DC-DC Converters ChoppersA de-to-de converter, also known as d.c. chopper, is a static device which is used to obtain a variable d.c. voltage from a constant d.c. voltage source. Also the de-to-de converter is defined in more general way as an electrical circuit that transfers energy from a d.c. voltage source to a load. The energy is first transferred via power electronic switches to energy storage devices and then subsequently switched from storage into the load. The switches used are GTO, IGBT, Power BJT, and Power MOSFET for low power application and thyristors or SCRs for high power application. The storage devices are inductors and capacitors. The power source is either a battery (d.c. volt) or a rectified a.c. volt. This process of energy transfer results in an output voltage that is related to the input voltage by the duty ratios of the switches. The de-to-de converter products are used extensively for divers applications in the healthcare (bio-life science. dental, imaging, labor- atory, medical), communications. computing, storage, business systems, test and measurement, instrumentation, and industrial equipment industries. They are used in electric motor drives, in switch mode power supplies (SMPS), trolley cars, battery operated vehicles, traction motor control, control of large number of d.c. motors, etc. They are also used as d.c. voltage regulators.PRINCIPLE OF DC CHOPPERS In general de choppers consists of power semiconductor devices (thyristor, power BIT, power MOSFET, IGBT, etc., which work as a switch), input de power supply, circuit elements (R, L,C etc.) and output load (Fig. 7.2). The average output voltage across the load is controlled by varying on period and off period (or duty eycle) of the switch (S). The input voltage (V) is a constant de voltage (@) Circuit of a buck convertor 4 oie Poo & (©) During off-period of Sy Figure 7.2 A buck de-to-de converter or sten down choonarsource connected to the terminals «;-a>. The chopper consists of a switch (S,), & diode (D,) and an inductor (L,). The oad is connected to the terminals b,-b,, A thyristor based chopper lacks the advantage of natural commutation because of a de input. A commutation circuit is necessary for a thyristor. Therefore, in general, gate-commutation devices based de-to-de converters have replaced the thyristor-based choppers. However, for high voltage and high-current applications, thyristor based choppers are still in use. The variation in on and off periods provides an output voltage with an adjustable average value. The power diode (D,) operates in freewheeling mode to provide a path to load current when $) is off. The inductor (L,) filters out the ripples in load cerrent. It is called the smoothing inductor. The operation of this chopper circuit can be divided into two distinct modes: Mode I (switch S; closed) The switching diagram for this mode is shown in Fig. 7.2(b). When Sy is turned-on by applying a gate signal, the input current (i) and the output or load current (i) start building up exponentially due to the presence of the inductor (Ly) Mode IF (switch S, open) The switching diagram for this mode is showr in Fig. 7.2(c). When the switch S, is turned off, the decaying i, results in a negative or reverse voltage [Ly(dig/ds)] to appear across the inductor. The cathode of Dy becomes negative and D, turns on. Tt provides a free-wheeling path to ig. The waveforms of the output voltage and current are shown in Fig. 7.3. The average output voltage is given byay Figure 7.3 Waveforms of a buck converter.Also, feyenary, where, Toy = On period of the switch (S,) Tyr = Off period of the switch T = Time period of control f = IT = Chopping frequency D = T.JT, is called duty-cycle or duty-ratio. Ideally, D can acquire any value between 0 and 1. However, the (7.2) time delay in turning-on and turning-off operations of the switch imposes a restriction on the variation of the duty-cycle range. 