pellet quality. High resistance die should be applied
because of fat tripper effect.
• B: Adding molasses: Increasing temperature cause mixture of sticky
materials like molasses easier. Adding too much molasses cause adhering
materials to transmitter equipment. A continuous flow of materials needed
when pelletizing. The effect of adding molasses to mash in pelletizing
operation is vice versa fat.
 Mixing time
• One minute of changing in mixing time has a
meaningful effect on increasing or decreasing
factory potency and efficiency.
• A feed manufacturer should provide suitable
equipment with due attention to dry and wet
mixing and also mixer build and design.
• By changing mixture cycle, production cycle
time length will be changed.
 Mixing time in different mixers
Kind of mixer Mixing time (minute)
Dry mix Wet mix
Peddle 3 3
Double-shaft peddle 0.5 1

Ribbon 2 3
Double-ribbon 1-2 2-3
Double-shaft ribbon 0.75-1 2

Vertical mixers 5-10 5-10

TMR mixer 5-10 5-10
 Pelleting
• General concepts
Types
Feeder
Steam
Liquids
Durability time
 General concepts
• Pelletizing means making adhesion proportion among ingredients,
using humidity, heat and pressure for transformation of granules and
mash feed into special forms. The meaning of adhesion proportion is
gelatinization and / or plasticity of feed ingredients. Gelatinization is
related to the essential property of starch and carbohydrate.
• Whereas plasticity depends on breakup of proteins.
• Adhesion proportion of materials is different, from one material to
another and one source to another. This this difference is more clear
when pellet produced with various formulas. For instance, different
feed formulas which are different in fat content (inner fat or added
fat).
• Fat makes formulation lubricous and reducing adhesion proportion
among ingredients. In addition to fat, these are many variables that
make disturbance on pellet resistance. Problems made from
differences should be removed by studying and analysis of pellet
operation and making balance in humidity, heat and pressure will
make qualified pellets.
 Benefits of pellet
• Combination of humidity, heat and pressure in feed which has high natural energy,
make a grade of baking so that animal could utilize feed nutrients. So, by decreasing in
feeding and increasing in ideal weight, FCR will be improved. If means that production
of milk, meat and egg will occur with less feed consumption. Pellet feeds make no
choice for animal, all ingredients will fed. Preventing from feed waster cause balanced
feeding, pelleting cause a reduction in waster of ingredients. Bulk density of
ingredients will be increased by pelletizing, especially fibrous parts of feed such as
alfalfa, beetroot meal, gluten and ingredients with this same specification.
• For instance, by pelletizing alfalfa, it is bulk density become duplicated, from 17 lb to
34 lb in ft3, this related to production condition of pellet feed. Density increase, make
replacing cost reduced. Pellet feed with high density, provides more nutrients for
animal during the time. Milling and pelleting are two processes which improve
movement of materials. In most cases, evacuation of ingredients is difficult if they
would not be pelleted, in addition that, flowing ingredients will outpour from
reservoirs. Pelletizing will also reduce dust while relocation. Pellet feeds reduce
waster of materials. In pelleting process, heat will cause destruction of growth
inhibitors, yeast and poisonous organisms.
• Loss of nutritional value will be reduced by pelletizing, because oxygen evacuates
among ingredients. With due attention to many advantages of pellet, this process
needs high energy consumption. Therefore, calculating expenditures per ton of
produced pellet is one of crucial and significant items for manufacturers. But accurate
understanding of pelletizing, reduces impute energy and keep costs per ton low, but
basic rules of this process in production step should be noted.
 Various production forms:
• Grouts: this is like a mash-feed. An admixture of ingredients with
minor changes.
• Pellet: this product manufactured by passing materials through die
and omission soft materials.
• Crushed pellets and particles with lower diameter than perfect
pellets, are separated by sieve.
• Pelletized: pellets which have no dust or crushed pellets. The
percentage of soft materials in pellet is related to feed formulation.
• Crumble: produced pellets pass through rollers of crumble and
become tiny parts. Producing small or big crumble is related to
adjustment of rollers and screen size. Unwanted soft particles
picked as granule out.
• Cube: including different shapes, circular, rectangular or oval. Their
length is usually 2 to 4 times of diameter. Dust or crushed cubes to
be separated by sieve.
 Factors effect on pellet resistance and stability
• some factors affect significantly on pellet resistance and stability. Stability means compaction
and pressure; and resistance means pellet stability against pressure or fraction and abrasion
tolerance. Searchable parameters included: particles size, vapor conditioning, pre-heating/
adding binder and lubricant.
• Particles' size: Particles size is one of the most important factors effects on pellet quality.
Smaller and softer particles; more resistance and stability of pellet, and vice versa bigger
particles cause an increase in pellet surface cracking. Smaller particles have more internal
conjunctions because of having more contact surface and so; the space between them will be
removed. Materials could be crushed by hammer mill. Using sieve size 3.2 mm or range of 3.2 to
4 mm (4 at the top and 3.2 at the bottom), high quality pellets can be produced.
• Pre-heating and vapor conditioning : For activating binding specification among particles, heat
and humidity are needed, by becoming activated of natural binders such as lignin, protein and
starch, particles would be stimulated for binding and become compact.
• On the other hand, heat and humidity cause plasticity specification better among particles and
in this way by increasing contact surface, space among particles will be omitted and pellet
quality become improved.
• Lubricants and binders : Many manufacturers use binders or lubricants for better pellet
producing. One of the most common lubricants, are herbal oils which used for reduction in
abrasion between die and ingredients. Binders used for improving pellet stability. From these
binders
• We can mention calcium Lignosulfonate, starch and calcium hydroxide.
 Types of pellet mill
• Kinds of pellet machine
• 1-the first kind of pellet machines is standard pellets
which used widespread in poultry and livestock feed.
• 2-the second kind is one makes agriculture feed pellet
(fish and shrimp). These machines have conditioning
tanks.
• 3-the third kind is pellet machine with flat die. These
machines used for feed and wood manufacturing.
• 4-the fourth kind are machines for fuel production.
Very heavy and for making pellets of wood by-products
or other materials.
A pellet machine made from several parts:
• The first part is feeder, where ingredients come into pellet machine, after
that feed come into one or more conditioning tank (specially for
agriculture feed).
• In this part, feed is exposed to steam, and molasses may be added. After
passing this step, materials come into pelletizer part. Materials
compressed to die wall by roller, and passed from die holes by pressure,
and exit from machine. Blades which conjunct to pellet machine, cut
output pellets and pour into a tank. Output pellets may come into
crumbler. In the next step pellets come into cooler and become cold.
• After passing through separator, ready for packing.
• Pay attention to factors below before purchasing:
1 - Kind of production and feed formulation.
2 - Needed capacity (tone)
3 - Feed quality requirements such as pellet durability index
4 - Production characteristics like diameter and length needed for pellet.
• Two important factors: durability and horse power are needed.
 3 - Feeder
• Feeder is a part which is controlled by operator. In different speeds of pelletizing, evacuation
speed of feeder should be checked.
• This part effects on pellet quality adjusting pelletizing yolk.
• Feeder working included:
• - Feed mass maintenance between tank and conditioner.
• - Preventing from transferring and direct feed flow from tank to conditioner.
• - Producing fixed flow from mash to conditioner.
• Feed adjustments should have done accurately. Adjust machines with various RPM every time
in the best conditioner which done by spiral conveyors with changing speed.
• Type of feeder
• Notice options below for ensuring suitable feed flow.
• A: For preventing any blockage in feeder, the number of conveyors should be enough.
• B: Using feeder with changing engine RPM should have enough speed for out-coming suitable
feed bulk.
• C: Speed adjustment part should be visible. With continual adjustments of feeder, suitable
adjustment can be done. Parts such as indicator and junctions must be in suitable condition.
• D: Shaft particles should have turned back to inlet of helix.
• E: Blades should have designed so that push feed equally back from tank. Use double blades in
the find part of evacuation if possible.
• Start from low domain at the first of operation. After starting
operation with one product, you can act with higher adjustments.
Therefore, these will be no blockage on the way. You can start
operation at the short time for adjusting feeder and vapor valves.
• - For new formula, adjust feeder from low degrees and then
make it higher gradually so that needed resistance can be made. Fix
adjusted degree by taking wanted resistance.
• - In different adjustments and gradual feed speed increasing.
Adjust vapor valves for keeping temperature of mash in die.
• - Choose adjustment that have acceptable quality and the
highest production yolk-record this level for using at the next times.
• - Pellet quality improvement: feeder speed could know as a
factor for increasing pellet quality. Decreasing feeder speed usually
cause pellet quality to be improved. Because in this case stop time in
die will be increased.
• Mash flow speed in die will also be decreased, because of speed
reduction. Anyway, effect of feeder rate reduction on pellet quality is
poor thus temperature, vapor and die design effect.
 4 - steam
• Steam in conditioner For making the maximum machine efficiency,
steam quality should be controlled. Compact steam act like fat and
cause materials passing through die easily. In particles covered with
a thin layer of moisture erosion is low. Erosion reduction related
closely to increasing efficiency and longevity of die and rollers.
When using steam and high temperature, starch is gelatinized and
cause an increase in pellet density. While gelatinization, starch
monosaccharides structure affected by moisture and duration time
will be changed. The best temperature to obtain wanted result is 75
°c or higher. Moisture level of raw materials during conditioning
process reaches to 17 to 18%. In pellet process, finding a way to
increase temperature without increasing moisture is considered, so
that steam producing with high temperature, dry and steady
pressure for pellet production is viewpoint of any manufacturer.
Never use condensed and humid steam. In high moisture, ingredient
become extra wet and thus need more heat to be dried. Of course,
processing conditions are different up to pellet kind, protein
content, starch and molasses.
• Steam For converting water to steam there are 3 steps:
• Conversion of zero ice to zero water
• Conversion of zero water to 100 °c water
• Conversion of 100 °c water to steam (in atmosphere pressure)
• Needed temperature for steam production increased by pressure
increasing and with reduction of that, needed temperature will be
decreased. Relation between humidity and steam related to intangible heat
content. Steam with no humidity called dry steam and become extra-hot
steam by increasing temperature. Humid steam is a steam that water drops
are diffused in steam bulk. this condition should be prevented. Steam
produced saturated in pressure 50 to 150 psi (3.5 to 10.5 kg/cm3) by boiling
water tank. Using saturated steam in condition, machine is also heat-
expansion in atmosphere pressure. Steam contains water and heat. With
condensing 1 litter water will be produced. Steam quality should be kept
throughout the passage and no condensation should have made in
condensation should made in condition because the presence of
condensation make mash humidity increased and cause blockage in die
hole at last. Steam siphons must be checked daily. Hot siphons shown
correct operation and cold siphons shown this part rained, which must be
repaired or replaced as soon as possible. Steam flow bulk and noise made in
siphons should be checked. Condensation made should be collected for re-
use.
• Steam operation
Steam in one of main steps of pelletizing process.
Make sure of correct steam flow and high quality
adding steam to mash occurred because of
several reasons: -
1 - Increasing starch gelatinization, protein
plasticization, binder activation, fiber softening,
natural oil releasing, bacteria and mycotoxins
