Process and Equipment Design

Projects
Salient Features
1. Eddy Current and Magnetic Testing on
equipments.
2. Rolling, Forging and Extrusion of metal.
EDDY CURRENT TESTING(ECT)
 Index
 About ECT
 Basic governing laws
 Working principle
 Components’ Description
 Detection of cracks
 Determination of thickness
 Other applications
 Advanced techniques in ECT
 Advantages of ECT
 Limitations of ECT
 Summary
 What is Eddy Current Testing ?

 Eddy current testing is a near

surface technique which
exploits the properties of eddy
currents to determine surface
breaking and variations in
material composition and
properties.
 THE PHYSICS BEHIND ECT

 Farday’s laws of electromagnetic induction say that when

ever there is a rate of change of flux linkage with a coil ,it
produces an e.m.f and there by a current in case of a closed
coil .The process is known as electro-magnetic induction.

VL = the induced voltage in volts

dø/dt = the rate of change in magnetic flux in
webers/second
 WORKING PRINCIPLE
• In standard eddy current a probe coil carrying ac current is
placed near the specimen which produces alternating magnetic
flux around the coil.
• The alternating magnetic flux links with the testing material
induces eddy currents.

• Then the variation of the magnitude and phase of these eddy

current is monitored by using a search coil or by the same coil
by measuring the change in current or impedance of primary
search coil.
 FORMATION OF EDDY CURRENT

• In ECT the eddy currents

are generated in the testing
material due to the
phenomenon of mutual
inductance
• The ac current in the probe
coil produces alternating
magnetic flux and these
flux produce eddy current
in the test material.
 PROPERTIES OF EDDY CURRENTS

• Eddy currents are closed

loops of induced currents
circulating in planes
perpendicular to magnetic
flux
• They are confined to the area
of inducing magnetic field
• Eddy currents concentrate
near the surface adjacent to
an excitation coil and strength
decreases with distance from
the coil
 EFFECT OF EDDY CURRENT

• The eddy current produce a magnetic flux which

links with the magnetic flux of the exciting coil.

• The amount of interaction between two fluxes

determine the value of current or change in
impedance of the primary coil and is a direct
measurement of eddy current in the specimen.
 MEASUREMENT OF EDDY CURRENT

• The change in impedance

of the probe can be easily
detected by a high
sensitive maxwell’s
induction bridge.
• It compares the inductance
of the probe with some
standard values and any
change in this is reflected
through a detecting coil or
an oscilloscope
 Penetration depth
• Due to skin effect the
magnitude of eddy current
decreases as depth of
material increases

• The depth of penetration is

given by the formula
written on the right side.
 BASIC COMPONENTS OF ECT

• PROBES
• DETECTING INSTRUMENTS
• DISPLAY UNITS
• FREQUENCY GENERATOR
• FILTERS
• AUXILLIARIES
 PROBES

• It contains the coil to

produce varying
magnetic field
• It is designed in
different manner as for
the accessibility of the
testing material
• It is designed so as to
reduce the stray fields
1. Surface probes - Used for identifying flaws on and below metal surfaces, usually
large diameter to accommodate lower frequencies for deeper penetration, or for
scanning larger areas.

2. Pencil probes - Smaller diameter probes housing coils built for high frequencies for
high resolution of near surface flaws.

3. Bolt hole probes - Designed to inspect the inside of a bolt hole. These probes can
be rotated by hand or automatically using a rotary scanner.

4. Donut probes - Designed to inspect aircraft fastener holes with fasteners in place.

5. Sliding probes - Also used in testing aircraft fastener holes, offering higher scan
rates than donut probes.

6. ID probes - Used for inspection of heat exchangers and similar metal tubing from the
inside, available in a variety of sizes.

7. OD probes - Used for inspection of metal tubing and bars from the outside, with the
test piece passing through the coil.
 DETECTING INSTRUMENTS

• Display analog meter

• Oscilloscope
• Spectrum analyzer
• R-X plotter
Working Model Video
 APPLICATIONS OF ECT

• Surface crack detection

• Measurement of conductivity of materials
• Thickness measurement of non conductive
coatings
• Tube inspection
• Heat damage inspection
• Material Identification
 SURFACE BRAKING DETECTION

• The basic principle behind

this that whenever there is
a surface crack ,it disrupts
the path of eddy currents.

• Due to this disruption the

flux linkage in primary coil
changes, which can be
detected by the bridge
circuit.
 Thickness measurement of non conductive
coating
• The thickness of non
metallic coating on metal
substance can be
detected by simply the
effect of lift off
impedance.

• This is basically used for

measuring thickness of
paint and plastic
coatings.
 TUBE INSPECTION
In tube inspection the
long tubes are inspeted
through a long probe
which is inserted into
the tube and the
condition of material
inside the tube is
determine from the
impedance
measurements.
 ADVACED TECHNOLOGY IN ECT

• The advanced technology

uses multiple frequency
technique or swept
frequency technique.

• This technique simple

involve collecting data at
several frequencies and
then comparing the data or
mixing the data in some
particular manner.
 APPLICATION OF SWEPT FREQUENCY TECHNIQUE

• To detect thickness of
conductive coating
over conductive
material.
• Measurement of flaws
in multi layer materials
 ADVANTAGES OF ECT
• Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
• Detects surface and near surface defects
• Inspection gives immediate results
• Equipment is very portable
• Method can be used for much more than flaw
detection
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Test probe does not need to contact the part
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive
materials
 LIMITATIONS OF ECT
• Only conductive materials can be inspected
• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Skill and training required is more extensive than other
techniques
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Surface finish and roughness may interfere
• Depth of penetration is limited
• Flaws such as delimitations that lie parallel to the probe
coil winding and probe scan direction are undetectable
 SUMMARY

From the above discussion we can summaries that

eddy current testing (ECT) is one of the most important
testing technique which is now a days gaining popularity
due to its low cost equipment, immediate results oriented
testing ,accuracy of results and its wide range of application.
Magnetic Current Particle Testing
 Introduction

• It is a non-destructive testing method used for defect detection.

