In general, each generati . ing plant ir unit. Each of the unit may & Plant in any power system may hav ‘ave identical or different capacities. Introduction more than one generating . A number of power plants . areas can be comy inns required load continuously. ipensated by spinning reserve to meet the In planning @ power system, it is necessary to select suitable types of plant, and choose their sizes so that the overall cost of the energy delivered at the load centres to the consumers 's minimum. Thus, the economic operation of the power system involves the selection of suitable generating unit, to satisfy the power demand for the energy supplied. 4.1, POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL Automatic control systems are used extensively in power systems. Local controls are employed at turbine generator units (governor control) and at selected voltage controlled buses. Central controls are employed at area control centres. Power system operations have the responsibility to ensure that adequate power is delivered to the load reliably and economically, in order to ensure adequate delivery of power demand. The electric energy system can be operated at the desired operating level by maintaining nominal frequency, voltage profile and load flow configuration, The nominal frequency and the voltage profile are maintained automatically. The real and reactive powers generated are controlled automatically. In a power station, the generating electrical power unit must satisfy the load demand. Power system control is required to maintain a continuous balance between the generation and_varying load demands, while system frequency, voltage levels and security are maintained within the specified limits, Operating costs vary widely among controlled units. Economic dispatch determines the megawatt output of the controlled units that minimize the total operating cost for a given load demand. Economic dispatch is ‘coordinated with load frequency control (LFC) in such a way that reference power signals dispatched to controlled units move the units towards these economic loadings and satisfy LFC objectives.> Distribution Level (Secon dary and Primary) > Sub-transmission Level > Transmission and Pool Level Distribution Levei ° These circuits are the fi mest meshes in the Network. Dis} Classified into two types, | tribution Voltag. ly ‘ tage (For instance 33 kvy 2. Secondary or Con: ‘sumer Voltage (For instance 230 V per Phase) The distribution circuit S fed from the distribution Substations suppty domestic or medium sized (small in CNet, dustrial and commercial) Customers, ie i Engineering Constitutes the major part covering the Problems of Overhead o, ua service, metering, Switching and Protection, Sub-transmission Level The sub-transmissio, n line distributes energy certain 8eographical area at a Voltage level that to a number of distribution Substatg directly from the generator typically varies between 33 KV and 1) bus in the generating station or Via bul, (1.2. SYSTEM LOAD VARIATION ‘” The load on a Power station vari i ies from time to time due to uncertain demands * ~b‘consumers and is known as variable | load on the station. and social occasions, etc.Introductic ction 15 System iatic it ystern load variation occurs due to weather condition (i.e.,),temperature, humidity, cloudiness, wind velocity, etc. Load taken by each group, thin peaks do not occur at the same time, because of , thin peak: sam system load variation. ; ime, eee Load : \t consists of domestic lights, fans and other appliances such as refrigerators, television, radio, air-conditioner, efc., has a high peak during evening. Commercial Load : It covers off i i : ices, hospitals, hotels, shopping complex, theatres, efc., has two peaks, morning and evening. =“ Industrial load: \t covers small and heavy industri i i ; : avy industries working on shifts, so load is constant throughout the day. ” . Agricultural load : It occurs during the day time. Municipal load : \t consists of street-lighting, water-supply and drainage. Street lighting load remains constant from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. Fill up the water tank during off-peak hours, Base load: It is the load that has been drawn constantly throughout the time. TN | Effects of Variable Load Need of additional equipment : Variable load on a station necessitates to have additional equipment. If the power demand —— aR : fics Lael eee on Station increases, we should increase the generation by increasing the raw materials required (water, coal, gas, etc.) so additional equipments are needed to adjust the rates of supply of raw material with respect othe power demand. Increase in production cost : Variable load on the plant increases the production cost of electrical energy. If one the load variation, it will have poor efficiency during light load alternator is used to meet out period. Therefore a number of alternators of different capacities are installed so that most of oe = the alternators can be 0) ited at nearly full load capacity. So, number of generators are used. to meet out the load vari on, increases the production cost.»Ss Lis Power System Operation me 1.4. ECONOMICS OF GENERATION The generating stations may be steam, hydro, nuclear, diesel or any other type, ing mainly depends upon the natural sources available in the areas. The Power station g, . as near as possible to the centre of the load so that the transmission Cost and los t minimum. The scheme employed should be such that extension could be made to wae the increase in demand in future, without incurring heavy expenditure. ‘ 1.4.1. Load Curves Load Curves : / Load on the power system is seldom constant. It varies from time to time, The showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time is known ay th curve. It can Be plotted on a graph taking load on Y-axis and time on =") : Daily Load Curve : : The curve showing the variation of load on a whole day ie., 24 hours with respect i is known as daily load curve. The load variations are recorded half-hourly or hourly whole day (24 hrs). Typical daily load curve is as shown in Fig. 1.8. Midnight ‘noon