control.
2 - Increasing slippage, increasing capacity and
decreasing energy consumption.
3 - Decreasing erosion in die and roller.
4 - Decreasing heat from attrition.
• Use from condenser pipes for preventing from steam
penetrating to junctions.
• These pipes could also be used as separator.
• Pipes diameter should be appropriate for decreasing steam
speed and separation and evacuation of water.
• Condenser pipes should have downward gradient and put at
the bottom of pellet machine.
• Water in pipe should have free pressure upward.
• Anyway, for designing these condenser pipes some points
such as container.
• Heat in addition to molasses and fat should be considered.
• All valves and pipes should be installed correctly and have
minimum distance from condition and boiling water tank.
• In some cases, experimental ways used as below:
• Molasses steam conveyor pipes should be installed at the
sides. Thus steam pipes heat transferred to molasses. But
because of reduction of steam heat bulk for pelletizing, it's
recommended that apply condenser pipes for making
molasses warm. In this case, steam heat will be suitable for
pellet.
• Check subjects below in steam pipe line:
1- Using safe and suitable valves.
2- Using automatic and high-speed valves.
3- Using water evacuation equipment.
4- Container installation with suitable volume is necessary
because of creating too much water when machine operating
(container put out of steam system).
5- Using condenser and water discharging pipes.
6- Remember that evacuator, steam movement helix, and a
valve for blocking passage when high humidity to be installed.
 Liquids
• A: adding liquids should be according to formulation. If ratio of liquids is
not correct, difference that made, effects on pelletizing operation and
won't make pellet quality stable.
• B: adding molasses: for correct operation of pellet machine and qualified
pellet production, molasses should have added equally and according to
formula in feed to be mixed.
• The best way to reach this aim is addition of molasses as tiny particles
with high pressure of steam that done in conditioning stage.
• Heated molasses penetrate rapidly and absorbed well. Molasses
automatic system are adjusted with needed amount in feed. Pay attention
to prevent from repowering of these liquid to boiling water tank. Use
blocker valves in pipe line for that. In some cases, an admixture of fat and
molasses added to feed for controlling dust and increasing palatability.
Liquid usage systems are usually included nozzle or spray nozzles.
Molasses tends to make less dust more than pasting dust to pellet. In
some cases, it's better to make liquids warm for flow ability and better
mixing with ingredients.
• Recommended temperatures included:
• Molasses: 38 to 43 °c
• Fat: 60 to 70 °c (minimum heat domain)
• Hat fat: 82 to 93 °c (the best temperature for penetrating)
• Materials temperature should be between 75 to 85 °c and
moisture around 17%. High temperature difference
between conditioned materials in mixer output duct and
pellets come out from die (around 30 to 60 °c) can show
inadequate oil or steam or using thin die.
• If there are problems about gaining suitable temperature
and moisture, it may be because of reasons below:
• 1 - Steam quality is not satisfying.
• 2 - High humidity of raw materials at the first of operation.
• 3 - 2 options above occur simultaneously.
• If pellets temperature is high while exiting from
cooler (more than 15 °c than environment
temperature). It may be because of cooler size
that not suitable, pellet durability being short, or
cooling air flow is inadequate (the last 2 options
may occur simultaneously).
• Final moisture of manufactured product should be
like moisture of raw materials at the first of
operation. Added moisture in conditioning stage
should be removed during cooling and become
like primary measurement at the start of
operation. Cooling process should cause pellet
cooling, not drying.
 Durability time
• Durability time is related to condition design, size and
its operational parameters. Conditioners are different
from each other in diameter, length, kind, number of
equipment, their location, steam entrance, presence or
absence of blade and their location. Any change in
each mentioned parameters effects on materials
durability.
• The most usual way to changing and adjusting this
time, is changing angle of pedal and shaft speed. The
best way to forecast pedal angle, is measurement of
that than shaft. Shaft circulation speed could be
decreased or increased by using of engine with variable
RPM.
 Durability measurement:
1- Clean condition thoroughly and any remained materials.
2- Turn condition and feeder shaft on, till their circulation
reaching to a uniform and invariable limit.
3- To distinguish correct rate of materials, output materials
from conditioner should be collected after a while. Repeat this
step and calculate the average.
4- Stop movement of screw feeder but shaft should be turned
on, till evacuating all materials in conditioner.
5- Using formula below, average of shelf life time in
conditioner to be calculated:
Shelf life per second (hour/second) = {material flow rate
(kg/hour) / material constant in conditioner (kg)} * 3600
Result shown that the best shelf life in conditioner is between
12 to 18 seconds.
 4 - DIE
• Die selection
Genus
Specification
Philology
Speed
Longevity
Using principles
Die problems
Cutting blades
New die installation
 Die selection
• For producing qualified pellets and the highest
production rate, use from die designed according to
the type of feed.
• Pay attention to items below for selecting an
appropriate die:
• - Checking needed quality
• - Size of pellet particles or cube to be suitable
• - Selecting a suitable kind of die.
• - The type of design (gibbous or deep)
• - Entrance pattern for cube dies like deep
congruous, …
 How to select a die?
• It's necessary to know some points for understanding die
installing conditions. Some environmental factors such as
installing location, machinery operation space and some
factors like the type of ingredients, resistance of die surface
should be considered. There is a question for most of
manufacturers that how to select a die so that an acceptable
ratio of density in accordance with feed formulation could be
achieved. Recommended ratio of density is 9 to 13 in feed
pellets this number is 13 to 16 for fish feed and 20 to 25 for
shrimp feed. Beside that producer can make actual density
ratio less or more in accordance with their intended quality.
• Less ratio of density, cause more weight per unit of volume
and make less abrasion in die, but in the other hand make
pellet quality downfall so that the percentage of pellets which
soft and fractured will become increased. But die with high
density produce pellets with smooth appearance and high
density.
 Genus
• Dies have various specification and application. Dies genus are as below:
• 1-Alloy
• Medium grade of carbonized steel which carbonized has an outside hard layer and a
soft core. These groups contain materials which are more stable against fraction and
use of them recommended. In other word they are the best kind of a heavy metal
this material is applied for using high capacities of minerals and has a less price than
other dies.
• 2-Mor-Ton
• It is stainless steel type which has been carbonized by suction method and has a
hand surface and soft core.
• Mor-ton die is considered from view of buyers who they want qualified pellet. In
this die, the best attrition specification and passing potential with tiny holes'
pattern, specially holes with 32.5 diameter and less, to be created. This position
makes ligaments thickness and pressure on the roller reduced. However, Mor-Ton is
a stainless steel, but it will be rusty and decayed.
• 3-chrome plus
• It is neutral hardness and all thickness of die has been rigid. Chrome plus dies have
higher throughput capacity and more stability for fabricating high quality pellets.
This die is widely used for cases with high chemical attrition and throughout
capability and high stability. It chromes plus die is used instead of carbonized one,
thickness of holes will be increased from 6.35 mm to 7.12 mm.
 Specification
• Kind of metal used:
• Dies are usually made of carbon steel alloy or stainless steel
alloy. Heating method is different for them.
• A: Dies made of normal alloys are susceptible to attrition
and some holes may appear in die holes wall. Because of
rough surface of holes which appeared during heat process,
they operate hardly at first.
• B: Dies with steel alloy and high chrome all usually smooth
more, but are resistant against material passage. Adjusting
roller to holes, is more noticeable and causes blockage.
Stainless dies have usually more expenditure than alloy
type. These dies are resistant against attrition.
 Holes' knobs
• Knobs on holes are made because of drill impacts on outside
diameter of die. Drills are usually cone-shape and have more
diameter. Decreasing in efficient thickness of holes occurs
because of many reasons:
• A: Foe making dies with low efficient thickness specially in
russet dies. Apply minimum thickness recommended by die
manufacturing. If efficient thickness is less than expected limit,
die will become knobby for calculating efficient length.
• B: Sleek outside part of die. A reduction in efficient length of
holes, cause an increase in feed passing capability.
• C: Outside rows: outside rows of all dies are usually knobbed.
• D: Conic entrance of holes, all dies are produced cone-shape at
the bottom of feed entrance, for removing knob made of drill.
How to determine die specifications?
• The worst mistake is when we believe that die
is the reason of all problems. There are many
factors effect on die operation. The first one is
poor conditioning of vapor. Dies with high
compact index are used (more thickness) to
overcome to these problems.
• Advantages and disadvantages of thin and
thick dies are
 1-Thick die
• Advantages
• -Pellet quality is not a crucial subject for operation controlling.
• -Pellet quality depends on operator experience.
• -Pellet rigidity will be increased.
• Disadvantages
• -Efficiency/ capacity reduction.
• -Obstruction occurrence to be increased.
• -Increasing production costs.
• -Increasing die and roller outside attrition
• -less conditioning heat
• -less feed humidity
• -Increasing heat because of more attrition.
• -Injuries to several parts of die.
 2-Thin dies
• Advantages
• -High capacity
• -Reduction in probability of holes' obstruction.
• -Possibility of adding more humidity.
• -Using more heat in conditioning.
• -Applicable for many feed formulas.
• -Reducing costs related to die and roller attrition.
• -Reducing pressure on machine.
• -Reducing electrical energy consumption costs.
• Disadvantages
• -Increasing need to vapor.
• -Professional operators needed.
 Philology
• 1-Efficient thickness
• Increasing efficient thickness make pellet compaction rate
in die increased, and in fact, it is die applicable thickness.
Efficient thickness in sleek holes is total thickness but in
knobbed dies, knobs deducted from total thickness.
• 2-Compaction index (L/D)
• The ratio of die efficient length to holes' diameter called
compaction index. This index is different according to the
kind of feed.
• 3-Out-side knob
• Die is produced narrower to make an increase in resistivity
and compaction. Die holes are drilled from outside by drills
which have diameters than diameter of efficient holes.
4-Variant knob
Out-side rows of holes are less in comparison with central rows, because feed tends to go out
from sides. For making this problem to be removed or lessened (with cause unequal attrition of
die), outer rows knobs made deeper for more conduction of materials to holes.
5-Backward conic knob
For pelleting some sponge materials, dies with knobbed holes with backward cones are used.
These holes all suitable for alfalfa pellet or fishmeal pellet. In these holes compaction index
become less because of more diameter, because length and diameter of pellet will be increased.
6-Conic
The entrance of materials into the holes is conic which conducts materials to the inside of holes'
shape of these cones are various, and have usually angle 55 to 60 degree. Cone specification is
also important. Cone which is deeper make a pre-pressure effect in die and cause obstruction and
blockage specially in early hours of operation.
7-Taper spout
When die cannot be able to compress enough (compaction index reduction) and peets turned to
crumble, we could increase cone depth and angle, to make more pressure. In most cases, depth
of 15 to 25 mm is suitable for dies with depth of more than 6 to 7 mm, in this case it would
prevent from high thickness effect and a good compaction accrues.
8-Entrance fount
The shape of entrance founts of die is mostly cylindrical which is drilled from inside of die and
allocated 30% of hole length to itself. These kinds of dies are used for products which:
• -Need to more compaction because of high fat content.
• -For making mechanical cuts in hard shapes which need to heavy compaction.
 Speed
• The speed of die rotation is always evaluated according to size of
