1.
1 Skills of Scientific Investigation
Figure 1 While blood pressure generally
increases with age, high blood pressure
is not directly caused by age—nor does
high blood pressure cause old age.
variable any condition that changes or
varies the outcome of a scientific inquiry
independent variable a variable that is
changed by the investigator
dependent variable a variable that
changes in response to the change in the
independent variable
controlled experiment an experiment
in which the independent variable is
purposely changed to find out what
change, if any, occurs in the dependent
variable
observational study the careful watching
and recording of a subject or phenomenon
to gather scientific information to answer
a question
correlational study a study in which
an investigator looks at the relationship
between two variables
8 Chapter 1 • Living and Working with Science
Scientists assume that all events are caused by something. Hundreds of
years ago, people believed that illnesses were caused by evil spirits or divine
punishments. Some cultures still hold these beliefs today. Technological
advances, such as the invention of the microscope, provide evidence that
many diseases are the result of infections by micro-organisms. Scientists
can now say that these micro-organisms “cause” disease (Figure 1).
Types of Scientific Inquiry
All scientific inquiry uses similar processes to find answers to questions.
In most cases, these processes attempt to identify relationships between
variables. A variable is any condition that could change in an inquiry.
A variable that is deliberately changed or selected by the investigator is
called the independent variable. A variable that changes in response to
the independent variable but is not directly controlled by the investigator
is called the dependent variable.
There are three common types of scientific inquiry: (1) the controlled
experiment, (2) the observational study, and (3) the correlational study.
Controlled Experiment
If the purpose of an inquiry is to determine whether one variable causes an
effect on another variable, then you can carry out a controlled experiment.
This is an experiment in which you control (change) the independent
variable to determine if the change affects the dependent variable. For
example, if you want to determine how temperature affects the rate of a
chemical reaction, a controlled experiment is appropriate. In this case, you
would change the temperature (independent variable) and observe any effect
on the reaction rate (dependent variable).
Observational Study
Often the purpose of a scientific inquiry is to gather information to answer
a question about a natural phenomenon. Observational studies involve
observing a subject or phenomenon without influencing it. Observational
studies start with observations that lead to a question. Sometimes the
researchers make a specific prediction about the answer to the question.
Sometimes they also have an explanation for their prediction.
Sciences such as astronomy and ecology rely on observational studies.
For example, if you wanted to determine the climatic conditions of a region,
you would plan an observational study. You would make observations over
many years, recording precipitation, temperature, and wind patterns. When
sufficient data were collected, you could produce a complete description
of the regional climate. Ongoing observations would make it possible to
identify any changes in the climate.
Correlational Study
In a correlational study, a scientist tries to determine whether one variable
is affecting another variable, without controlling any of the variables.
Instead, the investigator simply observes variables that change naturally.
NEL
 Correlation is the degree to which two sets of data vary together. Positive Correlation
A positive correlation indicates a direct relationship between variables: an
increase in one variable corresponds to an increase in the other variable
(Figure 2(a)). A negative correlation indicates an inverse relationship: an
increase in one variable corresponds to a decrease in the other variable y
(Figure 2(b)). A line of best fit can be drawn through the points on the
scatter graph. This line shows the relationship (positive or negative)
between the two variables.
If there is no relationship between the two variables, we say that there is (a)
x
no correlation (Figure 2(c)).
Negative Correlation

Table 1 Length of Education and Salary

Annual salary Annual salary

Person Education (years) ($000) Person Education (years) ($000)
y
1 12 45 14 12 50

2 19 110 15 15 75

3 11 40 16 12 55 (b)
x
4 15 65 17 14 70
No Correlation
5 14 60 18 17 65

6 20 140 19 12 55

7 18 100 20 16 80
y
8 11 50 21 15 145

9 18 95 22 13 60

10 18 90 23 16 55 (c)
x
11 13 50 24 10 40 Figure 2 (a) In a positive correlation,
variable y increases as variable x
12 19 100 25 17 95 increases. (b) In a negative correlation, y
13 10 50 decreases as x increases. (c) If there is
no correlation, there is no pattern.

As an example, consider the Annual Salary v. Years of Education

relationship between average annual
140
salary and amount of formal education
(Table 1 and Figure 3). As you might
Average Salary ($1000)

120
expect, there is a positive correlation
between these two variables. As the length 100
of formal education increases, the average
80
annual salary also increases. However, not
everyone who has many years of formal 60
education earns a high salary. Likewise,
some people with little formal education 40
earn a high salary. Also, two people with 9 12 15 18 21
the same level of education could be Years of Formal Education
earning different salaries. Figure 3 This graph shows a positive correlation between education and salary by
plotting the data from Table 1.