1 is evident from (7.1), the output voltage (V,) is directly proportional to the duty-cycle. The output voltage can be controlled by the time-ratio control and current-limit control methods.Time-ratio control (TRC) In this method, the on period of the switch (Tr) is vatied keeping the ‘ime period (7) fixed. Alternatively, either Toy oF Tag period is kept constant and T (ihe chopping frequency, f) is controlled. ‘The former technique is called pulse-width modulation (PWM) while the later is called frequency modulation. Figure 7.4 shows the output voltage waveforms with PWM and frequency modulation techniques. r () Tay OF PVM control - t (©) T control o- frequency contolCurrent-limit control (CLC) Sometimes it is required to keep the output current constant (e.g. to keep the load current or the output torque constant in a de motor). In such cases, the switch of the chopper is controlled in such a way that it operates (open and closes) at certain threshold vatues of the current, as shown in Fig. 7.5. The on-periad of the switch and the output voltage (Vo) are self adjusting. These depend upon the load current. Figure 7.8 Output voltage and current waveforms with CLC.Example 7.1. A battery powered electric vehicle uses a de motor drive, controlled by a de chopper working at 10 KHz. The battery voltage is 220 V. The minimum turn-on and off-time of the chopper switch (an inverter grade SCR) are 2 sec and 25 psec, respectively. Determine the minimum and the maximum de voltage that the chopper can deliver to the motor. Solution We have Total time period of chopper, T= ———z = 100 pts r me 10 x 10° e Minimum possible on-time = 2 ps Minimum possible duty-cycle, Dyin = iti = 0.02 Output voltage, Ve = DV; Minimum possible output voltage, Vogniny = Drin¥; = 0.02 x 220 = 4.4 V 100 - 25 Maximum possible on-time, Toy = T — Tort 15 psec Maximum possible duty-eycle, Dyax 0.75 Maximum possible output voltage, Vomas) « Dmax¥i = 0.75 x 220 = 165 V Output voltage controllability of the chopper circuit is from 4.4 V 10 165 V only.Example 7.2. In a 100-V de chopper drive using the CLC scheme, the maximum possible value of the accelerating current is 425 A, the lower limit of the current pulsation is 180 A. The length of on and off period is 14 ms and 11 ms, respectively. Determine the limit of current pulsation, the chopping frequency, the duty cycle ratio and the output voltage. Solution We have Inu, = 425 A, Toy = 14 ms, Tore = 11 ms and Ipin = 180 A. Therefore, Maximum limit of the current pulsation = 425 - 180 = 245 A Chopping frequency = 2 1 T "iame+itme = 40 M2 Duty ratio, D = = x = 0.56 T Output voltage, Vy = DV, = 0.56 x 100 = 56 VDC-TO-DC CONVERTERS WITHOUT ISOLATION {In such converters, the load impedance directly comes into contact with the input de voltage source or through a circuit element. Therefore, the load is not electrically isolated from the input de source, There are several thousand cixcuit topologies available for de-to-de converters. These converters are also called switch-mode de converters. There are four most common and simple de- to-de converters without an elecitical isolation: (@) Buck or forward converters (b) Boost converters (©) Buck-boost converters {@) Cuk converters ‘They are discussed in the following sections. 7.7.1 Back oR Forwarp Type ‘The buck converter is a de-to-de converter, where the output voltage can be controlled from zero to the input voltage level. Therefore, it is called a step-down converter. The circuit topology ef the ‘converter is shown in Fig. 7.18. The input de voltage is applied to the load at a high frequency using pk Swien “Le titer (2) Grail toooloay of a buck de-to-de converterTes Ta 7 (b) Waveforms foe comineus conduction mode. Figure 748 A buck de-lode converterMarHemaricaL Anacysis Certain assumptions are made to simplify the analysis which are: * The switching device is ideal, therefore no switching loss takes place. ‘+ The outpat voltage (V,) is constant because of the large value of C, and + The rise and fall of current through the inductor is linear. Therefore difdr is constant which makes the voltage across L(v, = Lii/at) constant. Continuous conduction mode During the on-period, the difference of input and output voltage is applied across the inductor. Since, », = Liildt, the change in inductor current is given by (7116) During the off-period, the free-wheeling diode Dry conducts. ‘The inductor current falls. One terminal of L reaches tho negative potential duc to conduction of Dpw and negative output voltage appears across 1. Thus Lal, % Ah, = Toe 8 Toa = am L Since, Vp = DV; and D is less than 1, Vz is