CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The need for a deliberate and sustained effort of organizations to establish and

maintain favourable relationship with their various publics has made the practice of

public relations imperative. This is because misunderstanding among publics of

any organisation can be risky to its success. Moreover, there is a concern that

“having a good public relations is the most important factor to build a good

relation with organisation’s various publics” (Asemah, 2011

inTesfaye,2018,p.27).As a communication tool that“ establishes and maintains

mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on

whom its success or failure depends on” (Cutlip, Center, &Broom, 1985 in

Boudreaux, 2005) public relations function is generally recognized in every area of

human activity-business, health, politics, religion, education, government, social

and civic welfare (Reilly, 1981). Cutlip, Center &Broom (2006) state that

organisations need public relations because public relations expect and respond to

public perceptions and opinions, to new values and to other changes in the

environment. As a result, all organisations, big or small, local or international,

private or public need public relations to achieve success (Seitel, 1998). Nurcin
1
(2007) stated that organisations are affected by public opinion because today

organisations make their management decisions based on public needs. The public

are becoming involved in influencing management decisions and public relations

today plays key role in organisations success. “An organization with effective

public relations will attain positive public relationships” (Center and Jackson

(1995,p.2). In his speech delivered in Taipei, Taiwan on the role of public relations

in management and its contribution to organizational and societal effectiveness,

Grunig (2001,p.1) affirms that:

Public relations today is a complex profession practiced by

hundreds of thousands of people around the world. Some
public relations professionals are employed by a single
organization. Others work for public relations firms that
have many organizations as clients. Public relations people
work for businesses, government agencies, professional
and trade associations, nonprofit charities, schools and
universities, hospitals, hotels, and many more. They work
for large and small organizations. Many public relations
people work entirely within their own country; others
practice their profession on a global basis.

From the above excerpt, it is obvious that public relations is well recognized and

widely practiced among organizations irrespective of their status. The importance

of the practice of public relations in organizations has made Grunig (2001,p.1)to

further reveal:

I have observed public relations practice around the world

as a scholarly researcher for over 35 years. In general, I
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 believe five trends are occurring. First, public relations is
becoming a profession with a scholarly body of knowledge.
Second, public relations is becoming a management
function rather than only a technical communication
function. Third, public relations practitioners are becoming
strategic counselors who are less preoccupied with
publicity in them as media than their predecessors. Fourth,
public relations has moved from a profession practiced
only by white males to a profession with a female majority
and with practitioners of many racial and ethnic
backgrounds. Finally, I believe that almost all public
relations practice today is global rather than confined to
the borders of only one company.
Essentially,as“anappliedsocialandbehaviouralsciencethatmeasures,assessesand

deciphers the attitudes of the different pertinent publics” (Tesfaye, 2018, p. 27)

“without effective public relations, organisations are likely to become invulnerable

to changes occurring around them and they become dysfunctional with the passage

of time” (Cutlip, Center & Broom(2006, p.25).The magnitude of public relations

activities, therefore, may differ due to size and nature, no matter what the

philosophy, the strategy and method is a like whether it is to the global

understanding or to escalate relations within the firms and its customers, agent’s

employees (Tesfaye,2018). Among the communication strategies, Public relations

has been identified as the effective way of delivering message to the targeted

group, and the main objective of public relations is to convey information that will

impact the public’s affected by the organization (Stokes and Rubei, 2010).

Empirical evidence has suggested that an important key to the success of

3
organizations in the 21st century is effective relationships (DeSanto& Garner, 2001

in Brunner, 2005). Evidence has also shown that the quality of relationship

between an organization and its publics is an indication of public relations

effectiveness (Seltzer, 2006). Hence, practice of public relations as Berkowitz

(1999) posited, is to a large extent, dependent upon the practitioner’s management

oftherelationshipsbetweenanorganizationanditskeypublics.Publicrelations,whichisa

management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial

relationships between an organization and the publics to whom its success or

failure depends, has been adopted by government agencies and non-governmental

organizations (Cultip,Center&Broom,1995). Center and Jackson (1995) argued

that the proper term for the desired outcomes of public relations practice is public

relationships.