pellet produced, in pellet machine. There is some limitation for
rollers based on feed formulation and thickness of materials. The
solution of production to be increased is to make die rotation speed
increased due attention to this physical limitation. By increasing die
speed, thinner layers of feed made so that can cause more rigidity,
but there are some limitations such as probability of fraction because
of putting pressure and impact, while pellet coming out through die
and knocking to the fixed deer of pellet machine. In conclusion,
faster speeds cause more softness that make effective transmittance
reduced. Pellet diameter is one of important factors for determining
appropriate die speed. The general rule is that, pellets with diameter
of 3017 to 3.6 mm operate more efficient in high speeds. Experience
shown that speed of 2000 ft/mint is ideal in many cases. In cubic
pellets with diameter of 15.8 and 19 mm and big cubes, die speed
should be limited to 1200-1300 Ft./mint.
• In particular cases there are some pellet
machines with twofold speed for changing die
speed according to the size of pellet machine.
These speeds could be changed up to any
mechanical change such as in one of shaft gears
or change of original motive engine. High speeds
of pellet machine cause no change on pellet
specifications. Using equipment with less speeds
of die, leads to operational problems, a reduction
in production and quality.
• The reason is simple: Less speeds make too much
thickness of feed at the front roller so that they
could cause roller to be slipped and the amount
of feed conditioned would be limited.
 Longevity
• Die longevity
• Die longevity depends on items bellow:
• -Composition of raw materials (formulation)
• -Specifications of raw materials used in ration
• -Fat content
• -Size of mash particles
• -Moisture content before pelleting
• -Conditioning
• -Automatic or manual controlling of pellet machine
• -Other cases
• Compositions: composition fill of fiber cause pellet operation
harder and longevity of die to be shortened.
• Raw materials: raw materials such as silicate or sand make die
longevity shortened quickly
• Fat: formulas containing 1.5 to 2% fat, cause more fluent motion
and less attrition. In fact, fat act as a lubricating factor.
• Size of mash particles: mash with big particles size make more
attrition.
• Moisture content and conditioning: poor conditioning of dry
pellets cause more difficulty in operation and production.
• Pressure controlling: operator should cheek attrition rate of
misleading plates and rollers being adjusted regularly to prevent
from die uneven attrition and incorrect operation. Conditioner
pedals should also be checked for attrition.
• Vapor siphons and filters: inspection of this part is for ensuring
of no condensation formation.
 Die problems
• Die problems
• 1-Blockage of die entrance: this problem usually occurred because of excess tightening
of roller. All entrances should be open, otherwise, production rate and quality will be
decreased. If roller adjusted and installed correctly, this cause would not occur in case
of blockage, pick die up and turn entrance over it is conic shape drill with a lot of air
flow is suitable, for this case.
• 2-Pores blockage: pores usually by burned feed and / or materials in circulation
blockage causes die rate reduction and open area reduction. Closed pores make hot
spots in die because mash cannot penetrate to the inside. Sometimes blockage
occurred because of entry of metals or minerals which should be drilled to outside. In
this cases, soak die in hot oil for 20 minutes so that materials could exit easily.
• 3-Corrosion and abrasion: some feed parts cause corrosion in alloy dies and make
some holes into them. This subject makes outside surface of die smooth and decrease
pellet quality. Corrosion of metals is an irreversible chemical reaction, so it is better to
use stainless steel dies or dies resistant against abrasive materials.
• 4-Rollers out of place: sometimes rollers may not be at the center of die. It occurs
when central segment become loose or abraded. Feed materials may be collected
behind shaft of rollers or rollers are not installed correctly. This problem should be
improved as soon as possible.
• 5-Unequall entry of feed: because of low or incorrect entry of feed or abrasion in
deflector plates.
• 6-Die fraction: the most fraction rate in die caused because of cutting shaft, abrasion in
die ring, loosing of fasteners or blades, over-loading of die and abrasion in die. Make
sure that cutting shaft is in appropriate situation.
 Die fraction reasons
• Use always from cutting shaft recommended by machine
producers. All screws, replacing rings or die clamps should
be in suitable situation.
• Die fraction reasons
-In case of die wall abrasion, it cannot tolerate high pressure.
-Abrasion in moveable parts cause die not to tolerate
incoming pressure.
-Loosing of main shaft make rollers thrown and impact to die.
-Entering materials outside into the die.
-Starting operation with high pressure because of die
blockage.
-Low quality of die.
 Cutting blades
• Sometimes blades cause pellets fraction instead of cutting them.
There is various designs from very sharp blades or simple break
bars. Blades should usually use for pellets and break bars for cube.
• If pellet or cube with short cut is considered, blade should be
adjusted near to die. A sharp blade is also used for clean and
smooth cut. Pellet length could be adjusted by changing in feed rate
or blades adjustments.
• 1-Produce pellets with standard length and customer friendly.
• 2-If more than one machine for producing the same feed is
operating, adjust blades to produce pellet with equal length.
• 3-Sometimes there is no need to short blades or any blades.
Shorter blades are suitable for cutting pellet, which throw pellet
directly into evacuation tank for being cold.
• Throw upward blades of pellets opposite of shorter blade keeper
and cause a lot of fraction. Sometimes both of 2 blades are also
needed.
 New die installation
• After taking new die, fraction may occur often turning it on and a short operation.
At the beginning of operation, stainless steel dies should operate for one hour
with full production but alley dies will need more time. If any problem. Contact
manufacturer.
• Step 1: Decrease possibility of die fraction in producing broiler chick feed by
adding fat.
• Step 2: 50% of production could be adjusted when using old die and give die
temperature to 14% less than desirable limit by adjusting vapor valves.
• Step 3: Make sure that roller is in good position toward die surface machine never
operate for a long time. Roller should not contact surface.
• Step 4: Turn machine off, if there is no feed in. Die should not keep in high heat
and movement. Apply mash containing high fat or ingredients mixed with fat such
as meat and bone meal on outside surface of die. This causes cleaning blocked
pores and die to be cold. Do not use of corn or any material susceptible to heat.
Check roller distance after washing all outside pores of die, adjust them again of
needed.
• Step 5: After new die operated 50% of it is capacity, and flow intensity reduced,
increase vapor content to give die, it is normal temperature. Added vapor keeps
end-pellet quality and flow intensity will be reduced.
• Step 6: After a drop again, increase feeder adjustments and vapor valves with due
attention to the best adjustments than previous dies.
• Step 7: Continue this process until complete production.
 Die washout
• Die washout prevents from material mixture and increase operation
efficiency because of removing materials from pores while
producing feed containing high fat, non-pharmaceutical rations (fat
powder free and bone free) or mixtures containing fat, dies should
be washed out thoroughly. Washing up is necessary for reasons
below:
• 1-In daily productions.
• 2-Producing firm and strong pellets.
• 3-Producing pellets make stain or when possibility of mixture with
other feed is high.
• 4-In the last production which after that manufacturing will be
changed.
• 5-Producing pharmaceutical feeds or those containing bone and
meat meal.
 Why rebuilding die?
• Rebuilding die is done because of benefits for producer. Starting up with new die has some problems.
Die rebuilding cost, is 20% of new die.
•
• Some questions and answers about die rebuilding:
• 1-How much is die rebuilding cost? Die rebuilding cost nearly 17 to 20% of new die. In some with
reduction in applicable surface it may need extra lathing for rollers out of size and costs may be 5%
increased.
• 2-Which kind of die could be rebuilt? All dies could be rebuilt even flat dies.
• 3-When die should be rebuilt? Often 800 to 2000 working hour, die should be rebuilt that it is time
domain is related to kind of used materials. Reducing machine capacity, is the taken for necessity of
rebuilding this part that die holes and primary die surface to be changed flowed by that. Another
reason is incorrect adjustment of roller to die.
• 4-How often we could rebuild die? It is recommended that even if using correctly from die, rebuild it.
Therefore, diameter of applicable part of die will be reduced, but pellet quality will be similar to new
die production. Primary surface of die rubbed all through it is width equally, but it is diameter should
not be less than 80% of primary diameter. Die may rebuild even for the third time. Some conditions
even occur that you rebuild die for the fourth time. In these cases, production procedure should be
changed, thus pay attention to pellets quality.
• 5-If rebuilt dies need bigger roller? Yes, but not for all pellet machines, use only in uncommon
circumstances from bigger rollers. This means that using from bigger rollers is when dies were rebuilt
more than 2 times. Thus the distance between roller and rebuilt die should be adjusted.
• 6-How a rebuilt die effect on pellet quality? Produced pellet quality by a rebuilt die has no difference
with new die. Even in some cases, pelleted feed will be more qualified. The reason is that, changing
pressure rate on rebuilt die holes.
• 7-Is it true that rebuilt dies to be cracked? The reason of cracking may be because of incorrect
assembling during shaft circulation or inappropriate distance of fastener or inappropriate die selection.
 Roller
• Surface of roller
Setting
Maintenance
 Surface of roller
• Roller surface is different hardness, design and coarseness. Roller
with tungsten surface have to erosion in longer duration, than other
designs. Their fraction duration may be more than die and no need to
replace even with die replacement. Roller surface made in a variety of
wavy-shape, open or closed end, or helix designs. Making troughs on
roller surface cause inappropriate cuttings. it's the middle of
operation and bring about some difficulties in operation. Using new
rollers should have done at the same time with die if possible.
• Replacing only one roller make production costs increased and pellet
quality and efficiency decreased. Roller surfaces are designed up-to
die width and it's all holes cover. Different parts of roller provide
condition of circulation in the center. Rollers may work out of
adjustment because of some reasons:
• - Existence of attrition
• - Inappropriate adjustment
• - Inappropriate installation
• - Inappropriate installation of different equipment of rollers
 Setting
• Roller adjustment
• Correct adjustment of roller is very important. Keeping rollers balance
during operation should be regarded. Roller shouldn't have any contact
with die surface for preventing die damage.
• Notice: control clearing of magnet daily for preventing from entrance of
any outside materials, specially metals.
• All die parts and roller equipment must adjust in normal position. In case
any default in cleaning, maintenance; greasing and abrasion cause
depreciation and inappropriate operation in movable parts.
• In case occurrence of these problems, roller adjustment will be difficult. In
case of high abrasion, that piece should be replaced. Roller adjustment
have the most importance in pellet machine. If it installed very close to
die, it will cause production rate reduction, quality reduction, and die
longevity decreased. But if roller installed with a high distance from die,
slippage made in roller and production reduction and product quality
reduction will be occurred. The distance should be to the extent that roller
surface should not have totally closed contact with die surface.
 Method of roller adjustment using
strip (just in wavy and vent rollers):
• 1- Lock pellet machine.
• 2- Make sure that roller hinge, screws, fasteners, holes are clean
and rollers rotate easily.
• 3- Die I.D and roller surface O.D should be clean. Make sure that all
surfaces are clean and there is no feed or dust between roller and
die.
• 4- Tighten roller enough in front of the die metal surface.
• 5- After that loose rollers to some extent that they can only rotate.
• 6- In case of rotations of roller with narrow band easily tighten
roller.
• 7- Do this for next rollers
• 8- After adjusting all rollers by this method, all rollers must be
tightened and adjusted if needed.
• Roller adjustment by band:
•