NEL 1.1 Skills of Scientific Investigation 9

 Strong Positive Correlation When most of the data you collected is close to the line of best fit, there
is a strong correlation between your variables (Figure 4). A weak correlation
means that the relationship between your variables is less strong. The data
points do not fall as close to your line of best fit (Figure 5).
y When you know that two variables are correlated (either positively or
negatively), you can predict one variable based on the other. Generally, the
stronger the correlation (either positive or negative), the more probable it is
that your prediction will be correct. In the example in Figure 3, you could
x predict with some certainty that a person who has a high level of education
Figure 4 A strong positive correlation will earn a high salary.
Correlational studies require very large sample numbers and many
Weak Positive Correlation replications to produce valid results. A correlation between two variables does
not indicate that one variable causes an effect on the other. A correlation could
simply be a coincidence. Consider a fictitious correlational study that shows
that, in a given year, both the number of births increased and the number of
y earthquakes increased. It is highly unlikely that a reasonable link could be
established between the two. Any correlation is totally due to coincidence.
Reports of correlations can be deceiving. For example, a newspaper
headline reported that research showed a positive correlation between
x student height and mathematical ability. Taller students were better at solving
Figure 5 A weak positive correlation mathematical problems. What the research failed to note (or the newspaper
failed to report) was that the study included students of different ages. If the
study had been done with students of the same age, there would have likely
been no correlation between height and mathematical ability. The taller
students—the better problem solvers—were probably older than the shorter
students.
Researchers use correlational studies to further scientific understanding
without performing experiments. They can make their own observations and
measurements through fieldwork, interviews, and surveys. Alternatively, they
can investigate relationships by using data from other researchers.

Scientific Investigation Skills

Regardless of the type of scientific investigation, certain skills are important
in the process of conducting the investigation. These skills can be organized
into four categories: (1) initiating and planning, (2) performing and
recording, (3) analyzing and interpreting, and (4) communicating.
Initiating and Planning
All scientific investigations begin with a question. The question may have
arisen from observations of a natural phenomenon or from an individual’s
curiosity (Figure 6). Often they come from previous experiments or studies.
Some questions cannot be answered by scientific investigation, so it is
important to ask the right questions. To lead to a scientific investigation, a
question must be testable. Testable questions have certain characteristics:
• They must be about living things, non-living things, or events in the
natural world.
Figure 6 Scientists who first observed • They must be answerable through scientific investigation—controlled
unusual cave formations would
have been curious so they proposed experiments, observational studies, or correlational studies.
explanations for what they saw. • They may be answered by collecting and analyzing data to produce evidence.
10 Chapter 1 • Living and Working with Science NEL
 If a question suggests that a controlled experiment should be performed,
then it is appropriate to propose a possible answer to the question. The
tentative answer, which is based on existing scientific knowledge, is called a
hypothesis. The hypothesis is directly related to the question. A hypothesis hypothesis a possible answer or untested
suggests a relationship between an independent variable and a dependent explanation that relates to the initial
question in an experiment
variable. A hypothesis serves two functions: (1) it proposes a possible
explanation, and (2) it suggests a method of obtaining evidence that will
support or reject the proposed explanation.
If you cannot make a hypothesis because you do not have a scientific
explanation, then you can make a simple prediction. A prediction is a prediction a statement that predicts the
statement that predicts the outcome of a controlled experiment, without an outcome of a controlled experiment
explanation. A prediction is not a guess: it is based on prior knowledge and
logical reasoning.
A hypothesis usually includes a prediction. It is often written in the form
“If …, then …, because ….” The “if … then” part constitutes the prediction;
the “because …” part is the explanation.

T RY THIS IDENTIFYING VARIABLES AND MAKING PREDICTIONS

SKILLS: Predicting, Communicating
In this activity, you will identify dependent and independent
variables and make predictions about the outcomes of scientific
investigations.
Equipment and Materials: notebook or paper; pen
1. Each of the following questions could form the basis of a
scientific investigation.
• How is the volume of water related to its temperature?
• How do phosphates affect the growth of aquatic plants?
• What is the relationship between the size of the image in a
mirror and the distance of the object from the mirror?
SKILLS HANDBOOK
3.B.2.
• Is there a relationship between the average
temperature and the number of pine trees in an area?
• How does temperature affect the size of crystals that form
in a solution?
• How is the egg-laying ability of penguins affected by the
availability of food?
A. For each statement, identify a possible independent variable
and a possible dependent variable and make a prediction.