The practice of public relations by government agencies and non-governmental

organizations has become imperative. This is because government agencies and

non-government organizations have diverse publics that need to be interacted with

if the desired outcomes of the organizations are to be met. To achieve the desired

outcome of public relations “there should be a constant and consistent

communication between the public relations practitioner, the organization and the

publics” (Dougall, 2005,p.1). Without communication “virtually everything we do

4
as humans would have no meaning and form, no society can exist, much less

develop and survive” (Odo, 2001, p. 1).“It is through communication that people

make links with others that bring meaning to what they do…within groups to

which they belong or within the organizations. As such, the process of

communication is central to all our lives” (McQuail, 1989 in Odo, 2001,p.1).

Public relations dwell essentially on communication (Keghku, 2005, p.6).This

means that communication forms the main pivot of public relations activities and

practice.

As every system has its checks and balances, no individual, group or organization

is expected to over-indulge or perpetuate its self-interest over and above societal

norms or dictates without due consideration for others (Odo, 2001). Odo (2001)

further stated that there is always a moderating factor which reduces the chances of

dismal consequences such as war, fraud, ethnic rivalry and religious upheavals

which are the direct or indirect result of some interests getting out of hand. This

moderating or balancing factor which ensures that without losing sight of one’s

interest, one does not trample upon or initiate measures meant to dim, thwart or

sabotage the hope, interests and aspirations of others in public relations. Odo

(2001) avers that the body of knowledge which demands that an individual, group

or organization align its self-interest to the maximum benefit of its client is public

relations.
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The old notion of public relations as nothing but mere propaganda and publicity is

also fast giving way to public relations as an indispensable tool of management. To

help project an organization to its publics, Nwosu (1990) attests to the fact that

public relations as an important area of management has the task of totally

projecting an organization for acceptance, survival and growth. Ajayi (1998:12)

sees public relations “as a management function which evaluates public attitudes,

identifies the policies and activities of an organization with the public interest and

executes a programme of action to earn public understanding and acceptance.

From the foregoing, the practice of public relations is seen by practitioners as part

of an organization’s problem solving process. Problem solving requires planning

which is an essential part of public relations process (Ajala, 2001). In the words of

Nwosu (1996, p.5), “public relations serves as an information and communication

bridge between an organization and its various internal and external publics.” A

public relations as a management function is being appreciated more these days

than before. Oyeneye (1997) posits that the practice of public relations is better felt

when it is placed in the right position within the management hierarchy in any

organization. In his analysis, public relations managers when placed in the right

position, advice management on important issues such as good performance,

sensitivity to public interest and other matters when the need arises.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

Public relation is a basic function of modern organizational management and it

helps to improve the programmes and services of any organization. In

organizations, governmental or non-governmental, commercial or non commercial,

the main role of public relations is problem-solving. A search through the literature

(Odo, 2001; Tianping, 2003; Shamsan and Otieno, 2015) indicates that

organizations have been increasingly aware of the importance of understanding

what is going on in their environment, among the sponsors and the communities.

They employ various methods of public relations for gathering information such as

monitoring news media or conducting surveys. Although, there are other claims

about the erroneous perception, usage and practice of public relations as some

assumed that public relations is window-dressing, propaganda, lies and gimmicks

(Nwosu,1996), while others (Piperopoulos,2013;Geremew,2017 ) believed

thatPublicRelationsisnothingmorethanpressagentry;advertisingormarketing;merepr

opaganda;andmerecommunication.

Arising from the divergent views about the practice of public relations, empirical

and theoretical studies have evaluated the practice of public relations in different

organizations and places. A review of such studies show a gap in the knowledge of

the assessment of public relations in Edward Clark University.

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In view of the above concern, this study seeks to investigate the assessment of

public relations in Edward Clark University and the value and impact of such

practice on the growth and sustainability of the school irrespective of the likely

challenges.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to evaluate the assessment of public relations

in Edward Clark University. Specifically, the study seeks to::

i. if there are Public Relations activities of the Edwin Clark University?

ii. identify the activities of Public Relations unit in Edward Clark University?

iii. Ascertain the ways and areas where the Public Relations operations

influences the students in Edwin Clark University?

iv. Find out areas where the public relations need to improve for growth and

stability in the school?

v. Find out the challenges in the use of Public Relations for the operations of

Edwin Clark University?

1.4 Research Questions

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The following posers have arisen from the above objectives to be answered in this

study:

1. Are there Public Relations activities of the Edwin Clark University?

2. What are the activities of Public Relations unit in Edward Clark University?

3. In which ways and areas does the Public Relations operations influences the

students in Edwin Clark University?