• 1- Clean die thoroughly, so that there couldn't be any feed

in die inside surface.
• 2- Put band between roller and die. Move machine slowly
to put band between die and one roller.
•
• Check made symptoms:
• A: no sign: roller is very loose
• B: cutting on band: roller is very tight
• C: trough on band: roller adjusted correctly.
 Cooler
• Cooling process
Types
Classification of pellet
Durability time
 Cooling process
• How pellets become cold?
• During pellet incoming to cooler, it is temperature and humidity are
reduced. Performance out turn of cooler depends on temperature and
humidity content of pellets. By decreasing 11 °C of temperature humidity
content will be reduced 1%. Cooler can reduce additional humidity and
temperature in condition and heat produced by main engine.
• Go ahead with pellet step by step:
• A: Vapor of raw materials condensed in condition and cause an increase in
humidity for 3 to 5 percent. While vapor being condensed some heat is
also produced, pellet temperature will reach to nearly 60 to 94 °C in
conditioner. Pellet should be cold and dry now for getting a good quality of
product.
• B: While pellet coming from die out, some humidity because absorbed,
because of capillary nature.
• C: Cooler structure is so that air flow stays easily around pellet. Air have
capacity for humidity absorption and converts to vapor and therefore
cooling operation occurred.
• D: Heat derived from pellet make air inside cooler warm and therefore
airflow, becoming more potentiated for water absorption.
• Example: if air temperature in cooler is 20% and relative humidity is
85%, pellets entered with about 48 °C temperature, cooler air
humidity absorption capacity will be 5 times more than primary
states. By increasing cooler humidity, the balance of heat and
humidity will be better.
• E: If humid surface of pellet is not being exposed to air entirely pellet
will not reach to the balance of heat and humidity step. It humidity
content inside pellet is more than outside surface, pellet will become
like a wick and humidity distributed along pellet and removed
because of heat.
• F: This process continuing until humidity make conditioning removed
by heat. Humidity will be equal along pellet. If cooler air is extremely
dry, it causes pellet humidity extremely reduction and pellet will
become brittle.
• In conditions that some waters added before conditioner get to
mixture and heat needed to provide humidity removing, in this case
pellet humidity will be higher than normal limit.
• G: While pellet coming of cooler out, air temperature of cooler will be
5 to 8 degree warmer than primary status. For instance, if cooler
temperature at the time of pellet arrival is 15 °C, temperature will be
20 to 23 °C when exit.
• Pellet worse status could be worse as below:
• 1-Choosing the correct size of cooler.
• 2-Ventilation system appropriate patterns.
• 3-Using suitable heaters for extra humidity removal.
• Cooling and drying occur simultaneously:
• 1-Becoming cold by humidity evaporation: by evaporating extra
humidity, internal heat of pellet will exit.
• 2-Becoming dry: heat added in conditioner and die, get humidity from
pellet
• 3-Becoming cold by airflow: cooling occurs while airflow passing from
pellet surface.
• Heat and humidity outgone by ventilation system. Sufficient air is
needed and suitable durability time in cooler for becoming dry and
cold. Time is also needed for outgoing extra humidity from the middle
of pellet to outside surface. For pellets with more length to be cold,
more durability time is needed. Therefore, cubes need less durability
time than little pellets.
 Types of cooler
• Choosing the type of cooler (horizontal or vertical),
depends on wanted space. Horizontal coolers are
suitable for cooling pellets containing. Fat, molasses and
high urea but in vertical coolers possibility of stickiness
is very high. Cooler brings temperature to 10 °C and it is
humidity content to 0.5% of prime humidity.
• If pellet become cold incorrectly, then situation would
be worse and thus more dust produced. In addition,
growing mold and fungus will be more.
• Vertical cooler
• Vertical coolers have 2 pellet shaft and one control shaft
with warm airflow. Wall of 2 shaft have screen and
wired nets which air directed from this screen to pellets
by fan.
• Several parts of that contains:
• 1-Tank and catcher equipment for maintaining got-ready pellets in front of
cooler shaft.
• 2-Cooling shafts
• 3-Air chamber
• 4-Engine of evacuation and control gear
• 5-Evacuation gears
• 6-Centrifugal fan
• 7-Engine of air conductor fan
• Operation of vertical coolers are very simple. Pellet comes into tank from
pellet machine and then is conducted into shafts. Hot pellets come into
shafts and air circulate among them. When pellets in tank get into flush level,
evacuating motor start to operation, and evacuation become started by
moving gear, and materials get from the bottom of each shaft and hot pellets
enter. During operation, gathered dust bulk may fill tank space. Therefore,
before second start, tank should be cleaned from dust bulk.
• In these coolers, maintenance capacity is fixed. We can increase maintenance
duration to reduce production rate.
 Vertical cooler
• Some advantage of this type of cooler are as below:
• -Minimum floor space needed
• -High capacity
• -Low requirement to airflow
• -Effective on beginning and ending of operation
• -Simple mechanism
• Limitations of this cooler:
• -Not suitable for cooling and drying tiny materials
• -Difficulty in making monotony in all parts
• -Low airflow
• -It causes drying more than cooling
• Tips
• Control input and output content of pellets. Keep control box air valves clean.
Make sure that screens are intact and clean at both sides of pellet shaft.
• Pellets out flow from cooler to crumble rollers and screen is very important. If
out flow is not monotonies, control valves of feed entrance site need to be
adjusted.
• Make sure that all valves, Ball bearings and shafts operate easily.
 Horizontal cooler
• Horizontal cooler operation is like verticals one and they differ each
other just in appearance. In vertical coolers, pellets transmit to two
shafts, but in horizontal one pellets stay on surface that is like a
pored steel plate or on surface moved by conveyor belt and cold
vapor go through up the pellets.
•
• Horizontal cooler has 2 types: mono-deck and double-deck.
• In mono-deck cooler, pellet puts on a movable ribbon and evacuate
at the end of path. But in double-deck cooler there are two
movable ribbon. Pellet moves on upper ribbon and dropped on
underneath ribbon and evacuate at the end of path.
• Duration of maintenance and floor depth are adjustable by accurate
ribbon adjustments or adjusting grooves in various depth of floor.
• Different parts of horizontal cooler in shape:
• 1-Feeder
• 2-Products conveyor belt
• 3-Air chamber
• 4-Air entrance
• 5-Aooling gear equipment
•
• Factors effect on this type of cooler operation contains:
• -Temperature of intake air: if weather is cold, water
holding capacity would be law and in hot weather, water
absorption capacity is high.
• -Depth of cooler floor: width of floor is usually between
30.5 to 38 cm.
• -Intake air content.
Tips
Pellets should stay entirely on the width of floor and fixed depth, so that a constant
airflow could pass through among pellets, before re-operating, cooler should be
discharged entirely. Some advantages of horizontal coolers that verticals are that
horizontal coolers have a movable plane which moves mechanical and evacuates pellets.
This subject cause a positive flow, because processed pellets tend to be tight (overlaid
each other and being tight). In vertical cooler pellets which become stiff (like pellets
contains much more molasses) stick together through operation, become dried and
prevent normal flow. The length of horizontal cooler and the speed of conveyor belt
determines duration of becoming cold. Cooler with and floor depth also determine
production capacity. Floor depth, cooler width, size and length of air pipe, size and type
of dust-collector equipment, determine the measure of fan requirement.

Symmetrical flow cooler

Cold air flow, circuit from the bottom of cooler upward and among pellets. Pellet also
moves downward and inside of evacuation site. Durability time and depth of pellet floor
could be adjusted by special sensors and adjusting evacuation valves.
Attention: cooler should be equipped by an entrance valve lock. Spread pellet on the
width of evacuation plate. Be careful that the bottom of equipment (tank) should be
empty, before evacuating from the top in these coolers.
 Classification of pellet
• Pellets divided into 3 groups for becoming cold:
• 1-Normal pellets (4.2 to 4.4 mm): become cold for at least 7 to 8 minutes. In dairy
cows feed, which contains urea pellets should be cold enough. Otherwise they will be
rained. Presence of humidity in cereals and molasses in formula make pellets soft
and spongy and so many dust produced.
• 2-Pellets containing high levels of urea (4%) and soft (2%) should be cold enough
specially in high environmental humidity, in case pellets become too much cold they
absorb humidity of surrounded air and then demolished.
• Pellets which have become too much cold shown no symptoms of being destroyed in
cool, but decaying process will occur faster because of containing high humidity.
• -80 humidity, 30 mm cooling, 1% water removed.
• -90 humidity, 30 mm cooling, 2% water removed.
• -100 humidity, 30 mm cooling, 3% water removed.
• -80 humidity, 45 mm cooling, 3% water removed.
• During feed operation, cooler should not be turned off because of any reason, cooler
fan should also be turned off.
• 3-Cube: they need time for becoming cold because of largeness even isome
conditions that vapor injection is needed for humidity, to be removed, cubes will be
soft and destroyed if become cold too much.
 Durability time
Durability time
Table of minimum duration time for most of feed formulas:

Pellet size (mm) Duration time (minute)

4.2-4.4 7.8
4.6 9-10
5.9 11-12
7.12 13-14
1.19 16-17
2.22 18-19
 cooler
• Cooling process
Types
Classification of pellet
Durability time
 Cooling process
• How pellets become cold?
• During pellet incoming to cooler, it is temperature and humidity are reduced.
Performance out turn of cooler depends on temperature and humidity content of
pellets. By decreasing 11 °C of temperature humidity content will be reduced 1%.
Cooler can reduce additional humidity and temperature in condition and heat
produced by main engine.
•
• Go ahead with pellet step by step:
• A: Vapor of raw materials condensed in condition and cause an increase in humidity
for 3 to 5 percent. While vapor being condensed some heat is also produced, pellet
temperature will reach to nearly 60 to 94 °C in conditioner. Pellet should be cold and
dry now for getting a good quality of product.
• B: While pellet coming from die out, some humidity because absorbed, because of
capillary nature.
• C: Cooler structure is so that air flow stays easily around pellet. Air have capacity for
humidity absorption and converts to vapor and therefore cooling operation
occurred.
• D: Heat derived from pellet make air inside cooler warm and therefore airflow,
becoming more potentiated for water absorption.
• Example: if air temperature in cooler is 20% and relative humidity is
85%, pellets entered with about 48 °C temperature, cooler air
humidity absorption capacity will be 5 times more than primary
states. By increasing cooler humidity, the balance of heat and
humidity will be better.
• E: If humid surface of pellet is not being exposed to air entirely pellet
will not reach to the balance of heat and humidity step. It humidity
content inside pellet is more than outside surface, pellet will become
like a wick and humidity distributed along pellet and removed
because of heat.
• F: This process continuing until humidity make conditioning removed
by heat. Humidity will be equal along pellet. If cooler air is extremely
dry, it causes pellet humidity extremely reduction and pellet will
become brittle.
• In conditions that some waters added before conditioner get to
mixture and heat needed to provide humidity removing, in this case
pellet humidity will be higher than normal limit.
• G: While pellet coming of cooler out, air temperature of cooler will
be 5 to 8 degree warmer than primary status. For instance, if cooler
temperature at the time of pellet arrival is 15 °C, temperature will be
20 to 23 °C when exit.
Pellet worse status could be worse as below:
1-Choosing the correct size of cooler.
2-Ventilation system appropriate patterns.
3-Using suitable heaters for extra humidity removal.