Fig. 1.8. Daily load curve Monthly Load Curve : The curve showing the variation of load of the month with respect to time is knov® monthly load curve. It canbe obtained from the dsily load curves of that month. It canbe plotted by ting the average values of power over a month at different times of the day. It is used" the rates of energy or tariff. Yearly Load Curve or Annual Load Curve : The curve showing the variation of load of the yearly or Annual load curve. It can be obtained from the monthly load curves annual load factor. year with respect to time is kno¥"” Of that year. It is used to determi!Introduction 1.17 The load curves supply the following informations: ()_ The variation of the load during different hours of the day. (ii) The area under the curve represents the total number of units generated in a day. .. —— ees the or of units generated i (iii) The peak of the ct . ——__“0€ Curve represents the maximum demand on the station on the Particular day. a (iv) The area under the load Curve represented is divided by the number of hours, gives the average load on the power station. (v) The ratio of the area under the | it contained, gives load factor. load curve to the total area of the rectangle in which yi \ 1.4.2. Load Duration Curve | This is another type of curve which indicates the: variation of load, but with the loads inged in descending order of magnitude, ie., the greatest load on the left and lesser loads towards right. From this curve, the load factor of the station can also be determined. Typical load duration curve is as shown in Fig.1.9, \ 8000 T | 6000 | - | | Load 4000 |— | in | KW 2000 | 4 ae 4 ae 4 te 6} fe 2 te Dake 0 Duration in hours 4 8 12 16 20 24 | Fig. 1.9. Load duration curve“ 1.4.3. Important Terms for Deciding the Type and Rating of Generating Plant Connected Load / , For deciding the iype and rating of gencrating plant, it is necessary that engineer may be familiar with the following important terms. / The sum of the continuous ratings of all the electrical cquipment connected to the supply system is known as connected load. um Demand / / ; wie test of all “short time interval averaged” during a given period on the power pe eis the maximum demand. It is the maximum demand which determines the size station is cal and the cost of the installation.i Power System Operation and ¢, Demand Factor The ratio of actual maximum demand on the system to the total rated load Connecieg ! | Fs ' the system is called the demand factor. It is always less than the unity. | Maximum demand | Demand factor = “ Connected load - Average Load or Demand | The average load or demand on the power station is the average of loads Occurring 4 various events, . KWhr supplied in a day Daily average load = 4 KWhr supplied in a month Monthly average load = 24 x30 KWhr supplied in a year Annual average load. = 24 x 365 Load Factor or Demand Factor Load factor is defined as the ratio of average load to the maximum demand dun certain period of time such as a day or a month or a year is called the load factor. _ Average demand Load factor = Maximum demand If the plant is operated for T hours, _ _Avevage load x T Load factor = Vfeximum demand xT = Units generated in T hours Maximum demand x T T = 24 for daily load curve... (1 day = 24 hour T = 24%7 for weakly load curve. | T = 24% 365 for annual load curve. Significance of Load Factor > Load factor is always greater than unity, because average load is smaller ts maximum demand. > It is used to determine the overall cost Per unit generated, } » Ifthe load factor is high, cost per unit generated is low. Diversity Factor The ratio of sum of the individual maximum demands of sumers supplied bY to the maximum demand of the power station is Pah teas called the diversity factor. Diversity factor = Sum of individual maximum demands . Maximum demand of power station It is always greater than the unity,Introduction 119 Because maximum demand of different consumers do not occur at same time. Therefore, Maximum Sum of individual demand on the > < maximum a power station demands If diversity factor is more, the cost of generation of, power is low. Factors to Improve the Diversity Factor > ped incentives to some consumers to use electricity in the night or light load > Using day-light saving, > Staggering the office timings. > Having ‘two-part tariff in which consumer has to pay an amount dependent on the maximum demand of consumer uses. Coincidence Factor The reciprocal of the diversity factor is called the coincidence factor. at = Maximum demand of power station Coincidence factor = “Sum of individual max. demand It is always less than the unity. Capacity Factor or Plant Factor Capacity factor is defined as the ratio of the average load to the rated capacity of the power plant. Average demand Capacity factor = Rated capacity of power plant . Units or kwhr generated = Plant capacity x Number of hours Utilisation Factor It is a measure of the utility of the power plant capacity and is demand to the rated capacity of the power plant. It is less than the unity. ‘Max. demand on the power station Utilization factor = Rated capacity of the power station and is the ratio of maximum Plant Operating Factor (or) Plant Use Factor It is defined as the ratio of the actual energy gen product of capacity of plant and the number of hours during the period. erated during a given period to the the plant has been actually operated1.20 Power System Operation and Cy, th Total KWhr generated Plant use factor = i Rated capacity of the} x { Nari of rene} plant Reserve Capacity ; , Itis the difference between plant capacity and maximum demand. Reserve capacity = Plant capacity — M.D. 1.5. RESERVE REQUIREMENTS , ~ In any area, the kind of fuel available, cost, availability of suitable sites for gj, station, the nature of load to be supplied, are corisidered by choosing the type of Benet, The minimum capacity of the generating station must be such as to meet the Maxiny demand. 1.5.1. Installed Reserves | . Installed reserve is that generating capacity which is the power intended to be alg available. Installed reserve can be kept low by the achievement of good diversity factor. 