4. In what areas do the public relations in need to improve for growth and

stability the school?

5. What are the challenges in the use of Public Relations for the operations of

Edwin Clark University?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study is significant benefits to the following stakeholders: public relations

practitioners, government, school authority and future researchers

The study is significant to practitioners of Public Relations as this

canhelptoempiricallyaddressthequestionofhowcentraltheiractivitiesarebeinginthem

anagementofany organizations. This can help to determine how best they (Public

Relations Practitioners) can attach value to their practice and to adjust where

deficiencies may exist in their practice.

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Having more knowledge and understanding will help the government to be more

confident about whether or not the communication tool (Public Relations) has been

adopted appropriately in enhancing their operations. In doing so, the study helps

the government to be aware if there are areas that required adjustment in the

practice of public relations in its agencies.

The study can be significant to the managements of the school authority to further

understand how the use of Public Relations can enhance the growth and stability of

the school. This can help the school management in further attaching more

relevance to involving public relations in the management process.

Thestudyisalsosignificantasitbridgesthegapinthepreviousliteratureonthissubjectbypr

ovidingempiricaljustificationsontheactivities, extent and ways Public Relations is

practiced by government agencies in their operations as well as how the practice

can enhance their growth and stability and the challenges of the practice public

relations. The new literature can therefore help scholars who may be studying on

this subject to enrich their work.

1.6 Scope of the Study

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This study focuses on the assessment of public relations in Edward Clark

University. The study will cover the following faculties in the school:

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

In this study, the following terms or concepts have been operationally defined to

facilitate understanding of their usage throughout this work.

Practice: Is the application of Public Relations. Application here refers to

how an activity is performed. It means therefore that, evaluating how the

activities of public relations are carried out in Edwin Clark University.

Challenges: These refer to the likely factors that interfere with the smooth

practice of Public Relations in organizations such as Edward Clark University.

Public Relations: As used in this work, it is the practice that involves

establishing a mutual relationship between the organisation and its various

publics. It is a practice that mutually and effectively bridges a gap that exists

between the organization and its various public groups.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEWOFRELATEDLITERATURE
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2.1 Review of Concepts

This section is concerned with review of concepts that are related to the study. The

concepts of Public Relations been explained in this study

2.1.1 Public Relations

One of the frequently quoted definitions of Public Relations is “the management

function that evaluates public attitudes, identifies the policies and procedures of an

individual or an institution with the public interest, and executes a programme of

action to earn public understanding and acceptance” (Kotler and Fox,1985,p.282).

Lee (1992) defines public relations as the organized effort to communicate in an

organized form and to modify attitude and behaviour towards an organizational

needs and aspiration. By organized effort to communicate, Public relations aims at

using or prepares speeches for corporate officials, organizing community activities,

producing journals, exhibition, research as well as a dvising management on

internalandexternalrelations.Inotherwords,publicrelationstriestoensureeffectiveline

sofcommunication flow between and within organizations and their various

publics. By modifying attitude and behaviour towards organizational needs and

aspirations, public relations aims at making or changing negative perceptions held

on an organization by the publics (internal and external). It uses various techniques

and strategies to change negative actions, utterances, strongly held negative beliefs

to positive approaches. By doing this, public relations modify attitudes and

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behaviours for the growth and understanding of organizations. In his description of

the concept: Public relations indeed involves every organization, commercial and

non-commercial, local, state and federal government. Public relations consist of all

communication strategies concerning the people with whom an organization has

contact (Keghku, 2005, p. 6).

It means from the above that public relations is very valuable in organizations and

through it, organization effectively links to its various publics to whom it success

depends. That is why Ogbuagu in Keghku (2005, p. 12) is of the opinion that “...

the only way to win the hearts of the people is through effective communication

and that is when public relations plays a profound role and a central part.” Harlow

(1995) in Chile (2010) posits that public relations is

adistinctivemanagementfunctionwhichhelpstoestablishandmaintainmutuallinesofco

mmunication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation between an organization

and its publics. It helps management to keep information on, and be responsive to

public opinions, defines and emphasizes the responsibility of the management to

serve public interest, it helps management to keep abreast of and effect change,

serving as an early warning services system to help anticipate trends and uses

research and social ethical communication technologies as its principal tool. Black

(1978), views public relations as a systematic approach to issues in the

management of organizations with the sole aim of promoting organizations image,

13
programmes and policies, through a deliberate planned communication for mutual

co-existence. In other words, public relations is that process of articulating

organization programmes through concerted effort and by ensuring smooth lines of

communication, goodwill rapport and mutual understanding between an

organization and it publics.