Cooling and drying occur simultaneously:

1-Becoming cold by humidity evaporation: by evaporating extra humidity,
internal heat of pellet will exit.
2-Becoming dry: heat added in conditioner and die, get humidity from pellet
3-Becoming cold by airflow: cooling occurs while airflow passing from pellet
surface.
Heat and humidity outgone by ventilation system. Sufficient air is needed and
suitable durability time in cooler for becoming dry and cold. Time is also needed
for outgoing extra humidity from the middle of pellet to outside surface. For
pellets with more length to be cold, more durability time is needed. Therefore,
cubes need less durability time than little pellets.
 Types of cooler
• Choosing the type of cooler (horizontal or vertical), depends
on wanted space. Horizontal coolers are suitable for cooling
pellets containing. Fat, molasses and high urea but in vertical
coolers possibility of stickiness is very high. Cooler brings
temperature to 10 °C and it is humidity content to 0.5% of
prime humidity.
• If pellet become cold incorrectly, then situation would be
worse and thus more dust produced. In addition, growing
mold and fungus will be more.
•
• Vertical cooler
• Vertical coolers have 2 pellet shaft and one control shaft with
warm airflow. Wall of 2 shaft have screen and wired nets
which air directed from this screen to pellets by fan.
• Several parts of that contains:
• 1-Tank and catcher equipment for maintaining got-ready pellets in
front of cooler shaft.
• 2-Cooling shafts
• 3-Air chamber
• 4-Engine of evacuation and control gear
• 5-Evacuation gears
• 6-Centrifugal fan
• 7-Engine of air conductor fan
•
• Operation of vertical coolers are very simple. Pellet comes into tank
from pellet machine and then is conducted into shafts. Hot pellets
come into shafts and air circulate among them. When pellets in tank
get into flush level, evacuating motor start to operation, and
evacuation become started by moving gear, and materials get from the
bottom of each shaft and hot pellets enter. During operation, gathered
dust bulk may fill tank space. Therefore, before second start, tank
should be cleaned from dust bulk.
• In these coolers, maintenance capacity is fixed. We can increase
maintenance duration to reduce production rate
• Some advantage of this type of cooler are as below:
• -Minimum floor space needed
• -High capacity
• -Low requirement to airflow
• -Effective on beginning and ending of operation
• -Simple mechanism
•
• Limitations of this cooler:
• -Not suitable for cooling and drying tiny materials
• -Difficulty in making monotony in all parts
• -Low airflow
• -It causes drying more than cooling
•
• Tips
• Control input and output content of pellets. Keep control box air valves clean.
Make sure that screens are intact and clean at both sides of pellet shaft.
• Pellets out flow from cooler to crumble rollers and screen is very important. If
out flow is not monotonies, control valves of feed entrance site need to be
adjusted.
• Make sure that all valves, Ball bearings and shafts operate easily.
 Horizontal cooler
• Horizontal cooler operation is like verticals one and they differ each other just in
appearance. In vertical coolers, pellets transmit to two shafts, but in horizontal one
pellets stay on surface that is like a pored steel plate or on surface moved by
conveyor belt and cold vapor go through up the pellets.
•
• Horizontal cooler has 2 types: mono-deck and double-deck.
• In mono-deck cooler, pellet puts on a movable ribbon and evacuate at the end of
path. But in double-deck cooler there are two movable ribbon. Pellet moves on
upper ribbon and dropped on underneath ribbon and evacuate at the end of path.
• Duration of maintenance and floor depth are adjustable by accurate ribbon
adjustments or adjusting grooves in various depth of floor.
•
• Different parts of horizontal cooler in shape:
• 1-Feeder
• 2-Products conveyor belt
• 3-Air chamber
• 4-Air entrance
• 5-Aooling gear equipment
• Factors effect on this type of cooler operation contains:
• -Temperature of intake air: if weather is cold, water holding capacity would be law and
in hot weather, water absorption capacity is high.
• -Depth of cooler floor: width of floor is usually between 30.5 to 38 cm.
• -Intake air content.
• Tips
• Pellets should stay entirely on the width of floor and fixed depth, so that a constant
airflow could pass through among pellets, before re-operating, cooler should be
discharged entirely. Some advantages of horizontal coolers that verticals are that
horizontal coolers have a movable plane which moves mechanical and evacuates
pellets. This subject cause a positive flow, because processed pellets tend to be tight
(overlaid each other and being tight). In vertical cooler pellets which become stiff (like
pellets contains much more molasses) stick together through operation, become dried
and prevent normal flow. The length of horizontal cooler and the speed of conveyor
belt determines duration of becoming cold. Cooler with and floor depth also determine
production capacity. Floor depth, cooler width, size and length of air pipe, size and type
of dust-collector equipment, determine the measure of fan requirement
• Symmetrical flow cooler
• Cold air flow, circuit from the bottom of cooler upward and among pellets. Pellet also
moves downward and inside of evacuation site. Durability time and depth of pellet
floor could be adjusted by special sensors and adjusting evacuation valves.
• Attention: cooler should be equipped by an entrance valve lock. Spread pellet on the
width of evacuation plate. Be careful that the bottom of equipment (tank) should be
empty, before evacuating from the top in these coolers.
 Classification of pellet
• Pellets divided into 3 groups for becoming cold:
• 1-Normal pellets (4.2 to 4.4 mm): become cold for at least 7 to 8 minutes. In dairy
cows feed, which contains urea pellets should be cold enough. Otherwise they will be
rained. Presence of humidity in cereals and molasses in formula make pellets soft and
spongy and so many dust produced.
• 2-Pellets containing high levels of urea (4%) and soft (2%) should be cold enough
specially in high environmental humidity, in case pellets become too much cold they
absorb humidity of surrounded air and then demolished.
• Pellets which have become too much cold shown no symptoms of being destroyed in
cool, but decaying process will occur faster because of containing high humidity.
•
• -80 humidity, 30 mm cooling, 1% water removed.
• -90 humidity, 30 mm cooling, 2% water removed.
• -100 humidity, 30 mm cooling, 3% water removed.
• -80 humidity, 45 mm cooling, 3% water removed.
• During feed operation, cooler should not be turned off because of any reason, cooler
fan should also be turned off.
• 3-Cube: they need time for becoming cold because of largeness even isome
conditions that vapor injection is needed for humidity, to be removed, cubes will be
soft and destroyed if become cold too much.
 Durability time
Durability time
Table of minimum duration time for most of feed formulas:

Pellet size (mm) Duration time (minute)

4.2-4.4 7.8
4.6 9-10
5.9 11-12
7.12 13-14
1.19 16-17
2.22 18-19
 Crumbler

• Effective factors
Installation and adjustment
Screen analysis
 Effective factors
• Pellet operation efficiency is crucial for crumble production and affected by
many factors. In case each factor is less than standard level, quality and
quantity of pellet will be reduced.
• 1-Pellet quality: pellet quality must be fine. Qualified pellets make less dust in
crumbler, so less dust come to pellet machine back and production rate will
be increased.
• In rigid pellets, rollers of crumbler are more efficient than blades.
• 2-Feed manufacturing rate: crumbler rollers production rate determined by
cooler and pellet machine production rate, which could be conformed with
feeder of cooler or according to 85 to 90% of feeding.
• Low-quality crumble to be produced, if there is a high loading of roller or high
speeds.
• After pellet exits from feeder of cooler, feed be distributed along the length of
roller. Some monotone distribution of feed, bring about non-uniform
production and also nun-uniform abrasion.
• 3-Rollers of crumble
• Rollers should be clean and suitable for operation. Pellets will be only cut by
sharp rollers. Rollers length should be adjusted parallel at each two ends, for
manufacturing a uniform product.
 Installation and adjustment
• Installation and adjustment of new roller:
• Pay attention to items below when installing new roller:
• -If differential is rotor-gear type, apply an iron-gear in suitable format and fits to
roller.
• Making roller shafts ruffled needs to gears with less diameter.
• -Adjust rollers so that the sharp edge of one roller could stay on another is inside.
• -Rollers should install entirely parallel. If rollers with manual settings are used, make
sure that provided pressure is according to it is instruction. If adjustment is
pneumatic, make sure that the end of both of rollers are install and adjust accurate.
Check their adjusting status maintenance periodic. To produce a good and qualified
product, roller should be adjusted accurate. All along the length of roller should
produce uniform crumble producing non-uniform crumbles is because of reasons
below:
• -Non-uniform feeding in roller
• -Non-parallel rollers to one another
• -Being tight or loose of rollers
• -Abrasion in rollers
• Rollers close together cause very soft particles and rollers with interspace cause big
particles come to cooler back.
 Screen analysis
Tiny crumble
1-on holes 7.4 mm / standard screen 4-5 mm maximum 0%
2-on holes 4 mm / standard screen 35.3 mm maximum 1%
3-on holes 7.2 mm / standard screen 36.2 mm maximum 25%
4-screen No. 20 or 85 mm, maximum 10%