also less than V;. Also, from (7.16) and (7.17), the switching frequency is given by i 1 VaVi = Ve} 7.18) VLah, ‘The ripple current ean be found as 7.19)_ YD -D) ft It shows that the current ripples can be reduced by increasing f and L. The maximum and minimum inductor current are given by (7.19) eT + (7.20) and. 2p where [, is the average or mean value of the load current i,. Discontinuous conduction mode In this mode of operation, fy = 0 (Fig. 7.19). Therefore, from (7.21) and (7.16), the average load current is given by Vi= Vo Topp Wi-V9XTD _(Y-¥,)D : wm Tt FF ia)Figure 7.19 Discontinous conduction mode of buck type converter.Because of a discontinuous current, a term (dead-time), 7 is introduced. During t period, the inductor current does not flow. Equating (7.16) and (7.17), for the rise and fall of the inductor current, gives ‘ee = Toy ~ 7) (7.23) ‘Therefore, it gives (7.24) When the load current is just continuous (for t= 0), let the average value of inductor or load current, J, = fis; Therefore, for a given set of values of f, Vo, Vj, L and D, if the average load current (VJR) becomes less than J, then ig will be discontinuous. The critical condition ean be found by equating VR equal to J,, as given in (7.22).Example 7.3 An RL load is connected to a 250 V, 400 Hz step-down (buck) chopper. The average load current is 100 A. The load resistance is 0.5 Q. Find the minimum value of the inductor to linait the maximum ripple of the inductor current to 15%, Also, find the inductance for the worst-cast: ripple condition. Sulution The average voltage of load inductor is zero. Therefore the ouiput voltage is given by Vo = Rl, = 0.5 x 100 = 50 ¥ Then 50 ; a59 ~ 02 ‘The sipple of the inductor current, Al, = 0.15 % LOU = 15 A, From (7.20), the value of Lis given by R= 2 __ 501250 ~ 50) = J ~ 15% 250 » 400 = 6.67 mH ‘The worst case ripple cunditivun, corresponds to the maximum ripple with respect to D. Therefore, from (7-20) dah) | 4 = a fpl-2D)=0 Which gives for the worst case, Dy « 0.5 and ¥, = D,V; = 0.5 x 250 = 125. Therefore, the worst- ease inductance, 125 « 125 Tw T3250 x 400 = 10.42 miT7.7.2 Boost Type CONVERTERS ‘This type of de-to-de converter is able fo generate a constant output voltage (average value) more than the input voltage. The circuit topology is shown in Fig. 7.20. When the switch, S is turned on at 1 =0, energy is stored in the inductor L. The current through the inductor is assumed to be rising finearly from a ininimum level /; to a maximum level J. The diode is off as the output voltage Vo appears at the cathode (anode is at zero potential due to the conducting sw.tch). Let the capacitance is very high, therefore V, is constant and the capacitor supplies a constant load current. The equivalent switching circuit diagram for this period is shown in Fig. 7.21a. When the switch is tumed off at 1 = Tam it generates a negative voltage actoss it (w, = Ldild?). Thus, a voltage Vj + vi D ’e Figure 7.20. Circuit diagram of a boost conveter.appears across the switch, which is greater than V,. It turns on the diode D (anode being at a higher potential). The inductor current now charges the capacitor and the current flows through L, D, C and load. The stored energy of inductor is transferred to the capacitor and the inductor current falls linearly. In addition to the stored energy of the inductors, the energy from source is also fed to the load. The equivalent circuits for different switching conditions are shown in Fig. 7.21. Wiassaieaat — aie Reh £ i dD hi a Vo + ‘] au ° “| ¢ 8 ~ d Vy aeo> (©) Mode Il, when switch S is off (Ton << 7) Figure 7.21 Different modes of switching of boost converters.MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS The assumptions are same as it was made in for the buck converters. Continuous conduetion mode The voltage impressed across the inductor during on-period is V;. During this period, the current rises linearly from a minimum level, /, to a maximum level, J,. Therefore, LAL, oF Tog = (7.25) The voltage impressed across the inductor during off-period is Vj — V; and the current drops linearly from the maximum level, fz to the minimum level, [. Therefore, the voltage across the inductor is given by LU, -1) _ Torr Lal, v,-V Yo Voor Tor = (7.26){a) Continuous