A hypothesis or a prediction provides the framework for the investigation. experimental design a brief description
It identifies the variables and suggests which is the independent and which of the procedure in which the hypothesis
is tested
is the dependent variable. The hypothesis or prediction also suggests an
experimental design by which the hypothesis can be tested fairly. The
experimental design briefly describes the procedure. The value and success
of the investigation depend on whether the experiment is fair, so careful
planning at this stage is critical.
Planning the investigation involves
• identifying the independent and dependent variables
• determining how the changes in the variables will be measured
• specifying how to control the variables not being tested
• selecting the appropriate equipment and materials (Figure 7)
• anticipating and addressing safety concerns
• deciding on a format for recording observations

Figure 7 Specialized equipment is

needed to conduct proper investigations.

NEL 1.1 Skills of Scientific Investigation 11


quantitative observation a numerical
observation based on measurements or
counting
qualitative observation a non-numerical
observation that describes the qualities of
objects or events
Figure 8 Scientists remove an ice
core that has been cut from a glacier.
These ice cores provide clues to the
environmental conditions when the
glacier was formed.
Figure 9 Two members of a ski patrol
measure and record snow levels
to forecast avalanches. Since this
observation involves measuring, it is
a quantitative observation. Noting that
the lower layers of snow are more
compacted is a qualitative observation.
12 Chapter 1 • Living and Working with Science
Performing and Recording
After planning an investigation, it is important to follow the procedures
described during the planning stage carefully (Figure 8). If the procedures
present problems, they should be modified without changing the overall
structure of the investigation. Record any modifications to the procedure in
case you or someone else wants to repeat the investigation. If the problems
cannot be overcome, you may have to go back to the planning stage and
start again.
When performing the procedure, it is important to be constantly alert to
potential safety concerns. Be sure to read the safety concerns in the Skills
Handbook carefully before beginning an investigation and refer to them
frequently if you have any concerns.
While performing an investigation, you will need to make accurate
observations at regular intervals and record them carefully. Observations are
any information that is obtained through the senses or by extension of the
senses. Observations can be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (non-
numerical).
Quantitative observations are based on measurements or counting
(Figure 9). Examples of quantitative measurements include length, mass,
temperature, and population counts. Measuring is an important skill in
making observations. It is important to select the right measuring tool to
provide a precise and accurate measurement.
Qualitative observations are descriptions of the qualities of objects and
events, without any reference to a measurement or a number. Common
qualitative observations include the state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas),
texture, and odour. These qualities cannot be measured directly.
The method or format of recording your observations depends on the
type of observation. Quantitative observations are often recorded in an
appropriate table. Qualitative observations can be written in words or
recorded in pictures or sketches (Figure 10). Remember to record your
observations clearly and accurately so that you do not have to rely on
memory when you report your findings.
Figure 10 This field scientist transfers handwritten notes into electronic form.
NEL
Analyzing and Interpreting
Tables of observations are usually not the final product for the data collected
during an investigation. Analyzing, or carefully studying, the observations
usually provides more information than the raw data itself. In addition, you
can plot graphs from the quantitative data to show up patterns and trends
more clearly (Figure 11).
Observed and Projected Warming
5.0

4.0
Global surface warming (°C)

3.0

2.0

1.0 Figure 11 The two lines show the

possible consequences of two scenarios.
The red line shows a scenario in which
0.0 humans continue to depend on fossil
fuels. The blue line shows what is
predicted to happen if humans switch
1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 to clean energy sources and conserve
Year energy.
Scenario A Scenario B

T RY THIS ANALYZING DATA

SKILLS HANDBOOK
SKILLS: Analyzing, Communicating
3.B.7., 6.A.
Data collection is the recording of information in an organized way. Table 2 Mouse Population Data
Analyzing data involves studying the data to uncover patterns and trends.
Mouse Mouse
Data interpretation involves explaining those patterns and trends. In this Quarter population Quarter population
activity, you will analyze and interpret data.
Equipment and Materials: notebook; graph paper; pens or markers 2004 Q1 520 2007 Q1 790
1. Table 2 provides the estimated quarterly mouse population in a 2004 Q2 570 2007 Q2 870
large field over six years. Study the data carefully.
2. Plot the provided data on a line graph using a coloured marker 2004 Q3 615 2007 Q3 930
or pen. 2004 Q4 550 2007 Q4 860
3. Calculate the average population for each year by averaging the
four quarterly numbers. 2005 Q1 600 2008 Q1 875
4. Plot the calculated yearly average on the same graph as well 2005 Q2 660 2008 Q2 940
using a different coloured marker or pen.
A. Describe the patterns and trends that you observe in the data 2005 Q3 725 2008 Q3 1010
in Table 2. 2005 Q4 675 2008 Q4 990
B. What is happening to the population? Do you think this trend
will continue indefinitely? Explain. 2006 Q1 705 2009 Q1 950
C. Propose a possible explanation for why the graph for the quarterly
2006 Q2 780 2009 Q2 1040
population data is a zigzagging line rather than a smooth line.
D. Is there a benefit to calculating and plotting the average 2006 Q3 820 2009 Q3 1090
population for each year? Explain.
2006 Q4 780 2009 Q4 980
E. Is it easier to see patterns and trends when the data are in the
table or when the data are plotted on the graph? Explain.