1.5.2, Spinning Reserves Spinning reserve is that generating capacity which is connected to the bus and is ready, take load. 1.5.3. Cold Reserves Cold reserve is that reserve generating capacity which is available for service but is neti operation. 1.5.4. Hot Reserves Hot reserve is that reserve generating capacity which is in operation bus is not in service Firm power: It is the power intended to be always available (emergency condition) Reserve Margin: It is the difference between rated capacity and actual loading # generator. | SOLVED PROBLEMS . A generating station has a maximum demand of 400 MW. The ans? ; oad factor is 60% and capacity factor is 50%, Find the reserve capacity of the plant. — © Solution : Load factor = 0.6, Capacity factor = 0.5, Maximum demand = 400 MW. Energy generated } per annum J ~ Maximum demand x Load factor x Hours in a year 400 x 0.6 x 8760 = 2102.4 x 103 ; Units generated factor 5 us generated per annum Capacity * Plant Capacity x Ho, urs in a year W MWhrIntroduction 121 —Units generated perannum _ _ 2102.4 x 103 _ Capacity factor x Hours ina year ~ 0.5 x 8760 ~ 480MW Reserve capacity = Plant capacity - Maximum demand = 480-400 = 80 MW The maximum demand on a power station is 100 MW. If the annual load factor is 40%, calculate the total energy generated in a year. Plant capacity © Solution: Given: Maximum demand = 100 MW Annual load factor = 40% = 0.4 re Energy generated per annum Maximum demand x 365 x 24 Energy generated ina year = L.F x M.D x 8760 = 0.4 x 100 x 8760 350.4 x 103 MWhr A generating station has the following daily loads : A 0-6hr - 4500KW 6-8hr - 3500KW 8-12 hr - 7500KW 12-14 hr ~ 2000 KW 14-18 hr ~ 8000KW 18-20hr - 2500KW 20-24 hr - 5000KW ‘Sketch the load duration curve and determine the load factor and plant capacity factor if the capacity of the plant is 12 MW. © Solution : From the given data the load curve is sketched in Fig.1.10. ee - 4 = | 8000 | 7000 }- 6000 5000 Load 4000 Kw 3000 2000 Time in hours J Fig. 1.10. Daily load curvePower System Operation ang, 1.22 8000 4 7,500 and above 12 5,000 and above 18 4,500 and above 20 3,500 and above 2 2,500 and above 4 2,000 and above | 6000 Load 4000 Kw 2000 | “bh | peepee ety 16 20 24 Duration in hours Fig. 1.11. Load duration curve Capacity of the plant = 12.0 MW = 12,000 KW Maximum demand of the generating station = 8000 KW Units generated in 24 hrs = 8000 x 4 +7500 x 4 + 5000 x 4 +4500 x 6+ 3500 x 2 + 2500 x 2 + 200%: = 1,25,000 KWhr _. Units generated _ 1,25,000 Average load = “Time inhours = 24 ~ 5208KW Load factor = -Averaseload 19, Maximum demand _ $208 = 3000 < 100 = 65.1% ial Average demand 00 ied capacity of power plant * q = 2208. powermt 12000 * 100 = 43.4% A generating station has @ maximum deman connected load of 75 MW. If the number of unit um dof 40 MH a calculate : (i) Load factor ; (ii) Demand factor, © Solution : Given Data: : Maximum demand = 40 MW Connected Load = 75MW Plant capacity factorIntroduction 1.23 Units generated / annum = 250 x 106 Units generated / annum Hours in a year 250 x 106 ~ 365% 24 = 28.54 MW Average load = —Average load Annual load factor Maximum demand * 100 28.54 = 49 * 100 = 71.35% Maximum demand _ 40 “Connected load = 75 = 0.5333 or 53.33% Example 1.9 | A diesel station supplies the following loads to various consumers : Industrial load — 1000 KW Commercial load - 750 KW Domestic load — 500 KW Domestic light - 500 KW Uf the maximum demand on the station is 2500 KW and the number of kwhr generated per year is 45 x 10°, determine the diversity factor and annual load factor. Demand factor = © Solution : Maximum demand = 2500 kW (given) versity factor = Sut ofall individual maximum demands @ Diversity factor = “Maximum demand on power station = 1000+ 750+500+500 _ = 2500 =t. _ __ Average load ) Annual load factor = ~~“ vetaRe Toat Maximum demand kwhr generated per annum Average load = Hours in a year 45 x105 _ 45105 _ $760. ~ 513.699 kW 24x 365 [365 — Number of days in a year] _ 513.699 _ _ , Load factor = “Senq~ = 0.20548 = 20.548% A generating station has the following daily load cycle. Time (Hours) |0-6 | 6-10 | 10-12 | 12-16 | 16-20 | 20-24 | Load (MW) _| 20 25 30 25 3s LOON 1.24 se Power System Operation a = Draw the load curve and, find : () Maximum demand, (ij) Units generated per day, (iii) Average load, (iv) Load factor. © Solution : Load curve : Load in MW | —— Tine in hours | 12, Load curve @ Maximum demand = 35 MW = 35x 103 kW (ii) Units generated per day = Area under the load curve in kwhr = (6x 2044 x25 +2. 3044 x 2544 x 35 +4 x 20) x08 = 600x103 kwhr _ Units generated per day Hours in a day 600 103 _ = SS = 25000 kw __Average load () Load factor = Yfaximum demand 25000 35x10 ~ 0.7143 = 71.43% A generating station has the following daily load cycle. a [Time (irs) | 0-6 | 6-10 | 10-12 | 12-16 16-20 | 20- Load (MW) [ 40 50 60 a a “ (iii) Average load Draw the load curve and find (1) Max demand, (2) Units generated (3) Average load, (4) Load factor.Introduction © Solution: Load curve: (1) Maximum demand = 70MW = 70x 10°kW (2) Units generated/day = ) Average load = @) Load factor = 1.25 Time in hours —= Area under the curve in kWhr (6x40 +4x50+2x60+4x 50+4% 70 +4 x 40) 1200 MWhr = 1200 x 10° kWhr Units generated/day _ 1200 x 10° Hours in a day 24 50000 kW = 500 MW Average load __ 50 _ Searcn Maximum demand ~ 79 = 97143 = 71.43% Example 1.12 | A generator station supplies the following loads connected to it: Industries 95 MW Domestic lighting load SMW Domestic power load smMw Commercial load 12 MW The maximum demand on the station is 92 MW. Calculate the load factor and diversity factor if the total number of units generated in a year are 3 x 10°. (8) © Solution: Maximum demand = 92 MW ber of units ited) Number of unit senerid) = 3x 108 ina year, a Sum of all individual maximum demands Diversity factor = TT erstation Maximum demand on power station1.26 Power System Operation and Coy, B60 : B54548402 = 1.3043 annum _ 3x108 _ skwhr generated per annum = 94 ~ 34246 Hours in a year Average load 34246 _ __Averas load — _ SE = 9372 Load factor = Yfaximum demand — 92 x 108 A generating station