From the definitions given above, it is evident that public relations is an

appropriate instrument used by an organization to attain its goals and objectives.

This is achieved through planned and executed programmes which are intended to

influence public opinion in manner that the mutuality between the organization and

its publics is favourably upheld or the purpose of sustaining the goodwill and

understanding of such publics for corporate survival (Keghku, 2005).

2.2 Review of Related Literature

2.2.1 Need for Public Relations Practice in Organizations

The fact that organizations require public relations in order to function more

effectively has been very topical in the literature for decades now. The practice of

public relations functions in institutional decision making at government agencies

has been well documented in literature(National School Public Relations

Association, 2012; Peyronel and Awniczak, 2000).This is in view of the great

consideration that:

Public relations in any organizations helps to increase public awareness; persuade

14
the public to view the organization positively; discover and target on relevant

audience; change personnel attitudes in favour of the organization;

extinguishdoubtsandcreateappropriateexternalandinternalenvironmentforanorganiz

ation(Onah, 2001, p. 23).

The growth of public relations in institutions has become very important in recent

years (Moore and Kalupa, 2007). In their view, Peyronel and Awniczak (2000)

state that senior public relations administrators function is to be involved in

institutional decision making at organizations. Tianping (2003) further indicates

that public relations is a basic function of a modern organization’s management but

Bruning and Ralston (2001) assert that the practice of public relations at most

institutions has been relegated to a single office concerned primarily with

managing institutional reputation. It therefore follows that public relations

functions in institutions have been given a narrow view.

A public relations plan provides the means by which resources and information can

be accessed and managed easily for the benefit of an organization. Wilcox, Ault,

Agee and Cameron (2001) throw light on public relations functions and believe

that the practice of public relations is indeed a process, one that utilizes frequent

and concentrated communication. Pirozek and Heskova (2003) examined public

relations practice and found that two-way symmetrical tactics of research and

feedback systems help organizations gain a better understanding of the attitudes of

15
its key publics. Kaverina (2003) alsoshowedthattwo-

waysymmetricaleffortshelpedstrengthentherelationshipbetweenanorganizationandit

skeypublics.Henderson(2001)in hisstudyproposedafour-

stepprocessformanagingcommunicationinorganizations:

research,planning,communication,andevaluation.LagesandSimkin(2003);Ledingha

mandBruning(2000)furthersupporttheimportanceofutilizingoverallplanning,executi

onandevaluationofanorganization’spublicrelationscommunicationwithbothexternal

andinternalpublics.Hence,communicationbecomesavehicleusedbyanorganizationtoi

nitiate,develop,maintainandrepairmutuallyproductiverelationships.

White and Park (2010) concede that public relations is important in providing

positive information to the society. According to Moore and Kalupa (2007) the

need for communication between organizations and their publics is attested to by

the fact that public relations officers occupy a dominant role in the economy today.

Lancaster (2005) is of the opinion that medium use in communication can provide

the necessary information that can inspire confidence and trust in an organization.

Educational public relations officers serve as information stations by providing

information to students, employees, and general public through mass media

publications, leaflets and brochures on the university’s programmes.

There is no specific list of universally acceptable functions for public relations in

organizations. However, several professionals (Kowalski 2000; Kotler and Fox

16
1985; Keen and Greenal, 1987) in this field asserted that the general functions of

public relations in organizations involved media relations, community relations,

image building, information management, public relations programming and

planning, internal and external communications, counseling, research, marketing,

advertising, fund raising, and staff recruitment. Yang (2008) identified the

following public relations functions in organizations as being of very high

importance: media relations, image building, crisis management, community

relations, public relations programming, speechwriting, counseling, research, issue

management, public relations training, publications, staff recruitment, promotions,

employee relations, government relations, evaluating public relations programmes,

sister organization’s relations, the spokesperson, fundraising, alumni relations, and

guest reception. Kowalski (2000, p. 12) points out that there is no list of

universally acceptable functions for public relations: “The needs and idiosyncrasies

of organizations and communities determine which are selected.” In other words,

the practice of public relations in an organization is influenced by the needs and

idiosyncrasies of the organization. Along the same lines, Hogg and Doolan (1999)

claim public relations practitioners not only play different roles in different

organizational environments, but also enact these roles differently depending on a

number of organization-linked and individual factors.