NEL 1.1 Skills of Scientific Investigation 13

 Analyzing observations also helps identify any errors in measurements.
You should carefully check any measurement that is clearly very different
from the others. If the very different measurement is caused by an error in
measurement, record it but do not include it in the analysis.
A very important skill in a scientific investigation is evaluating the
evidence that is obtained through observations. The quality of the
evidence depends on the quality of other aspects of the investigation—the
plan, the procedures, the equipment and materials, and the skills of the
investigator. To evaluate the evidence, you need to evaluate all aspects of the
investigation.
The whole purpose of analyzing and interpreting observations is to
answer the question posed at the beginning. You may have evidence that
you can use to confidently answer the question. You may conclude, however,
that you do not have sufficient evidence to answer the question with any
confidence. If your evidence confirms the prediction, then the hypothesis
is supported. The evidence does not, however, prove the hypothesis to be
true. If your evidence does not confirm the prediction, then the hypothesis
may not be an acceptable explanation. Learning that the hypothesis is not
supported is just as valuable as learning that it is supported. Rejection of a
hypothesis is not a failure in a scientific investigation. It is simply another
step along the path of finding an answer to the question.
Work in science seldom ends with a single experiment. Sometimes
other investigators repeat the investigation to see if their evidence is
the same. A question in science often sets off a chain reaction that leads
to other questions, which then leads to other investigations and other
questions. At the end of any investigation, the scientist asks questions such
as What does this mean? Is the information of any practical value? How
can the information be used? What other questions need to be answered?
What new questions arose as a result of this investigation?

Communicating
One of the important characteristics of scientific investigation is that
scientists share their information with the scientific community (Figure 12).

Figure 12 Sharing information is

a key characteristic of scientific
investigations.

14 Chapter 1 • Living and Working with Science NEL

Before scientific data can be published in a scientific journal, it must be
examined by other scientists in a process called peer review. Other experts
check that the data is valid and the science is correct. Clear and accurate
communication is essential for sharing information. It is important to share
not only the findings, but also the process by which evidence was obtained.
If the investigation is to be repeated by others, sharing the design and
procedures is just as important as sharing the findings.
By sharing their data and the techniques that they used to obtain, analyze,
and interpret their data, scientists give others the opportunity to both
review the data and use it in future research. The most common method for
communicating with others about an investigation is by writing a lab report
after the investigation is complete.

T RY THIS GETTING YOUR MESSAGE ACROSS

SKILLS: Planning, Evaluating, Communicating
Accurate communication is as important in science as it is in
everyday life. In this activity, you will work with a partner to
demonstrate the importance of accurate communication and the
need to develop and refine your skills in this area.
Equipment and Materials: notebook or paper; pen
1. You and your partner should each choose a different everyday
task, such as tying a shoelace, preparing a meal, travelling
from one location to another, or installing a piece of software
on a computer. It must be a task that poses no significant
hazards. Do not name the task or provide any additional
instructions.
SKILLS HANDBOOK
3.B.8., 3.B.9.
3. Exchange instructions with your partner.
4. Use the instructions to complete the task without asking any
questions. If necessary, complete the task at home.
5. Report back to your partner.
A. How successful were you in completing the task? Explain.
B. Why is clear, accurate communication difficult?
C. What skills do you need to communicate clearly? What do
you need to do to develop these skills?
D. What strategy did you use to make your instructions as clear
as possible?

2. Write a set of detailed instructions that should enable E. What could you have done to communicate more clearly?
someone else to complete the task.

IN SUMMARY
• Observations of, and curiosity about, what we • A third type of inquiry is the correlational
see around us often lead to questions that trigger study, in which the researcher analyzes data to
scientific investigations. see if there is a relationship between a pair of
• One type of scientifi c inquiry is the controlled variables. The result may be a positive correlation,
experiment, in which the researcher keeps all a negative correlation, or no correlation.
but two variables constant, changes one (the The correlation could be strong or weak.
independent variable), and observes the other • Scientifi c investigation skills include initiating
(the dependent variable). and planning (asking a question and deciding
• A second type of inquiry is the observational on the best way to find an answer); performing
study, in which the researcher collects data by and recording (carrying out the procedure and
observing a situation without affecting it. making observations in an organized way);
analyzing and interpreting (searching for patterns
in the observations); and communicating
(sharing findings with others).

NEL 1.1 Skills of Scientific Investigation 15