supplied the following Toads: 15009 yy 12000 kW, 8500 KYY, 6000 KW and 450 KW. The station has @ maximum deman 22000 KW. The annual load factor ofthe station is 48%. Caleulate () the number of units supplied (i) the diversity factor (ii) the demand factor. © Solution: M.D = 22000kW _Average load__ Annual load factor = Fjaximum demand __ Average load 0.48 = “22000 Average load = 22000 x 0.48 = 10,560 kW KWhr generated per annum Average load = THours ina year " KWhr generated per annum = 10,560 x 8760 = 92 x 106 The number of units supplied = 92 x 106 Sum of all jual maximum demands Maximum demand — 15000 + 12000 + 8500 + 6000 + 450 22000 _ Average load _ 10,560 Demand factor = ——~ 100 kw 100 kw - = c - sokw | sokw = - D 100 kw - - 100 kw 100 kw Total load on power station 100 kw 150 kw 350 kw 300 kw 100 kw Load curve: Fig. 1.13. Load curve (a) Maximum demand = Diversity factor = (6) Units generated per day = = 100 x6+150x2+350x2+300 x 8+ 100x6 () Load factor = Average load Load factor = 350 kw Sum of all individual maximum demand (for group) Maximum demand on station 200 + 100 + 50+ 100 350 = 1,286 Area under the load curve 4600 kwhr Ave load Maximum demand Units generated per day Hours in a day 4600 _ 4 > 191.666 350 191.666 kw = 0.5476 = 54.76%Power System Operation and Com, pr Syste Cperemn ra Conny 1.28 Example L15] A power supply is having the folowing loads: — : ee Maximum — | Diversity factor f Type ofload | demand (kw) Domestic 10,000 Commercial 30,000 Industrial 50,000 the maximum demany If the overall system diversity factor is 1.5, (6) connected load of each type. © Solution : (a) Total maximum demand of loads System diversity factor Maximum demand (b) Connected load of each type: Domestic load : Diversity factor of domestic load Maximum domes} z= load demand Connected domestic load = Commercial load : Maximum commercial load demand Connected commercial load 0 determine: (a) 10000 + 30000 + 50000 90000 kw 1.5 Total maximum demand ‘System di sity factor 90000 _ Ts = 60000 kw Maximum domestic demand Maximum domestic load demand Maxii sal aaa { Diversity factor } demand of domestic load 10000 x 1.2 = 12,000 kw Maximum demand (Domestic) Demand factor of domestic load 12000 0.8 Maximum commercial } x { demand = 15000 kw Diversity factor } of commercial load 30000 x 1.3 = 39000 kw Maximum demand (commercial) Demand factor of commercial load 39000 = “Og = 43,333.33 kwIntroduction 1.29 Industeial load : 4 Maximum industrial } Maximum ; um indus { Meximum | . { Diversity factor } demand of industrial load 50000 x 1.35 = 67500 kw Maximum demand (industrial) Demand factor of industrial load 67500 = “Rpg = 71052.63. kw Example 1.16 | A generating station has a maximum demand of 20 MW, a load factor of 60% a plant capacity factor of 48% and a plant use factor of 80%. Find the @ Daily energy produced. (ii) Reserve capacity of the plant (ii) Maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant were running all the time and (x) Maximum energy that could be produced if the plant when running (ace. to operating schedule) were fully loaded. Given: Maximum demand = 20MW Load factor = 0.6 Plant capacity factor = 0.48 Plant use factor = 0.8 __ Average demand © Solution: Load factor = ‘Maximum demand Average demand = Load factor x Maximum demand = 0.6 x 20,000 = 12,000 kw _ Average demand ~~ Installed capacity ‘ay = Average demand _ 12000 _ Installed capacity = Plant capacity factor ~ 0.48 ~ 25000kW Connected industrial load Plant capacity factor see pln \ Installed capacity - Maximum demand = 25,000 -20,000 = 5,000 kW Daily energy produced = Average demand x 24 = 12,000 x 24 = 2,88,000 kWhr Energy/day corresponding to installed capacity = 25,000 x 24 = 6,00,000 kWhr Maximum energy that could be produced _ Actual energy produced _ 2,88,000 ~~ Plant use factor . = 3,60,000 kWhr (operating according to schedule)1.30 Power System Operation ang % ny he imum demand o, A generating station has oe of 50,00 ; ‘alculate the cost per unit genreated from the. era ia Capital cost = 106 Annual load factor = 49% ‘s Annual cost of fuel and oil = Rs. oxI Taxes, wages and salaries, etc. = Rs. 75% Interest and depreciation = 12% al Annual Hours i beaiwn load fx} ina Units generated/annum = { demand | * { joa ae = 50,000 x 0.4 x 8760 = 17.52 x 107 kWhr ‘Annual fixed charges = 12% of capital cost = 0.12 x 95 x 108 = Rs, 114x106 Total annual running charges ame Cost for taxes, ana wages, etc. fuel and oil , Rs. [9 x 106+ 7.5 x 106] = Rs. 16.5 x 106 { Annual fue} : { Annual running } charges charges Rs. [11.4 x 106+ 16.5 x 106] = Rs. 27.9 x 106 .. _ Total annual charges _ 27.9 x 106 _ Cost/unit = nit generated/annum ~ 1752x107 ~ RS O16 = 16 Paise A diesel station supplies the following loads to various consumers: Industrial consumer = 1500 kW Commercial establishment = 750 kW Domestic power = 100 kW Domestic light = 450 kW Uf the maximum demand on the station is 2500 kW and the number of kWh gen® per year is 45 x 10, determine (1) Diversity factors, (2) Annual load factor. © Solution: Given: MD = 2500 kW Number of kWhr generated per year = 45 x 196 Diversity factor = Stmof al individual maximum demas lum demand on power station Diversity factor = 1500+ 750+ 100 + 450 2500 = 1.12 Total annual charges = "Introduction 131 Average load _ Maximum demand kWhr generated per annum u Annual load factor Average load = “Hours in a year 45 x 106 = 5g cog 7 513.699 kW 513.699 Load factor = 2500. = 0.20548 = 20.548% Example 1.19 | A generating station has a maximum demand of 25 MW. Load factor is 60%, plant capacity factor is 50% and plant use factor is 72%. Find the reserve capacity and daily energy produced. 