Other researchers argue that the work of public relations practitioners is influenced
17
by organizational factors, such as an organization’s support for and perceptions of

public relations, public relations practitioners’ participation indecision making,

public relations practitioners’ position in the organizational hierarchy, the

organization’s size and stability, as well as its publics.

Frank (1987, p. 31) explained that not all organizations are engaged in marketing;

some may never use advertising or they will use it only on special occasions to

recruit staff or to sell property. A hospital does not advertise for patients, a fire

brigade does not advertise for fires, nor does an army advertise for wars. Yet all

three are active in PR. It is easy to see from theses the PR extends far beyond

industry and business. Just as it embraces the total communications of an

organization so does it do so in any kind of organization. Frank (1987, p. 32)

further stated that PR exists whether we like it or not. Any two people are involved

in PR. It concerns individuals as well as organizations, and only a person with no

human relation and no communication – a hermit – is without PR. It is not

necessary to have someone labeled PRO to have PR, for it is inherent in human

relationships. It has been going on ever since man created signs and speech.

2.2.2 The Role of Public Relations in Organizations

Many corporate scandals witnessed around many organizations made abundantly

clear, an organization's reputation is paramount to its success, if not its survival. As

18
a result, corporate credibility is at an all-time low, and public mistrust has spilled

over into organizations. This creates a considerable need to restore public faith,

and public relations plays a vital role in leading the charge (Kazoleas, 2007).

According to Kazoleas (2007), reputation can account for a large portion of an

organization’s successes or its failures, and can be its most important long-term

asset. It impacts an organization in a myriad of ways, including stock price, and the

ability to attract and retain customers and employees. Corporate reputation is based

on factors such as: quality of products or services, earnings and business

performance, stability and fairness as an employer, level of integrity in business

practices, degree of honesty and openness, and involvement in local communities.

Today, with distrust of the corporate world at an all-time high, corporate credibility

is an over-riding factor. Whether they like it or not, organizations today are at the

mercy of public constituencies. That means there is growing recognition of the

need to foster a good reputation by developing positive relationships with various

publics. It is difficult today to find an issue of a professional journal or magazine in

the areas of public relations, business, and/or management that does not contain at

least one article discussing the need for building increased perceptions of

organizational credibility and trust among key stakeholders. The problem however

for the scholar and the practitioner is that there has been little conceptual

19
agreement on what constitutes organizational credibility and/or trust in the

organization (Battacharya, Devinney, & Pillutla,1998; Bigely, & Pearce, 1998;

Connell and Mannion, 2006; Mayer, Davis, & Schoorman, 1995;Battacharya,

Devinney, & Pillutla, 1998; Young, 2006). Moreover, driven in part by the lack of

conceptual clarity is the lack of consistency in the techniques and methods used to

assess trust (Bigley&Pearce, 1998; Lewicki, Mcallister, & Bies,1998). These

inconsistencies make general sability and application of knowledge difficult, and

may lead to errors in measurement, assessment, and strategic planning efforts

based on those data

2.2.3 Public Relations and Crisis Management

Crisis management is a professional approach to handling the crises that come up

with organizations and people who are often in the public eye (Coombs, 2007).

Crisis management is one of the special realms of the art of public relations. Public

relations consultants are trained in the arts of crisis management. The management

of crisis through public relations is done in various stages. Coombs (2007) sees

crisis management as a set of factors designed to combat crises and to lessen the

actual damages inflicted. Moreover, crises management seeks to prevent or lessen

the negative outcome of a crisis and thereby protect the organization, stakeholders

and, or industry from damage (Chile, 2016). As Chile (2016) rightly observed, we

20
should think of crisis management as a process with many parts. This includes

preventive measures, crisis management plans and posts crises evaluation. This

will be focused more in the literature review.