Larg crumble
1- Pellets which their hength is equal to their diameter, maximum
0%.
2- On standard sieve number 6 (3.35 mm), maximum 30 and
minimum 5%.
3- Standard sieve number 20 or 0.85 mm, maximum 8%.
 formulation
• Protein
Fat
Fiber
Starch
moisture
Density
Pellet binder
Organic and inorganic acid
Additives
Feed texture
 Protein
• In case feed is high density and high protein, an increase in products quality and its
volume are expected. Whereas, if protein is low and density is high, production rate
will be increased but pellet quality will drop.
• There are 3 different protein sources: Herbal protein, animal protein and non-
protein nitrogen
• A: herbal protein
• From that kind, soybean meal, cottonseed, sunflower, peanut, canola, are
mentioned. Pelletizing of soybean need a high resistance die and mash high
temperature. Cottonseed meal and sunflower (strong binders) don't need high
temperature. Oil content of these ingredients affect directly on pellet quality and
capacity.
• B: animal protein
• Meat meal, bone, used mostly as protein sources. Meat of beef, poultry and fish,
used in most of feed. They need a high resistance die for being pelletized that of
course it depends on its total fat content.
• C: non-protein nitrogen
• Urea cause die slippery. Minerals level in other ingredient effect on usage measure
of urea and high die resistance. Urea is very sensitive against moisture and heat.
• If 4 to 6% urea is used in mixture, low-resistance die can be used and the minimum
level of humidity and heat is needed.
 Fat
• Fat inside ingredients, called internal fat. Internal fat doesn't effect on pellet
quality as much as added fat to feed. Existence of a lot of fat cause energy
during pelletizing process reduced, but in the other hand effects on pellet
quality, too.
• If operator increases production rate and electrical flow, pellet quality will be
reduced. Fat mentioned as pellet quality reducer factor. Because of binding
pellet with water (as vapor) and removing area stickiness of particles and
interference of (hydrophobicity specification) fat, in pasting materials. Pellet
physical quality can be increased by increasing vapor (increasing
temperature) and other variables such as high levels of wheat or corn, as well
as using additional systems of fat after pelletizing. In this method, fat is
sprayed after exiting hot pellets from die and nearly about 4% fat is absorbed
pellet.
• Applying fat after cooling pellet make the most possible resistance in pellet.
By using this method, fat tension to stay on pellet surface cause dust
reduction and also erosion is decreased by making slippage. New studies
shown that, method of adding fat on pellet after cooling, brings about better
pellet quality. But in continual usage, fat from spray, congregates in die and
make more soft particles as well as pellet resistance.
 Fiber
• Fiber known as a very complicated nutrient in pellet feed and
divided into 2 groups: soluble fiber and insoluble fiber in water.
Water soluble fiber cause an increase in viscosity and viscose
materials by surrounding a volume of materials because they stick
to each other and pellet quality increased. It seems that if insoluble
fiber is grounded enough or conditioned enough, has a desirable
effect on pellet physical quality because of their fiber surface
fraction. High fiber, cause some problems in production, because it
becomes cumulated hardly, by pasting natural binders to fiber,
pellet become improved.
• Ingredients will high fiber effect on pellet quality in different ways
for example dry alfalfa make quality improved, whereas rice by
products and it crust bring about pellet quality reduced. It needs
high temperature and moisture for producing pellet from high-fiber
ingredients.
 Moisture
• Each part ingredient used in ration, have initial moisture and added moisture form
adding vapor in conditioner. Adding moisture with suitable percentage improve pellet
quality.
• Suitable moisture content prediction for reaching to a desirable temperature, preventing
from making friction force between die and feed and slippery is important. Researches
results shown that 3% moisture in mash feed in mixer, increase pellet quality and energy
consumption was reduced.
• If enough moisture added to feed before pelletizing, desirable resistance will be made in
pellet. Ingredients like fermentative cereals, are too dry naturally, and adding moisture
before material entrance into conditioner case can be expletory for moisture in pellet
machine.
• If conditioning vapor and squeezing in die is not able to make a desirable quality in
pellet, added binder to feed will improve pellet quality. 2 binders which used usually are
bentonite and lignin sulfate. Synthetic binders cause an increase in costs of feeds and
are used just when other methods couldn't be beneficial for product improvement.
• Relative moisture of environment effects on moisture of raw materials.
• When using low-humidity materials, it's better to use high-quality vapor. With moisture
of 11 to 12% in conditioner, in some circumstances it needs to add some water (usually
1 to 1.5% in mixer) to mash feed, for providing material desirable moisture. The best
way is to add water to one or more ingredients before milling. In case of existence of
molasses in formula, for calculating moisture, it's moisture content should be regarded.
• Adding 10% molasses, increase moisture to more than 24% and thus feed moisture feed
moisture will increase 2.4%.
DensitySimilar ingredients have also different densities. Final density of mash

effects on pellet capacity. Some cases mentioned in the table :

Product name Weight per m3 Pellet resistance Abrasion content

Dry alfalfa 192.12-304.19 Medium High

Barely 528.23 Medium Medium

Bagasse 256.16-320.2 Low -

Blood meal 560.35-640.4 Medium Low

Fermentative cereals 240.15 Low Medium

Skimmed milk 496.31 Low High

Extract pulp 320. Low Medium

Coconut powder - Low High

Corn 640.4 Medium Low

Corn meal and corn cob 560.35 Very low Very high
Corn gluten feed 400.34 Medium Low
Corn gluten meal 480.3 Medium Low
Corn scum 560.35 High Low
Cottonseed meal-
560.35-640.4 High Low
extraction solvent
Cottonseed meal-
extraction by mechanical 560.35-640.4 Medium Medium
method
Distillation cereals scum 288.18 Low Medium
Distillation solutions - Medium Medium
Fish meal 560.35 Medium Medium
Hooman feed 416.26 Low Low
African corn 640.4-720.45 High High
Cottonseed meal-
extraction by mechanical 432.27 High Low
method
Cottonseed meal-
528.33 High Medium
extraction by solvent
Meat losses 656.41 High Low
Sorghum 160.1-720.45 High High
Crushed - Low High
Molasses - - -
Oat milled 480.3 Medium Medium
Peeled 128.08 Very low High
Oat by sieving 128.08-192.12 Very low High
Peanut meal-
640.04 High Low
extraction by solvent
Rice seed 336.21 Low High
Rice peeled 720.45-928.58 Medium High
Soybean meal-
extraction by 640.04 High Low
mechanical method
Soybean meal-
640.04 High Low
extraction by solvent
Wheat half 320.2 High Low
Wheat floor 496.31 Medium Low
Wheat bran 176.11-240.15 Low Low
Dry whey 576.36 Low high
Bone powder 784.49 - -
DCP 688.43 - -
 Pellet binder
• Thus, if these materials become changed or their level changed in ration, ration should
be balanced because of affecting on formula. Using binder for increasing physical quality
of pellet is recommended, for case that ration can't reach to quality standards itself
without binder.
• There are sufficient documents for checking efficiency of binders like bentonite and
lignosulfonates. Clay also used as binder. These materials are mostly cheap and used as
fiber in rations which are rich in nutritional value and also in producing cubic pellets.
• All clays are not able to paste pellet particles. In nomenclature of clay materials,
sometimes, they call "binder" for materials which cause linkage to mycotoxins.
• Difference in kinds of clay products, led to difference in binder operation. Lignosulfonate
known as common binder in feed industry.
• New researches in Kansas university shown that adding 1 percentage lignosulfonate to
finisher rations pellets of turkey, in temperature 28 °c and die holes' diameter 4.8 mm
and depth of 50.8 mm decrease pellet softness 8.2 to 9.4%.
• Lignosulfonate have effectiveness of nearly 2 times more than clays and 15 to 20 times
more than wheat.
• Complexity of feed formulation and variety of feed programing make prediction of effect
of each ingredient on pellet quality difficult.
• Anyway, some ingredients are pellet resistance simulator. Whereas, some materials tend
to reduce PDI. Potential effects on pellet resistance quality included phosphorus source
choosing, adding fat, wheat content in ration or micro-particles content in palletization
and binder. A binder only cause ingredients to be binder and pasted together and have
no effect on feed nutritional value.
• Using commercial binder led to feed dilution.
 Organic and inorganic acid
• Organic and inorganic acids used in animal feed industry
manufacturing. These acids use usually as bactericidal,
antifungal or acidifying. · Phosphoric acid: inorganic.
Liquid, odor less, corrosive. · Acetic acid: organic, liquid,
sour smell, corrosive. · Formic acid: organic, liquid, sour
smell, corrosive. · Propionic acid: organic, liquid, sour
smell, corrosive. · Lactic acid: organic, liquid, desirable
smell, corrosive. · Citric acid: organic, powder and crystal-
shape, no stench, low corrosive. Technical tips: organic
and inorganic acids should not usually be used in feed
industry in pure form, because of corrosion. Liquid and
solid forms and with lower erosion are more suitable.
Purchase mentioned acids from a valid and high-qualified
company.
 Additives
• These materials are usually added to feed for increasing quality preventing
from disease and increasing FCR.
• Anti-worm: medicines for preventing from parasitic infections.
• Anti-biotic: some kinds of synthetized medicines by alive organisms (yeast,
fungus, bacteria and herb) with specifications like penicillin and streptomycin.
• Anti-oxidant: materials for reducing fat oxidation.
• Carotene: pre-vitamin A, usually made by chlorophyll but also in synthetic
form.
• Regulators: materials which used for keeping pH changes in ruminants
feeding. Keeping rumen pH at the range of 6.2 to 6.5 cause desirable digestion
and microbial protein synthetic. It could be including bentonite and
magnesium mono-oxide.
• Choline: water-soluble vitamins have relevance with fat metabolism and it's
transfer. This is a common additive in poultry feed but produced in ruminants
naturally.
• Coccidioacetates (anti-coccidiants): used medicine in coccidios infections.
Coccidian is an intestinal protoa which cause severe diarrhea and finally death
in beef and poultry.
 Feed texture
• As a general rule, decreasing particles size cause
improving ingredients quality. Materials milling, make
more contact surface for absorption of moisture and
heat (vapor) and will increase operation efficiency.
•

• Smaller materials grounded, more absorption level of

moisture, and because of more slippery, production
efficiency will be higher.
• Density is high in case that materials has become soft
and mealy. Inattention to particles size, cause pellet
friction and cracking.
 Transporter – Packaging