60. Too = 9.6 Plant capacity factor = 2 =0.5 © Solution : Load factor = Maximum demand = 25 MW Average load Load factor = ‘fayimum demand Average load = Maximum demand x L.F = 25 x 0.6= 15 KW Plant capacity factor = Average load _ Installed capacity . _ —Averageload 15 _ Installed capacity = Piant capacity factor 7 03 7 30MW From average load : Energy produced per day = 15 x 24 = 360 KW/day nR Plant use factor = 795 = 0.72 6 Maximum energy produced = 32 =500KW Reserve capacity = Plant capacity - Maximum demand = 30-25=5KW 1.6. REAL AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL Let us consider that the generator is operating for lagging power factor load, and the corresponding phasor diagram as shown in Fig,1.14 explains it. To simplify the analysis the armature resistance of the generator, the resistance and shunt admittance of the line (including transformers) are neglected.134 Power System Operation ang, Con — LVINVg|e0s8, [ve xe oka (lay which is reactive power at infinite bus. From equation (1.22) we can conclude that r, Power is directly proportional to the system voltage. Qe«IvI 41.7. NEED FOR VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY REGULATION IN POWER SYSTEM A power system is said to be well designed if it gives a good quality of reliable Supp) which means that the voltage levels must be within reasonable limits. Practically, a4, equipments on the power system are designed to operate satisfactorily within yo} variations of around 5%. If the voltage variation is more than a pre-specified value, i performance of the equipments is also sacrificed. The voltage at the generating stations and the frequency decides the kilowatt loading the generating stations and the loading through the interconnectors (a number of poy) stations are interconnected through interconnectors). 4. Need for Voltage Regulation in Power System Knowledge of voltage regulation helps in maintaining the voltage at the load termina within prescribed limits under fluctuating load conditions, by employing suitable. volug control equipment. The following points are to be considered. > The transmission lines and the distribution lines need voltage control at various stage to maintain the voltage at the last consumers premises within permissible limits. > Variations in supply voltage are detrimental in various aspects. > Below normal voltage substantially reduces the light output from incandescent lamps Above normal voltage reduces the life of the lamps. > Motors operated at below normal voltage draw abnormally high currents and ma overheat, even when carrying no more than the rated horse power load. > If the voltage of the system deviates from the nominal value, the performance of device suffers and its life expectancy drops. > The real line losses depend as much upon the reactive line as upon the real line po™ flow. The reactive line flow depends pon line end voltages. > By adjusting the excitation of the generator at the ser nding end below a inti may result in instability of the system and excitation above certain level will result overheating of the rotor. > Service voltages are usually specified by a nominal value and the voltage maintsine! “15% of the nominal value. 7Introduction 1.35 4.7.2. Need for Frequency Regulation in Power System Knowledge of frequency regulation helps in maintaining the system frequency ic., speed of the alternator within prescribed limits under fluctuating load conditions, by using speed govemor and integral controller. In a network, considerable drop in frequency occurs due to high magnetising currents in Induction motors and transformers. The following points to be considered. > In any power system, if the frequency changes there won’t be required receiving end * voltage. If we connected two systems in parallel, it will spoil the system. The generator turbines, particularly steam driven ones are designed to operate at a very precise speed. Most of AC motors run at a speed that are directly related to the frequency. The overall operation of a power system can be much better controlled if the frequency error is kept within strict limits. > A large number of electrically operated clocks are used. They are all driven by synchronous motors and the accuracy of thede clocks is a function not only of a frequency error, but actually of the integral of this error. Constant turbine speed is an important requirement. The velocity of the expanding steam is beyond our control and the turbine efficiency requires perfect speed match. > Unusual deviations in the frequency can be detected earlier. When two systems working at different frequencies are to be tied together to make same frequency, frequency converting stations or links are required. 1.8, BASIC P-F AND Q-V CONTROL LOOPS 1. Static changes in AP, in the real bus power affect the bus phase angle, and not the bus voltage magnitudes. This change affects the real line flows, and not the reactive line flows. 2. Static changes AQ, in the reactive power affect the bus voltage magnitudes and the phase angle. This change affects the reactive line flows, and not the real line flows. 3. Static changes in the reactive bus power affects the bus voltage at the particular bus and has little effect on the magnitude of voltage. 1.8.1. Q-v Control Loop The automatic voltage regulator circuit or Q-v control loop as shown in Fig.1.15. This loop is used for voltage control. This bus-bar voltage (say, 11 kV) is stepped down using a potential transformer to a small value of voltage. This is sent to the rectifier circuit which converts the A.C. voltage into D.C. voltage and a filter circuit used in this removes the harmonics. The voltage V, , thus rectified is compared with a reference voltage Vrer in the comparator and a voltage error signal is generated. The amplified form of this voltage gives a condition for the exciter to increase or decrease the field current based on its polarity. The output of the generator is stepped up using a transformer and,fed to the bus bar. Thus the voltage is zegulated and controlled in this control loop circuit.wehouy ponsuas copwpn ies aE nipon PUD Aruna bof POO] 2PMOINY SET AL sou yonuoa wry + Dv JoyeinBoy een aneworny HAY loquog Aauenbesy peo} onewoiny —541¥ >| Aous — s a peeds { - von | | 4s0us9009 sa6ueud 1oow) | ‘ogy | Pees soresbony ov ues | | <— “poads j | ' | Pav ee siamod our SUL ‘ody Avete eurainy, sowe9u29, nog F—F + Pres sauusoysues | 90d __ | reguajod. | 29#2x3 \ reef s919%3, osry AepuocesIntroduction 4.8.2. P-f Control Loop 137 This control loop circuit is divided into primary and secondary Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) loop structures