mode(0) Discontinuous modeFrom (7.25) and (7.26), equating for Aj, it gives or or (7.27) It is evident from the above equation, for D = 0 to D = 1, Vy 2 Vp and ideally, V, may vary from V; to infinite, Therefore, in general, V, is greater than or equal to V;. However, due to parasitic parameters stray inductance and capacitance of the converter circuits, after attaining certain high-voltage level, V, decreases for D close to 1. As the switching device is considered to be lossless, the power input (Vj/;) and power output (Volo) of the converter is same. Therefore, from (7.27) (728) Substituting for Toy and Tyg, from (7.25) and (7.26), the switching frequency is given by 1 L VY — Vi) aden GSW) I* 7" Toa Val L 729)‘Therefore, from (7.27) and (7.29), the ripple current is given by — Vile - Yi) Yin-a- Ah = Se u-a-DI or VD a= (7.30) Discontinuous conduction mode In this mode. i, reduces to zero during (Taq — 2) period (I, = 0) From (7.25) and (7.26), equating for Al, it gives = Mon. Ve- Vlog ~ 9) Oh a Vy __1-(/T) Yo Tog — IT or (iT) D-(iT)' 31)7.7.3. Back-soost TyPE ‘The buck-boost type de-de converters give the output voltage, both more than as well as less than the input voltage level. It depends upon whether the duty ratio is more than 50% or less than 50%, respectively. However, the output voltage has opposite polarity that of the input voltage. ‘The circuit topology is shown in Fig. 7.23. When the switch is on, the inductor stores energy from the supply. When the switch tums off at the end of the on-period, the fall in inductor current eee t cNL ie is | Figure 7.23 Crcuit diagram of a buck-boost converter. generates a negative voltage across the inductor (upper side negative). It mzkes the cathode of the diode negative and provides another path of current through the capacitor and the load. During the off-period, the stored inductor energy is transferred to the capacitor and the load. Both the input and output current are discontinuous. However, the inductor current could be continuous or discontinuous but V, remains constant due to large value of C. Current and voltage waveforms for both the conditions are shown in Fig. 7.24.MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS: ‘The assumptions are same as it was made in the previous cases. Continuous conduction mode During the on-period, the voltage across the inductor is Vj and the current rises linearly from a minimum level, J; to a maximum level, J. Thus, the inductor voltage is given by LA (7.32) During the off-period, the voltage across the inductor is negative and the current falls from J) to Ty the inductor voltage is given by LA -V or To =- (7.33) Vo From (7.32) and (7.33), equating for Ad, it gives Viton. _ Volant 34) EIts evident from (7.34), the converter operates in buck mode when D < 0.5 and therefore ¥,< Vj. Also, it operates in boost mode when D > 0.5 and therefore V_> Vi For a lossless converter system, the switching loss in the device is revo. Both the input power (Vif) and the output power (Vel) axe equal. Therefore, from (7.34), Me Db Nahe a5 038) Substituting for 7,4 and Typ, the switching frequency is given by 1 1 S°T" Tate TW. 0136 [Ao, the ripple cuven trough the inductor isiven by a3 Discontinuons conduction mode During this mode, iy teduces to 2er0 in (Tay ~ 2) period (1 = 0). When the switch is on, the inductor voltage is given by ah , web Be el oe bh 38) When the switch is off, the inductor voltage is given by 739) (7.40)Circurr TopoLoay OF CONVERTERS All the three types of de-de converter discussed in preceding sections cen be realized by cyclic rotation of the inductor, diode and a static switch, as shown in Fig. 7.25. TTS rs (®) Configuration of a boost converter % (6) Configuration of a buck-boos! converter Figure 7.25 Three types of de-dc converters realized by cyclic rotation cf circuit components.7.7.4 Com Convenrens ‘This i 9 ee convene which tanfrs cowry som the vous to the ld, both dingo ed and ei perind of swichng. Th sgl fice scone, we the capacor ‘nk ase ey sing elect The ig canent commun aoe flay of te pa ‘elge ieee opp of th inp vole). The uit vege ay be mone otf tha he tp ole: Ts operas nth bck nd oat ede whch dps jn he Oy ao The iat tpokgy of Cu cower oan in Fig, 726 @ LAE 5 yo eran angen a "Initially the switch S is off and D conducts (as D is forward biased because of the input source voltage). The operation of the circuit starts after C; i flly charged. Now. as the switch (S) is turned on at 1 = 0, the diode (D) is reversed biased because of vc. Now, the capacitor (C,) discharges through the load and the capacitor (C;)- The inductor (L4) stores energy from the source. When the switch (S) is turned off at t = T, the capacitor (C;) charges through the source and L, transfers its stored energy to the load. The current and volkage waveforms are shown in Fig. 727. hy I t ~¥) i i ~ vo) Me ! ver = Ve [a art My Figure 7.27 Wavetorms of Cuk converters.