Crisis management is a process designed to prevent or lessen the damage a crisis

can inflict on an organization and its stakeholders (Coombs, 2007).Coombs (2007)

asserts that as a process, crisis management is not just one thing. Crisis

management can be divided into three phases: (1) pre-crisis, (2) crisis response,

and (3) post-crisis. According to Lerbinger (1997), the pre-crisis phase is

concerned with prevention and preparation. The crisis response phase is when

management must actually respond to a crisis. The post-crisis phase looks for ways

to better prepare for the next crisis and fulfills commitments made during the crisis

phase including follow-up information. The tri-part view of crisis management

serves as the organizing frame work for this entry.

2.2.4 Managing Public Relationships in Organizations

At the core of public relations, organizational communication, and management

literatures is the belief that organizations must carefully monitor and manage their

relationships with key stakeholders (Grunig 1992). The focus on the organization-

stakeholder relationship has been the centre of examination, from Arthur Page’s

seminal Principles of Public Relations to recent models of relational management

21
that have been developed and tested by key scholars in the field of public relations

(Broom, Casey, & Ritchey, 1997; Broom, Casey, & Ricthey, 2000;Grunig1992;

Grunig & Huang2000).

These models have borrowed heavily from the literatures on interpersonal

communication, relational communication, organizational communication, and

management. Central to these models is the concept of the strong need for

relational trust between the organization and the publics to which it is related.

Furthermore, both the models forwarded by Broom et al. (1997; 2000) and

Gruniget al (1992); Grunig and Huang, (2000) discuss the transactional nature of

organizational communication relationships, which by definition require trust to

operate effectively. For example, Grunig and Huang (2000) outline a revised and

refined model of organizational public relationships where they discuss and clearly

identify trust as an important organizational outcome. In their discussion of this

issue they draw from a number of different definitions including those that

incorporate elements of vulnerability and risk, reliance, and lack of intent to

exploit goodwill. Conceptually, this approach makes sense in that it points to a

multi-dimensional model of trust, where factors that impact the perceptions of

credibility and trust are built in to the model.

However, a problem arises in that the authors forward a suggested measure of the

trust outcome that consists of three items, one which focuses on general distrust,
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one that focuses on the truthfulness of the organization, and one that focuses on

fair and just treatment. This is a common limited assessment approach and one

which leads to problems in terms of reliability and validity, and less than accurate

prediction when used to in programmatic planning (Kazoleas,(2007).

The core of the problem for most public relations and management scholars alike is

that trust is a multi faceted concept that can take on many meanings depending on

the perspective from which it is viewed. The end result is that there are a multitude

of studies on this concept, but make different predictions about the structure and

predictors of trust.

2.2.5 Responsible Advocacy in Public Relations: The Practitioners Role

Public relations is the practice of social responsibility,” states John Stone’s article,

“Public Relations and Public Responsibility” (Stone 2005, p. 31). The best way to

practice public relations ethics is through the principle of responsible advocacy.

Moral and ethical dilemmas will always arise in public relations, but there are good

and bad ways on how to handle these dilemmas. Practicing correct responsible

advocacy can be of great use and is a must in ethical situations.

Responsible advocacy is a social norm that holds that a social institution is

responsible for their behaviour (including each individual member’s behaviour)

and may be held accountable for their misdeeds. This definition is still quite broad.
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The reason why responsible advocacy is not clearly defined is because being

responsible is individually defined. Another problem is that in public relations

practices being ethical it is a voluntary choice. There is no legal or universal

enforcement of ethics. First, Bhatt (2006, p. 2) discussed what it means to be

socially responsible and why it is necessary. Secondly, in Fitzpatrick and

Gauthier’s article, “Toward a Professional Responsibility Theory of Public

Relations Ethics,” they present three main principles to help guide the theory of

professional responsibility in public relations.

It is a public relations practitioner’s duty to truly know their institution, give

correct awareness about the institution to the public, which is their social

responsibility. Genuine social responsibility is taking actions and establishing

guidelines that are ethically correct when issues arise. There shouldn’t be any

concealed self-centered intention involved. Its basis is values (honesty, avoidance

of harm, respect, fairness, etc.) in the allocation of the benefits and problems of

society. Social responsibility means that an individual identifies, acknowledges,

and takes action on a common accountability to society. Three types of

responsibility that John Stone speaks of in his article, “Public Relations and Public

Responsibility,” are mandatory, assumptive, and discretionary responsibilities.