as shown in Fig. 1.15. Primary ALFC The circuit-primarily controls the steam valve leading to the turbine. A speed sensor senses the speed of the turbine. This is compared with a reference speed, governor whose main activity is to control the speed of the steam by closing and opening of the control valve ie,, if the differential speed is low, then the control valve is opened to let out the steam at high speed, thereby increasing turbine’s speed and vice versa. The control of speed in turn controls the frequency. b Secondary ALFC This circuit involves a frequency sensor that senses the frequency of the bus bar and compares it with Tie line power frequencies in the signal mixer. The output of this is an Area Control Error (ACE) which is sent to the speed changer through integrator. The speed changer gives the reference speed to the governor. Integral controller is used to reduce the steady state frequency change to zero. After this part of the circuit, is the introduction of the Primary ALFC loop whose function has already been described. Thus, the two loops together help in controlling the speed which in turn controls the frequency, since N « f. Using the relation, Speed N where, f P 120f P Frequency in Hz. Number of poles. "| . (1 9. PLANT LEVEL AND SYSTEM LEVEL CONTROLS The function of an electric tric power system is is to convert energy from one of the naturally available forms to electrical form \d to transport it to the points of. of consumption. A properly designed and operated power system should, therefore, meet the following fundamental requirements. . Adequate ‘spinning reserve? must/be present to meet the active and re reactive powe 2. Mil imum cost with minimum ecological impact. 3. The power ¢ quality must have have certain minimum standards within the toler such as, > Constancy of frequency. > Constancy of voltage (Voltage magnitude and load angle). > Level of reliability. wer ance or limitIntroduction Lab Central controls also play an important role in modem power systems. Today systems are composed of interconnected areas, where each area has its own control centre. There are many advantages to interconnections. The interconnected areas can share their reserve power to handle anticipated load peaks and unanticipated generator outages. Interconnected areas can also tolerate larger load changes with smaller frequency deviations at spinning reserve and standby provides a reserve margin. The central control centre monitors information including area frequency, generating unit outputs, and tie-line power flows to interconnected areas. This information is used by automatic load frequency control in order to maintain area frequency at its scheduled value. 4.10. OVERVIEW OF SYSTEM OPERATION 1.10.1. Load forecasting “TS The load on their systems should be estimated in advance, This estimation in advance is known as load forecasting. Load forecasting based on the previous experience without any historical data\ | 5 Classification of load forecasting : _ Forecast Lead Time Application Very short term Few minutes to half an Real time control, real time hour security evaluation Short term Half an hour to a few Allocation of spinning hours reserve, unit commitment, maintenance scheduling Medium term Few days to.a few weeks | Planning or seasonal peak- winter, summer Long term Few months to a few years | To plan the growth of the generation capacity C Need for load forecasting : (i, Need for load forecasting are: > To meet out the future demand. > Long-term forecasting is required for preparing maintenance schedule of the generating units, planning future expansion of the system. : > For day-to-day operation, short term load forecasting is needed in order to commit enough generating capacity fot the forecasting demand and for maintaining the required spinning reserve. ‘Very short term load forecasting are sed for generation and distribution. (i.e.,) gonomiic generation scheduling and load dispatching. > Medium term load forecasting is needed for predicted monsoon acting and hydro availability and allocating spinning reserves. || Power System Operation and Contyo, 1.42 ues of Load Forecasting , 5 Sees a systematic procedure for’ quantitatively defining future loags > Forecasting is a Fe lassified as extrapolation, correlation, or combi i i lassifi I ‘orecasting techniques are cl binatio, Curve fittit i id fitting technique comes under > can te predicted by using past historical datas. p > A transformation of data produces a simple curve. For exponential function, by taking ler extrapolation. In this method, the future demang logarithms, produce a relatively linear pattern so straight line analysis is sufficient. > From the trend curve, the forecast demand can be obtained by evaluating the trend curve function at the desired future annual demand corresponding to the period. The common curve fitting technique to determine the coefficients and exponents in a given forecast is the method of least squares. With available datas are fit in the following curve. + Straight line curve y = at+bx * Quadratic curve y = atbx+ex? Scurve y = atbxt+ex?+dx> * ‘Exponential curve Pp, = e7*°* Determine the coefficients of the above equations a, b, c and d and substitute in the equation to get the demand. The curve which gives the minimum value is taken it for future ) load forecasting. Exponential Curve ‘An exponential curve is given by the equation Pp, = eX) (1) where a, b are constants, Po, = Peak demand in MW in i* year X, = x,-x, %5 = Base year = {9 vear ta wht The i" year in which Peak demand Pp; is considered Let Py, Pgs «15 Poy be the istori 7 Past or historical then eee fe a data for Peak demand, Corresponding to Let N be the period. By taking natural logarithm of equation (1), we get InPp; = a+bX, = a+b (x,~x,)Introduction 1.43 Let Y, = InPp, Y, = at+bX, + Now the exponential equation becomes a equation of a straight line. By drawing a curve for different values of period and demand, straight line can be obtained as shown in Fig. Method of least squares are used to predict the demand a accurately, and the sum of the squares of the errors should be minimum. Po} N S= x [Y;-@ +5 X)P should be minimum... (3) Xi 2 i By differentiating equation (3) with respect to a and 6 and equate to zero to obtain minimum values. as aa ~ ° N Z 20Y,-@+bxX)ICN = 0 el N N XY,= Y @+bx) del al N N = Yaty x, — a=t N N XY, = Nat+by x, (4) that aml as _ as ° N Z 2[¥;-@+bX)]CX) = 0 #1 : N N N ZX Y,X,= Y aX+¥ bx? asl i=l det N N 2 =a X+by X} (5) amt fal N Let us consider) X, = 0 6) . del By substituting equation (6) in equation (4), we get N XY Y,= Na14g Power System Operation ang, oh From ihis, we can determine the value of constant a, . N a= 0) By substituting equation (6) in equation (5), we get N N yyx=bLX al Ue From this, we can determine the constant b, N x YX =1 aaa ~f xx By substituting the values of a and b in equation (1), we can minimize the errors in forecasting method and obtain the future demand. Quadratic curve The quadratic curve or equation of parabola is given by the equation Y, = atbX,+eX? =) Method of least squares are used to predict the demand correctly, and the sum of squares of the errors should be minimum. N $= ¥ [Y,-(@+bX,+eX?)P (10) il By differentiating equation (10), with respect to a, b and c and equate to zero. tas os To obtain minimum values @a” 0. N ¥ 2[Y,-(a+bX+eX?)]CD = 0 i N N LY, = Y @+oX,+eXx?) i= iI N N = N+0Y Xtc ¥ x? (I) isl i=l ee 0 ab $ 2[Y,-(atb X,+eX;)(-X) =0 i=t |Introduction 1.45 N N = YX, = LY @X,+bX? +e X?) fm i=l N N N N LYX= aD X+b5D X4eDd x} + (12) eal i=l a1 il ese _ N Z 2LY,-@+b X,+¢ X?)X?) = 0 it N N X YX} = ¥ @x? +0x3 text) i= i= N 2 N N N Z YX} =a x?+by X+e D xt ++ (13) i=7 i=l fat i=l Equations (11), (12) and (13) can be written in matrix form, we get N N N xx, YX? N Y, a 5 x, y x Fx [ls]. 3 Y,X, Bm eM BM | es we (14) c No. No, Ny No, XxX LX LX! x y,x? it i=t imt iat By solving equation (14) by matrix method or by using Crammer’s rule, we can get the values of a, b, c. The future demand can be obtained by substituting a, b, c values in equation (9). Power demand Pp, a Y,;; | X;=x;-%, The recorded peak load from 2000 to 2006 of an area are shown below, Year | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 20 | 2011 | 2012 6 | 2 |_20 Peak load | 570 | 590 m0 | 750 | 810 | 890 | 990 (Mm) | 1 | Project the load upto 2019 by using extrapolation method. (a) exponential curve, () quadratic curve. * @ Solution: Base year is taken as 2009. xp = 2009Real Power Frequency Control 2.4. INTRODUCTION TO REAL POWER FREQUENCY CONTROL ‘Automatic Generation Control (AGC) is a centralized controlling unit that operates both in real time and in closed loop with strong interface towards economy and security of power system. Automatic Generation Control (AGC) is an online computer control that maintains the overall system frequency and the net tie-line load exchange between the power companies in the interconnection. Reai or Active power control is one of the important control actions to be performed during normal operation of the system to match the system generation with the continuously changing load, in order to maintain the constancy of system frequency to a tolerable limit of £5%. In interconnected systems with two or more independently controlled areas, in addition to control of frequency, generation within each area has to be controlled to maintain scheduled power interchange. A change in system load causes a change in the speed of all Turbine generator systems, leading to change in system frequency. Primary Control: The speed change from synchronous speed initiates the governor control action resulting in all the participating generator — turbine units taking up the change in load, and stabilizes the system frequency. Secondary Control : \t adjusts the load reference set points of selected turbine — generator units so as to give nominal value of frequency. The frequency control is a matter of speed control of the machines in the generating stations, The frequency of a power system is dependent entirely upon the speed at which the generators are rotated by their prime movers. All prime movers, whether they are steam or hydraulic turbines, are equipped with speed governors which are purely mechanical speed Sensitive devices, to adjust the gate or control valve opening for constant speed. Weknow N= vat af = Speed in rpm. Frequency in Hz. Nuinber of poles. where, VAN ZZPower System Operation and Coniy,| fey of an 2 «ag the speed of the turbin, ied by varying ; So, the frequency of the system &l be varie 4 the overall network. Under nom, | power balance © te oe Frequency is closely related to real soaly an oa conditions, the system generators run synehron drawn by all the loads and real power losses. shan te sect nero eng Icy A Cn eration at a lower freque wer supply. Power system op' ality of po change in frequency is + 0.5 Hz affects the quality + system becomes one of changin] na powel " changin Thus the fonction ofan Pee oa overs as a function of load variations jj t ings of the pri sy the control valve, or gate openings order to hold system frequency constant. scat ta porate wer outpt Me d up and slow down togethe} thus maintaining the frequency. Such an area ji i controlling the Let us consider the problem o} " maintain the scheduled frequency. All the generators spe maintaining their relative power angles, called as a control area. / Constancy speed of motor drives is particularly important for satisfactory performance oj generating units, as‘they are dependent on performance of all the auxiliary drives associ with fuel, feed water and combustion air supply system. In an interconnected system, two ci j more areas in addition to control of frequency, the generation within each area has to be controlled, so as to maintain scheduled power interchange. Definitions 1. Speed-Governor : \t comprises of the elements which are directly responsive to speed, and whose positions influence the action of other elements of speed governing system. 2. Speed-Control Mechanism: \t includes all equipment like relays, pilot valve, servomotor, pressure or power amplifying devices, levers and linkages existing between the speed-governor and the governor-controlled valves. 