• Belt Conveyor
Bucket conveyor
Ribbon conveyor
Helix conveyor
Chain conveyors
Packaging
 Belt conveyor
• These conveyors have some advantages and disadvantages as mechanical equipment of
materials transition.
• Advantages:
• - One of the cheapest equipment for transmitting materials with long distances.
• - Causing materials transfer without injury.
• - Flexible height
• Observable materials during operation
• Possibility of loading, in each part of ribbon
• Metal separators could be put on ribbon
• Some equipment can be put on ribbon for weighing materials so that in continuous
flow, weighing could be done.
• These conveyors can rotate at the end of evacuation.
• Knobbed ribbons can be used for preventing feed comeback. Because of inclined
ribbon.
• For preventing materials pouring, additional walls can be put at the edge of ribbon.
• Disadvantages: - Conveyors are usually bare faced. It your product needs cover or
protection equipment, it will impose you more expenditures. - Cleaning ribbon
would be difficult it materials are sticky. - If transmitted materials are sticky, they
transfer to ribbon comeback immediately and spread through rollers, gears and
everywhere.
 Bucket elevetors
• Choosing kind and style of buckets depends on
kind of materials and up-to measure and
specifications of desirable capacity and
replacement distance. Their operation kind in
evacuation included: evacuation from the middle,
continuous evacuation and evacuation enroot.
Kind and style of bucket elevators chosen up-to
kind of materials to be replaced, replacement
specification and appropriate condition of
materials during evacuation.
• Elevator high and bucket capacity should be
regarded.
 Ribbon conveyor
• Ribbon and spiral conveyors used because of some reasons. Most of
times for transmitting sticky materials and other for materials tend
to be separated.
• Using these conveyors prevents from separation of big ingredients
from small ones, and light materials from heavy.
• Spiral conveyors circulates periodically. By checking percentage of
loading from site and materials specifications, returned materials
content could be foreseen.
• In ribbon spirals, material comeback to be prevented and they
transferred as balanced. Sticky materials tend to paste to spirals
and stands till block spiral. Thus using feeder in these feed is
necessary.
• Some materials comeback rarely, but ribbon designing should be so,
that prevents from material blockage on spiral.
 Helix conveyor
• Helix conveyors (spiral)
• Most of conveyors are spiral which replace materials easily
from one side to another. This equipment translocate dry to
heavy materials for determining its capacity, spiral diameter,
speed and loading location should be determined.
• In normal condition, loading tank should not be more than
45%. With dell attention to helix length and kind of
transmitted materials, shaft and ball bearing helix power
may act under capacity if rapid flow or long distance.
• Using these conveyors, it should be an effective control on
internal materials. Materials translocated vertical or
horizontal and directly to mill or warehouse. Helix spokes
made high pressure tolerant.
• These spokes are high resistant against erosion or fraction.
Conveyor ball bearings made high quality, smooth and flow
able movement.
• Helix slope conveyors
• A horizontal helix is for transmitting materials in conveyor but
a slope helix is for transmitting and loading materials and
then their evacuation. Helix speed is also predictable.
• Slope helix never have an internal backrest, because it causes
clog for feed flow (feed must have upward and perpendicular
movement. Thus gradient is a crucial subject).
• Product flow can be controlled by movement speed of
conveyor for speed prediction, it's necessary to know real
long, gradient degree and materials specification.
• Helix speed guess equals with needed horse power content.
While needed horse power estimation, start number, stop
and time between stop and restart and remained materials
content in elevator at the time of starting operation must be
checked and calculated. Using vertical and slope helixes as
feeder is a difficult work needed special for replacing
materials may cause more feed flow but sometimes cause
materials comeback and there will be no flow anymore.
 Chain conveyor
• It's a kind of tensional conveyor in fact. In this
kind one sling with knob moves into metal line
and transmits materials with itself. There is
possibility of tearing catena, high rubbing with
materials and possibility of lessening materials
quality. It's usually used for transmitting bulky
materials.
 Packaging
• Packaging
• 1- Filling bags or any other pack, with product.
• 2- Weighing filled bags for reaching to a nearly steady weight
• 3- Closing bag head or bagging
• 4- Arrangement on pellet for easier loading of bagged
products.
• 5- Labeling final products
• 6- Transferring to warehouse or somewhere for distribution
• Label imprint
• All standard manufactured products must have specs label.
This label should have information about feed, maintenance
conditions, and usage, … and announce needed info about
product to customer, totally. This label must be on all bags.
• Info on lubed contains:
• Name of company, date of production or fabrication, batch number some info
about kind of animal utilizing the feed, ingredients used for manufacturing
end-product, approximate analysis of feed, maintenance terms, expiration
date and shelf life.
• Signature or seal of control master, factory brand and symptom, address and
any more info that manufacturer regards.
• Bags filling and sewing usually done automatically.
• Different parts of packaging process included below:
• - Accurate scales
• - Sucking equipment for driving air Inside product out
• - Controller part of bag filling
• - Protector equipment of scare and spare parts
• - Automatic adjustment of wrapping location of bag on scale
• - Bag conveyor
• - Installing rail for closing upward parts of filled bags
• - A part for cleaning upward parts of filled bags
• - Machine caulking
• - Bag head-purser machine
 Management
• Responsibilities
Education
Maintenance
Application methods
Setting up
Safety
 Responsibilities
• Responsibilities of a factory manager are as follows:
•
• 1- Pellet quality: product quality to be according to customer friendly
quality.
• 2- Pellet production rate: pellet quality should be customer friendly when
high production, too.
• 3- Operator training: operator should have training for job to be done.
• 4- Equipment maintenance: take care of equipment during operation, such
as indicators, controller, regulators and equipment.
• 5- Record entries: data should be recorded correctly and used correctly,
too.
• 6- Use suitable die.
• 7- Take care of die, roller and pellet press for reducing operational costs,
production costs and conditioning costs.
• 8- Maintain mill for better efficiency and check it regularly.
• 9- Check ingredients in terms of specifications, composition and humidity.
So that they could have the less negative effects on one another.
 Education
• - Getting acquainted with workflow
• A: By production line checking
• B: Schematically
• 2- Getting acquainted with common discursions of
pelletizing process:
• Cheek total cases again and have a ball-rolling with
students.
• 3- The best education for student is to visit from near.
• Councilor or staff or factory manager should be sure of
correct operation of equipment.
• It's recommended that education duration should be least
1 to 2 weeks related to past experiences, kind and number
of systems.
• 4- Students should be responsible for pellet production in
companion with councilor or operator to check probable
questions.
• 5- Get help from past data for tips.
• 6- choose suitable die for each formula or needed product.
• 7- Formulation will be changed in each step of starting
operation.
• 8- Do pellet resistance test as pellet quality index in each
batch.
• 9- Adjusting feeder loading bulk prevents from extra loading.
• 10- Adjust using temperature range again for each new feed.
Past records should not be used.
• 11- Ex-adjustment of feeder or vapor could be used in some
conditions.
• 12- Pay attention that any formula needs minimum
temperature for being gelatinized.
• 13- check needed equipment.
• A: Greasing mill and roller.
• B: Adjusting system and cleaning that included:
• 1- Die and roller adjustments.
• 2- Checking erosion of die, roller and die holes.
• 3- Coolers
• 4- Adjusting crumble roller.
• 5- Cutting blade adjustment.
• C: Make sure that different parts are locked during
operation. Check safety switches to have a perfect
operation.
• D: Check vapor transfer system and syphons.
• E: Check pressure and temperature degree.
• F: Keep magnets clean.
• G: Clean conditioner.
• H: All equipment should be kept in good situation.
 Maintenance
• How a pellet machine could be used and maintained properly?
• Pellet machines are main equipment of feed manufacturers.
Proper usage of these machines not only improves production
efficiency but also effects on factory economic interests. Proper
maintenance of factory equipment both reducing errors during
operation and machine operational life time; reducing
maintenance costs, increasing investors benefits. Pay attention
to tips mentioned below:
1- Gear all parts of machine regularly. Grease rollers each 2
hours and upward of main shaft. Ball bearing each 2 hours. Check
transmitter parts regularly from the point of view of operation or
disability.
2- Gear oil tank should be replaced regularly. Oil should be
substituted after 15 days of operation or 1000 work hour. So, sure
that longevity of this part will be increased.
3- Check all parts of machine from the point of view of accuracy and
tightness. Check accuracy of switch and transmitter helixes and condition to
be clean. Prevent from any mechanical problem occurrence.
4- Check trigger key position in terms of erosion after 15 days. Check inside
and outside surface of die and if there is any erosion, do preventions needed
for die shakes, because die ring shake/vibration effects on pellet quality.
5- Use high-quality dies and rollers. Using high-quality die and coordination
of pressure according to formula, is one of key points of this part of machine.
Evacuation should be done thoroughly and uniformly.
6- Adjust distance between die and roller correctly, in each shaft. In case of
pellet machine blockage, loosen rollers up, clean die walls and adjust distance
between die and roller again.
• If pressure occurs, severe damages get into transmitters and ball bearings
and severe shaker occurs for machine.
7- Avoid over-loading. Pay attention that not to use machine more than its
power.
• In this case, severe damages occur in engine, and several parts erosion
may be occurred.
8- Prevent from hard outside materials entrance to pelletizer part. Clean
tools in each shift work. Outside materials entrance is possible, because of
machine shakes.
• 1- Daily items
• - Roller ball bearings greasing, every 4 hours.
• - Checking die erosion.
• - Cleaning magnetic separators.
• - Checking roller erosion.
• - Cleaning thermometers.
• - Checking distance between roller and die.
• - Checking absence of outside materials in die.
• 2- Weekly items
• - Greasing ball bearings and feeder spirals.
• - Checking oil level in elevator gears and conveyors.
• - Greasing main shaft ball bearings.
• - Checking oil level in feeder spirals.
• - Checking die parts (when machine cold)
• 3- Monthly items
• - Checking erosion of mixer paddles.
• - Checking erosion of deflection plate.
• - Checking erosion of pellet cutting blades.
• - Checking tensile strength and mixer motive belt erosion.
• - Checking rollers erosion.
• .
• Greasing
• Automatic greasing: automatic greasing system included pumping
equipment with:
• - Blades which remove air inside oil.
• - Helix compressors.
• - Transparent plastic tanks.
• - Pressure pistons.
• - Sensors connected with pressure piston holes which shown
grease level.
• - Controller equipment included:
• · Warning parts
• · Adjusting automatic or manual switch.
• · Warning equipment with green light which shown machine
being on.
• There are 2 times inside the control plate which shown greasing
time and stop.
• Notice: operation and stop time of greasing time system is adjusted
by factory, but it could be changed up to need and experience
 Application methods
• 1- Use heater which resistant pellets with the maximum production rate
and highest quality to be manufactured.
• 2- Add liquids according to formula and during mixing operation.
• What affects more than any variable during pelletizing operation is "How to
add liquids"
• 3- Keep instant flow of mash from mash tank. Non-uniform flow of mash to
pellet machine causes some problems in production.
• 4- Check conditioner paddles for erosion. Appropriate distance between
blades is 3.2 to 4.8 mm. accurate adjustment of blades, help suitable mix of
water and heat. Mash will be conditioned well and ready to enter to holes.
• 5- Refer to items mentioned before when using new die.
• 6- Use correct and standard die. Maintain well and clean it's holes
thoroughly.
• 7- Adjust rollers distances according to items mentioned.
• 8- Use roller and die fit together.
• 9- Record production records and use them.
• 10- Record tonnage bulk, costs and die case study items.
• 11- Check blades adjustment.
• 12- Check cooler. Make sure that feed to be cool enough. Pay attention that
feed containing high urea, need more time to be cold.
• 13- Check crumbler rollers and make sure of their adjustment.
• 14- Sieves should be installed or clean well. Use suitable sizes.
• 15- Help from additional agenda of machine.
• 16- Follow maintenance directions and methods well. Observance of these
items prevents from pollution between batches and equipment erosion.
• Checking of tools like thermometer, pressure regulator, feeder vapor control
valves, syphon etc. is crucial. Pay attention to their readings.
• 17- Operation should be according to instruction methods. Take remained
materials from pellet die away, or keep usable materials for using in same feed
formula, clean conveyors and their stands.
• 18- Use pellet resistance test as quality index.
• 19- Collect a sample of pelletized feed for checking. Quality control staff
should check sample daily for quality and physical specifications.
• 20- Do the record of product correctly? Pay attention to items below for
recording:
• Start time- stop time- formula No.- date- vapor and pressure adjustments- feed
adjustment- ampere- conditioner temperature- percentage of soft and dust
materials- die No.- checking occurred problems.
 Setting up
Step A: recording •
Step B: warehousing •
Step C: pre-sieving and milling •
Step D: mixing •
Step E: conditioning and pelletizing •
Step F: drying, sieving •
Step G: loading •
Step H: weighing and packaging •
The main wealth of a feed manufacture factory, is their •
machinery. Which it's correct or incorrect operation
affects directly on economic benefits of factory.
One of the priority of a producing site is, using education staff as well as •
hard-working and faithful to rules and regulations. Pay attention to tips
below when machine starting operation:
• 1- Keep vapor dry, suitable pressure in conditioner is 0.3 to 0.4 kg.
• 2- Adjust distance between die and roller. This distance is usually between
0.2 to 0.5 mm; roller should not be very loose or very tight.
• In case roller installed very tight. It causes injury to die, and it very loose,
cause high pressure on them because vibrations made.
• 3- Raw materials moisture should be between 12 to 13%. These products
moisture should have kept between 14 to 14.5% after conditioning.
• 4- Adjust a fixed flow of ingredients in each period. It means that if longer
operation of machine or more loading bulk; it causes harmful injuries to
machine.
• 5- In case any change or swing in production (abnormal case) stop
machine quickly and check it.
• 6- After installation of machine, gearbox should operate instantly to
production situation. It usually replaced any 3 to 6 months.
• 7- When pellet machine blockage, first of all, loose rollers for solving this
problem, turn the machine on to start operation, to clean inside part of die
wall. If machine blockage, avoid put pressure. Greasing pellet machine
routinely once a week.
• 8- Check instantly erosion of machine and do what needed if any error
during operation or die cracking.
• Operator should have enough info about pellet machine tanks and order of
valves for entering feed to other part.
• Such as tanks order, valves behind shaker, and feed entrance to feeder tanks.
• Make a list for operator to prevent from mistake in machine parts and machine
operation.
• List could be included items below:
• 1- Feed:
• A: die info, it's size and thickness
• B: target is pellet producing or crumble?
• 2- Tanks management:
• A: the number of tanks which feed flow there.
• B: the number of tanks for final product.
• If there is any empty tank?
• 3- Inspection of equipment:
• A: if all engines work?
• B: if changing in pellet machine feeder speed, is adjusted to increase or
decrease changes.
• 4- Preventing from pollution entrance:
• A: primary operation for making sure of machine feeder evacuation/
conditioner and die before cooler setting up.
• 5- conditioner setting up for the maximum production capacity:
• A: check thermometer for reaching to the maximum of temperature.
• B: check hot pellets to add the correct amount of moisture and do
this by getting some pellet after exiting from die and smashing
between pellet and finger.
• By this way you can figure out that if system could cause body
strength and needed posting (by molasses vapor) in pellet.
• C: check ammeter for being informed about engine electrical flow.
• D: make sure of correct cutting blades adjustment on die.
• E: check cooler, make sure of full-discharging of pellets in vertical
coolers. Check correct adjustment of conveyor speed and ingredients
depth in horizontal coolers product should put on conveyor flat.
• F: check crumbles and adjust rollers carefully to produce correct size
of crumble. Make sure that rollers are parallel.
• G: when feed turn back to machine again, check vapor amount and
feed, and re-check steps A, B and C.
• H: adjust machine capacity.
• I: get records of data from production.
 safety
• All modern machines, have seen some equipment for manufacture
pelleted feed. Thus, any danger occurrence possibility will be
omitted for someone is next to machine during operation. Most of
injuries occur in abnormal situations and when operator getting
engaged for solving some problems. In most of cases, operator tries
for correcting dangerous circumstances and abnormal, and turn
them back to normal situation cause some incidents which are
irreparable. Although we appreciate this try of operator but they
should be blamed for this paying no attention. Cleaning equipment
during machine operation or being turned on while servicing, cause
irreparable injuries. One of the best ways to prevent from these
happenings, is to turning all equipment off and locking them or
pasting danger label in red color on switch.
• Unfortunately, most of happenings seen in pellet section, because the
most part which needs to be clean is this one crumble roller,
conditioner, die box, cooler, evaporation part and sieve, all need to
service and cleaning. All of these parts have their own on/off switches.
Machine operator is exposed to danger more than others and should
take care of themselves by applying safety tips. Using coverless cables
or electrical flow is one of possible dangers. They should use of some
signs for electrical failure warning and possibility of electrocution.
• Operator falling down from machine is another usual the size of some
equipment is big and they need to ladder for inspection and service.
• They should watch out when using ladder and putting it in the right
place. Operator should know that machines put in different floors and
different places in the factory. Thus they have to move constantly from
one floor to another and hurry up in some cases. In this case, they
should watch out having no occurrence because of sliding the path.
So, it is better that passing path to be clean and free of sliding.
• Everyone should pay attention to other staff health, in addition to
his/her health their conditions not only need to keep safety and take
care of person, but also they should pay attention to some points:
• 1- Factory should provide safe and suitable appliances in workplace.
• 2- Machines should be locked and turned off before servicing.
• 3- Machine protective (guard), safe equipment, and other safe
utensils during operation should be used.
• 4- Labor himself pay attention to safety tips.
• 5- All members should learn safety tips and have enough info about
that.
•
• Preservation of workplace