• It uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e. iron filings)
to detect flaws in components.

• The component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic

material ( iron, nickel, cobalt, their alloys). Ferromagnetic materials
can be magnetized to a level ,thus the inspection becomes
effective.

• It is a combination of two non-destructive testing methods:

magnetic flux leakage testing and visual testing .
 Industrial Applications

• Used to inspect a variety of product forms including

castings, forgings, and weldments.

• The structural steel, automotive, petrochemical,

power generation, and aerospace industries use MPI.

• Underwater inspection is another area where it is used

to test items such as offshore structures and
underwater pipelines .
Simple bar magnet

• It has a magnetic field in

and around the magnet.
• Any place that a
magnetic line of force
exits or enters the
magnet is called a pole.
• A pole where a magnetic
line of force exits the
magnet is called a north
pole and where a line of
force enters the magnet is
called a south pole.
 Basic Principles

• If the magnet is just cracked but not broken

completely in two, a north and south pole will
form at each edge of the crack.
• The magnetic field spreads out when it
encounters the small air gap created by the crack
• This is because the air cannot support as much
magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can
• Magnetic field appears to leak out of the
material and, thus is called a flux leakage field.
• If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked
magnet, the particles will be attracted to and
cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the
magnet, but also at the poles at the edges of
the crack.
• This cluster of particles is much easier to see
than the actual crack and this is the basis for
magnetic particle inspection.
 Basic overview of the process
• The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is
to magnetize the component that is to be
inspected.
• If any defects on or near the surface are present,
the defects will create a leakage field.
• After the component has been magnetized, iron
particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form,
are applied to the surface of the magnetized part.
• The particles will be attracted and cluster at the
flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible
indication that the inspector can detect.
 Portable Magnetizing Equipment for
Magnetic Particle Inspection
• The requirement for detecting a defect in a
ferromagnetic material is that the magnetic field
induced in the part must intercept the defect at a 45 to
90 degree angle.
• Flaws that are normal (90 degrees) to the magnetic
field will produce the strongest indications because
they disrupt more of the magnet flux.
• Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is
important to be able to establish a magnetic field in at
least two directions.
• A variety of equipment exists to establish the magnetic
field for MP.
 Electromagnet
• most of the equipment used to create the magnetic
field used in MPI is based on electromagnetism.
• It uses an electrical current to produce the magnetic
field
• An electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of
equipment that is used to establish a magnetic field.
• Yoke is made by wrapping an electrical coil around a
piece of soft ferromagnetic steel. A switch is included
in the electrical circuit so that the current and,
therefore, the magnetic field can be turned on and off.
• They can be powered with alternating current from a
wall socket or by direct current from a battery pack.
Electromagnet
 Magnetic Particles
• Particles start out as tiny milled (a machining process)
pieces of iron or iron oxide. A pigment (somewhat like
paint) is bonded to their surfaces to give the particles color.
• The metal used for the particles has high magnetic
permeability and low retentivity.
• High magnetic permeability is important because it makes
the particles attract easily to small magnetic leakage fields
from discontinuities, such as flaws.
• Low retentivity is important because the particles
themselves never become strongly magnetized so they do
not stick to each other or the surface of the part. Particles
are available in a dty mix or wet solution.
 Suspension Liquids
• Suspension liquids used in the wet magnetic particle
inspection method can be either a well refined light
petroleum distillate or water containing additives.
• Petroleum-based liquids are the most desirable carriers
because they provided good wetting of the surface of
metallic parts. However, water-based carriers are used
more because of low cost, low fire hazard, and the ability to
form indications quicker than solvent-based carriers.
• Water-based carriers must contain wetting agents to
disrupt surface films of oil that may exist on the part and to
aid in the dispersion of magnetic particles in the carrier.
• The wetting agents create foaming as the solution is moved
about, so anti-foaming agents must be added. Also, since
water promotes corrosion in ferrous materials, corrosion
inhibitors are usually added as well.
• Petroleum based carriers are primarily used in systems
where maintaining the proper particle concentration is a
concern. The petroleum based carriers require less
maintenance because they evaporate at a slower rate than
the water-based carriers.
• Therefore, petroleum based carriers might be a better
choice for a system that gets only occasional use or when
regularly adjusting the carrier volume is undesirable.
• Modern solvent carriers are specifically designed with
properties that have flash points above 200 oF and keep
nocuous vapours low.
 Stationary Equipment
• Stationary magnetic particle inspection
equipment is designed for use in laboratory or
production environment.
• The most common stationary system is the wet
horizontal (bench) unit. Wet horizontal units are
designed to allow for batch inspections of a
variety of components. The units have head and
tail stocks (similar to a lathe) with electrical
contact that the part can be clamped between. A
circular magnetic field is produced with direct
magnetization.
 ADVANTAGES
• It does not need very powerful pre-cleaning operation.
• Best method for the detection of fine,
shallow surface cracks in ferromagnetic material.
• Relatively simple NDT method.
•Generally inexpensive.
• Will work through thin coating.
•Only few limitations regarding the size/shape of test
specimens.
• Highly portable NDT method.
•It is quicker.
 LIMITATIONS:
•Material must be ferromagnetic.
• Orientation and strength of magnetic field is
critical.
• Detects surface and near-to-surface
discontinuities
only.
• Large currents sometimes required.
• “Burning” of test parts a possibility.
• Parts must often be demagnetized, which may
be
difficult.