3. Governor-Controlled Valves : This includes those valves th turbine, and that are normally actuated by the spi control mechanism. at control the input to the eed governor with the help of speed: 4. Speed-Changer (or) Speeder Motor governing system may be adjusted to in operation. i iE is a device by means of which the speed: lange the speed or power output of the turbine 5. Speed-Governing System : This incl y fi ludes the speed. nism, governor-controlled valves and speed changer ano 2.2, BASICS OF SPEED GOVERNING MECHANISM AND MODELLING controlling the driving torques ¢! ‘or is the main Primary tool for thé The real power in a power system is being controlled by the individual turbines of the system. The speed govern‘Real Power Frequency Control 23 Joad frequency control, whether the machine is used alone to feed a smaller system or it is a part of the most elaborate arrangement. Fig.2.1 shows schematically the speed governing system of the steam turbine. By controlling the position of the control valve or gate, we can exert control over the flow of high pressure steam (or water) through the turbine. - — | Steam | Y | Close Y) Control A Jf valve Lower AX¢ = AP Y { Open | Speed Xo AN | changer b Cate { —> Toturbine 8 5 PZZZZZZ att le | | Raise | | | ¥ aXe =APy | | aX,=4Pe AXg = KpAF E | Sleeve with upward and downward motion | Pilot | | valve | Main | piston | High | qT pressure —+ IP ol | 77 | Speed / | Governor | Hydraulic Amplifier Fig, 2.1. Schematic diagram of speed governing mechanism The components of speed governing systems are as follows : Fly Ball Speed Governor It is purely mechanical speed-sensitive device coupled directly to the hydraulic amplifier which adjusts the conirol valve opening via the linkage mechanism. As the load increases, speed of the turbine decreases, and the speed changer gives raise command, so the fly balls move outwards and the point B moves downwards and the reverse happens with the increased speed. Speed Changer It makes it possible to restore the frequency to the initial (nominal) value after the operation of the speed governors which has steady state characteristics. A small downwardPower System Operation ae 24 increase AP, in the Teferen Movement of the linkage point A corresponds to an “ey Setting, Hydraulic Amplifier ith this arrangement, a low power »: It consists of pilot valve and main piston, With this of the oil-servomoto, Movement is converted into high power level movemen The output is the poe input to this amplifier is the position Xp of the pilot vane the steam valve or ate the main piston. Hydraulic amplification is necessary, sO Soul opetated against high pressure steam. Linkage Mechanism ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link a a. be fs of the link mechanism is to control the steam valve or gate. We ge acl fon Movement of the steam valve via link CD. Working As load increases, the speed of the turbine decreases, the speed changer gives tk command and the fly balls move outwards and the point B moves "upwards and high pressure oil enters into the upper pilot valve an downwards and opens the value or gate (ie. Thereby, speed of the turbine increases and ma Model of Speed Governor We shall develop the mathematical Steady state. Consider the si Pg° from the generator at no: downwards and D my id presses the main i ,) increases the flow of steam to the tur intains constant frequency. model based on small deviations around a noni team is operating under stead, ly state and is delivering pos minal frequency f°, Let Xs° be the steam value setting. Let us assume that raise command APo, to the speed Changer, the point A be mo downwards by a small amount AX, which causes the turbine power Output to change. AX, = ke APo Let us assume Positive direction for dow, j irection | a ward movement and negative direction Movement of C: xh (0) X,cmbae| 52 AX, = = q is ‘A= = ky KAP, (i) Increase in frequency Af causes the downwards by a proporti py ball ional amount ky Af. $ {© move Outwards so that Bl 1 AXe = — ky Fe APo+ hageal Power Frequency Control 25 Movement of D: It is contributed by AX, and AX,, The movement AXp is the amount by which the pilot value opens, thereby moving the main piston and opening the steam valve by AXp. AXy = (7 ts D = (Trt, )o%Xc * pT, JAX ky AX + ky AXp we (2.2) Movement of AX, : ‘The volume of oil admitted to the cylinder is thus proportional to the line integral of AXp. z= hs f CAXp)dt « Q3) 0 Taking Laplace transform of equations (2.1), (2.2), (2.3), AX¢(s) = — k ke APo(s) + ky AF(S) (24) AXp(8) = ky AXe(8) + ky AXp(6) 1.28) -k AX, (s) a AXp(s) «++ (2.6) Substituting equation (2.5) in (2.6), we get, =k, AXp(6) = SP Ls AXc(S) + hy AXe() ] gk, “lick AX,(s) [ 14s | = 27) Substituting equation (2.4) in cation (2.7), we get, kg ks ~kgk. AXg(9)| 142 | = SO [ki ke APO) + AF) [ce] _ jaan bbsh aro AX, (8) A | ne a . eg ky ky Ke [ arco ik aro | AX,(s) = ce | _ hk [ ances - Bk FO “ MER This equation can be written as : ke AX,(s) = [APc(s) - i AF()1 * TesTo «+ (2.8)Power System Operation and Contr, 26 i in Ho/MW Fike _ sceed regulation of the governor in ~ Gain of speed governor. — Time constant of speed governor. 1 lohan Value of Tg < 100 msec. be varied only by 7 i frequency can ir it at a given system i . ee a a ‘ Son ot a point” which is integrated with the speed governing changing its “load ret mechanism. / a The block diagram of the speed governor is shown in Fig.2.2. m " [ ke -— APy(s) | aPo(s) Tew AXe(s) oF APY | 1 k Loi Fig. 2.2. Model of speed governor The adjustment of load reference changer motor”. This in effect moves th Turbine Model set point is accomplished by operating the “speed speed droop characteristics up and down, We are interested in the increased power generation AP, opening. There is incremental increase in turbine Power APr due to the change in valve Position AXp, which will result in an increased Senerator power APo. If the generator incremental loss is neglected, then APL = APG, due to the increased steam value hydroturbine, The model for a non-reheat turbine shown in Fig.2.3 relates the ior : Position of the valve tha! controls the emission of steem into the turbine to t ae the power Output of the turbine.