• Operator workplace will effect on his manner and work about

production process. Workplace and machine should be painted and
clean if necessary, and have enough lighting. Workplace maintenance
and keeping machines clean are operator duties.
• 1- Machines should be clean once a day and more, if necessary.
• 2- Keeping around of pellet machine clean. Brush these parts and
pick any clog here up.
• 3- Clean doors and front part of gearbox.
• 4- Clean ramps which feed flows there.
• 5- Clean condition once a week.
• 6- Clean feeder thoroughly once a week.
• 7- Check coolers for any operation cleaning.
• 8- Grease machine according to manufacture company
instructions.
• 9- Check cutter machine tanks for being sure of correct installation.
• 10- Check magnet at least once a day.
• 11- Check siphon or vapor joint, routinely.
• 12- Report any problem in machine to councilors.
• 13- Check cutter blades sharpening, repeatedly.
• 14- Check roller adjustments and readjust them if necessary.
• 15- Applying changes should be in the direction of good changes and
die correct operation.
 Quality Control
• Mill test
Mixer test
Pellet test
 Mill test
• The most common way to analysis of feed grounded materials for its
size and uniformity distribution, is analysis of "sieve" and calculated
with gaining geometric diameter (Dgw) and standard deviation (Sgw).
• Grounded particles size distribution will usually be bell carve shape,
when drawing on paper.
• In this way, a sample of grounded materials are sieved with passing
through 14 test sieves and outcome of each sieve, weighed and
average of particles size to be calculated. Distribution middle spot will
outcome, so that 50% of big weighed materials, size analysis and
logarithm determination, and particles standard deviation.
• For most of grounded ingredients by roller, normal standard deviation
logarithm is between domains 2 to 2.5, and for grounded ingredients
by hammer mill this domain is between 2.5 to 5.5.
• In other word, for exact calculating of grounded materials by sieve
analysis, tiny separator should be used.
• For out coming this separation. Size of samples should be exact (100 gr
by ASAE method). RO-Tap sieves are used for this remained materials
on each sieve to be weighed.
Table of standard sieves specifications

Standard sieves Open area (mm) Particles size (micron)

4 76.4 4760
6 36.3 3360
8 38.2 3380
12 68.1 1680
16 191.1 1910
20 841.0 841
30 590.0 590
40 420.0 420
50 297.0 297
70 212.0 212
100 150.0 150
140 105.0 105
200 072.0 74
270 053.0 53
• Difference in cereals quality also change
specifications of grounded materials. Even variation
of species, especially about corn, could effect on
quality and compatibility of grounded materials.
• Hard seeds, endosperm are hard and output less
soft materials. Thus logarithmic diagram will be
lower than normal distribution. But in soft cereals,
their endosperm is also soft ad it's logarithmic
distribution upper than normal distribution.
• For understanding how to measure particles
average and normal standard deviation logarithm,
pay attention to an example of grounded cereals by
roller and hammer mill.
Standard sieves Weight (gr) Percentage
4 0 0
6 10.0 10.0
8 40.4 57.4
12 16 16.61
16 70.26 73.27
20 90.13 43.14
30 20.10 59.10
40 20.9 55.9
50 10.6 33.6
70 80.4 98.4
100 50.2 60.2
140 50.1 56.1
200 90.0 93.0
270 0 0
Total 30.96 100
• Colonization to oil, moisture or electrostatic
changes and / or an error in calculation method,
won't have accurate results. Using only one of
size of sieve will led to error in test.
• For instance, using soft sieve cause a change in
big particles distribution or changing particles
uniformity. Complete sieve analysis not only
determines particles size, but also declare how to
distribute particles too soft or too big.
• In usual distribution, suitable size of grounded
particles is 750 microns.
 Mixer test
• The first step in mixer test included collecting reagent
samples from feed. This process related to kind of mixer
(horizontal or vertical) and its design. For example, collecting
reagent samples directly from vertical mixer is difficult,
therefore, sampling done at the time of discharge. Samples
could be taken from outcome duct of mixer.
• Sampling from horizontal mixers usually done from the top of
mixer. Samples should take in 10 specific parts or in discharge
gaps. 10 samples, from 100 to 200 gr taken from 10 different
parts of mixer. For choosing the best time of mix in horizontal
mixer it could be done as below: mixer circulation for 2
minutes, machine stop, collecting 10 reagent samples from
predetermined parts, mixer recirculation for 2 minutes more,
mixer stop, collecting samples from 10 parts defined before.
Repeat this process every 10 minutes (sampling for 5 times).
 We classify test steps to 4 groups:
• 1- Choosing micro-particles or markers for
distinguishing feed uniformity.
• 2- Examination of samples for special levels
of ingredients.
• 3- Analysis of collected data.
• 4- Data explanation
 Step 1: choosing micro-particles:
• Marker used test as target material should have minimum
interaction with nutrients in basic ration. For example,
"Chloride" as a marker, is not a good choice because it exists
in many ingredients. "Cobalt" is also not suitable because
found in the most of ingredients and in low levels.
• "NaCl" exists in the most of animal feed and gotten only
from one source, cheap and because of its special physical
specifications is suitable for test.
• Nacl has more density than other ingredients.
• Initial evacuation of mixer is the start of sampling and the
last sampling is the end of that.
• From the time when the last ingredient added to mixer, till
when mixer is ready to be discharged (mixing time), record
this time.
 Step 2: test methods
• Nacl is usually used for mixer test in poultry and livestock
ration. Therefore, "Na" and "Cl" ions taken mostly as mixer
test reagents. For testing content of "Nacl" in ration,
techniques below are done:
• 1- Analysis of ion" Na": by using ion "Na" electrode for
determining measure of density of "Na" in samples. The
percentage of "NaCl" calculated from this amount. It
seems that this method is completely suitable.
• 2- Quantab method: it's for determining ion "Chloride"
in solvent. NaCl extracted from feed sample in warm
distilled water, then density of ion "Chloride" calculated
with a lab method and using silver Di-chromate and use
changes in chloride expected density in mixer efficiency
assessment.
• 3- Chromatic detectors (tracer minerals): Using tracer
particles is the other method of mixer test. A determined
amount of chromatic sward with water soluble minerals
added to mix, that led to 16 particles per each 50 to 100 gr
sample.
• Swards magnate by magnet and poured on a filter paper.
Filter paper becomes humid b ethanol. When colored stains
start to distribute, papers transferred to oven and all
homochromatic particles, to be counted. CV is calculated to
determine mixer operation.
• It is obvious that, to calculate coefficient of variation,
standard deviation and average should be calculated, then
make them divided, attain the percentage of coefficient of
variation (%cv). These calculations are executable by a
simple engineer calculation. The most CV in industrial
standard is 10 and CV for a good mixing of feed using salt
markers is 10 percent or less.
 Step 3: results commentary
CV less than 10 represents a good mix. If the
difference in test done is between 5 to 6
percentage, so the difference in mixing will be
5 percentages, mixing duration could be
increased to resolve and/or checking mixer for
factors which make feed division to be
inappropriate (sequence of additional parts of
feed or particles size).
Pellet test
• Holmen test
• Pellet quality study performed by forcing mechanical power on end-
product.
• Using various methods of evaluation and test of pellet, cause
manufacturing process reinforced and methods for increasing pellet
quality to be identified. Before any discussion about pellet quality
measurement technique, it is necessary t study factor effect on
quality. For instance, heat and humidity of pellets come out from
cooler will effect on test conditions.
• After being cold, pellet evacuated in bunker tanks, by conveyer belt.
During this process, pellet exposed to abrasion powers and sideswipe.
That will effect on it is physical quality. Most of quality testers, are
contiguity or erosion test. The result of this test shown pellet strength
against pressure and impacts on pellets in tanks.
• Performing pellet test steps are as above by Holmen method, after
data obtained, put numbers into formula below and calculate pellet
durability index:
•
• %PDI= (pellet weight after suspending / pellet weight before
suspending) * 100