‘MATHEMATICAL ANALysis ‘The assumptions made for the previous cases are also applied here. When ‘the switch (S) is on, the ‘eurent through the inductor (L) rises linearly from the minimum level (/,) to the maximum level {hep The ductor volage given by ‘ a nye ltt v or Tae a where Ahy = dua ~ Tae The current falls linearly from 4.) to yy. When the switch (8) is off. Therefore, the inductor voltage is given by ee Lah wy pbs ber MW) oF Toe = vay Equating for Af, from (7.41) and (7.42), it gives. Ga= VT i (7.43) Similarly, the current through Lz varies Ii 3 ‘ vate neat Reween maximum ie! (i) 16 mim fevel Te incor volageW eal te um of and Ver The . Ah Al mmm Vim oy AO, coe Ea 2 Tan ae 744) where hs = hz ix ‘When the switch (S) is off, the inductor current falls linearly from voltage is given by rent falls linearly from hy to 3. The inductor 4h or Tg (7.45) ‘Equating for Af», from (7.44) and (7.45), it gives Wor ~ YT, Vil = a) top _ tofu Yo ha = bo % In (7.46)Equating for Vey, from (7.43) and (7.46), it gives D (7.47) ,= TEM The above equation shows that the converter operates in boost mode for D > 0.5 and it operates in buck mode for D < 05. Also, Vg becomes equal to V; for D = 0.5. For an ideal or lossless converter sysiem, the input and the output powers are equal (Vl, = Vol,). Therefore, D A ye =P 1, (7.48) The switching frequency is given by 1d LAlrver = Mole + Mo) SOT Tate Tiley % Mare ra From (7.46) and (7.47), putting for vc, and Vg, it gives DY, Aha= a 7.50) aaa, (7.50)CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS Choppers are classified as follows - Class A Chopper - Class B Chopper - Class C Chopper - Class D Chopper - Class E Chopper CLASS A CHOPPER Us Fig. 244; Class A Chopper and v, ~i, Characteristics ‘Thyristor (gate pulse Output cunrent CHON | ea " ree aS Ee 1 FWD Conducts 0 on H Ontput voltage a >t = boar > T— Fig, 2.15: First quadrant Chopper - Output Voltage and Current WaveformsFigure 2.14 shows a Class 4 Chopper citcvit with inductive load and free+ wheeling diode, When chopperis ON, supply voltage Vis connected across the load iz., ¥y=V and cument ig flows as shown in figure. When chopper is OFF, v= 0 and the load current j, continues to flowin the same ditection through the free wheeling diode, Therefore the average values of output voltage and current ie., v, and i, are always positive, Hence, Class 4 Choppers a frst quadrant chopper(or single quadrant chopper) Figure 2.15 shows outputvoltage and current waveforms fora continuous load current.Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows from source to load. It is used to control the speed of de motor. The output current equations obtained in step down chopper with R-Z load can be used to study the performance of Class A Chopper CLASS B CHOPPER =| roi ' i Ly 1774 Choppei Fig. 2.16: Class B ChopperFig. 2.16 shows a Class B Chopper circuit. When chopper is ON, v9 =Oand E drives a current ip through Z and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure 2.16. During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy. When Chopper is OFF. diode D conducts, r,=1” and part of the energy stored in inductor L is retumed to the supply. Also the current ip continues to flow from the load to source. Hence the average output voltage is positive and average output current is negative. Therefore Class B Chopper operates in second quadrant. [n this chopper, power flows from load to source. Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of de motor. Figure 2.17 shows the output voltage and current waveforms of a Class B Chopper, The output current equations can be obtained as follows, During the interval diode ‘D’ conducts (chopper is off} voltage equation is given byLd V==*+Rig+E da? Forthe initial conditioni.e., ip(t)=J,,, at '=0. The solution of the above equation is obtained along similar lines as in stea-down chopper with R-L load Therefore if et Je ou O) 1 1 conducts; Chopper ' i h ieouduets, 1 1 % i : ‘ F Output voltage Class B Chopper - Output Voltage and Current WaveformsCLASS C CHOPPER Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers. Figure 2.18 shows a Class C two quadrant Chopper circuit. For first quadrant operation, CH, is ON or D, conducts and for second quadrant operation, CH, is ON or D, conducts. When CAH, is ON, the load current jg is positive. iz. ip flows in the direction as shown in figure 2.18. The output voltage is equal to (v1 =V/) and the load receives power from the source, Fig, 2.18: Class C ChopperWhen CH, is tumed OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through the diode D, and the output voltage v, =0, but i, continues to flow in positive direction. When CH, is triggered, the voltage E forces i, to flow in opposite direction through L and CH, . The output voltage 1, = 0. On tuming OFF CH, , the energy stored in the inductance drives current through diode D, and the supply; output voltage 1, =” the input current becomes negative and power flows from load to source. Thus the average output voltage v, is positive but the average output current i,can take both positive and negative values. Choppers CH, and CH, should not be tumed ON simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the supply. Class C Chopper can be used both for de motor control and regenerative braking of de motor. Figure 2.19 shows the output voltage and current waveforms.taf Gate pulse of CH, ; . >t Nay | | ! Gate pulse 1 { 1 J” of CH, _— i ot in | ! d d ‘ 'D, ke CH, 1D, « CHD! CH, + D,'< CH, Pon "on {oN | on | Vo h i ' i “ Output voltage | >t Fig. 2.19: Class C Chopper - Output Voltage and Current WaveformsCLASS D CHOPPER oagy Ko Rie E paws] ——SSS9 cH, aa Fig. 2.20; Class D Chopper Figure 2:00 chews clase D rw quadraat chopper Gireaits When bothio7y, and CH, are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vg = 7 and output current ig flows through the load in the direction shown in figure 2.20. When CH, and CH, are turned OFF, the load current 1, continues to flow in the same direction through load, 4] and £4, due to the energy stored in the ind L, but output voltage vp = —!”. The average load voltage vy is positive if chopper ON-time (¢,, )is more than their OFF-time (typp) and average output voltage becomes negative if fpy t tal t Gate pulse ro x“ of CH, ; t >t ar i ‘ : Output current Toa bog to Output voltage a ' tot aL 4. ---[- a Averageyy ¥ Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for fey, > fareaf Gate pulse of CII, : ——t —e ‘ ‘an | if i | Gate pulse le” of CH, 1 Lt 1 t «eit ; LA LK eee sunent CH} td i é > 7 “DD, i | i a Op | io : Output voltage ei ia ar + t Average vy a 22: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for faq: “foreCLASS E CHOPPER Class E Chopper %D CH, -D, Conducts D, -D, Conducts ee ANY CH,- CH, ON |D,- D, Conducts CH, -D, Conducts | CH, - D, Conducto CH, -CH, ON CH, -Dz Conducts: ty Fig. 2.23(@): Four Quadrant OperationFigure 2.23 shows a class E 4 quadrant chopper circuit. When CH, and CH, are triggered, output current iy flows in positive direction as shown in figure 2.23 through CH, and CH, with output voltage ¥, = 7’. This gives the first quadrant operation. When both CH, and CH, are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives ig through Dy and D; in the same direction, but output voltage vy=—V’. Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth quadrant. For fourth quadrant operation the direction of battery must be reversed. When CH, and CH, are triggered, the load current ip flows in opposite direction and output voltagev, = Since both in and %, are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant. When both CH, and CH, ate OFF, the load cusrent i, continues to flow in the same direction though J, and D, and the output voltageyy = V7. Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant a ¥p is positive but {pis negative. Figure 2.23(a) shows the devices which are operative in different quadrants.