Mandatory responsibilities include such things as environmental harms caused by

24
an organization. In these instances, it is the organization’s responsibility to act

immediately to these problems. An example would be when a company is found

guilty of dumping chemical wastes. It would be a mandatory responsibility of

theirs to clean it up (Stone, 2005).

According Stone (2005), assumptive responsibility is when a company does not

cause a problem, but they are still obliged to resolve the issue. The third type of

public responsibility is called discretionary responsibility.

According to Fitzpatrick and Gauthier, “Harms should be avoided or, atleast,

minimized, and benefits promoted at the least possible cost in terms of harms”

(Fitzpatrick2001, p.207). When applying this principle, one must compare and

contrast the harms and benefits anticipated from a planned course of action or

procedure. All organizations that can be affected must be fairly taken into

consideration. Also, the likelihood and significance of the potential problems must

be deliberated, in addition to the potential of the projected benefits. This principle

also maintains that initiating harm is inferior to providing a benefit. Whatever harm

that can be predicted must be minimized to the highest extent possible. Also, any

organizations that are harmed deserve proper explanation. The ethics of the

decision maker will truly control if the principle is applied properly.

The second principle state that, “Persons should be treated with respect and
25
dignity” so that their decision-making capabilities, judgments, and actions are

maintained (Fitzpatrick2001, p.207). Thus, if you give respect you will get respect.

This rule proscribes dishonesty, exploitation, and intimidation, because these

pressures can hinder the decision-making process.

The third principle states that, “The benefits and burdens of any action or policy

should be distributed as fairly as possible” (Fitzpatrick2001, p. 207).This tenet of

justice is based on the importance of fairness. It entails that harms and benefits, be

dispersed between the affected groups in a fair manner. An organization should not

reap the benefits at the cost of another organization’s impairment, unless there is

sufficient validation. According to Kazoleas (2007, p.57) the enforcement of these

principles can be quite an issue. Since a universal code of ethics would be quite

difficult to enforce, he feels that all companies should take it upon themselves to

enforce their own code of ethics.

2.2.7 Challenges in the Practice of Public Relations in Organisations

Public relations has grown to become one of the most practiced and influential

communication tool in organizations; yet there are reported challenges facing the

practice. This is in line with the earlier observation made by Adisa (2000, pp. 28-

29) which indicated that …“Public Relations pervades virtually all fields of human

endeavours, but despite this pervasiveness some factors seem to retard its
26
dominance or growth in developing countries.”Adisa (2000), in his study revealed

that that Public Relations as practiced is facing problems in developing countries

and these problems are capable of hindering the effective practice of the

profession. To this connection, Nwosu (1996) opined that Public Relations is

worse in terms of professional growth and development. It is usually given

secondary attention. On the same train of thought is Akinyemi (1993), he agrees

that Public Relations practice is being impinged and bedeviled by a myriad of

problems.

Some of the challenges in the practice is that practitioners and management

frequentlydisagreeastoitsfunctionandobjectives.PublicRelationspractitionerscompla

inthatmanagement did not inform them on important matters or consult them in

policy-making plans and significant Public Relations aspects. Unfortunately, this

seems to also be the situation or practice in some private sector establishments or

companies where the Public Relations officers have not been made the

management insiders that they should be. This obviously affects such Public

Relations officers or managers‟ performance. And of course there is no way one

can expect such managers to contribute meaningfully (Nwosu, 1996).

Another inhibiting factor according to Achison (1999) is “the rapid growth of

Public Relations which has attracted many inexperienced, unethical practitioners

27
who tend to create false image of the activity, and detract the honest efforts of

great majority of competent, ethical Public Relations people. Onah (1996),

described all these inexperienced and unethical practitioners as “quacks, gate-

crashers, charlatans and professional pretenders of all types”.

The status of Public Relations practitioners in the society is another factor because

certain unethical behaviours of the detractors make public critics regard the Public

Relations people as manipulator people with deceptive persuasions (Adisa, 2000).

The inadequacy of New Information and Communication Technologies (NCTs)

also plague effective practice. In modern Public Relations practice, traditional

communication devices like files, index cards, paper pencils, pens, telephone,

typewriter, new-letters, group and interpersonal forums or meeting are increasingly

being replaced or supplemented by NCT input, storage and communication devices

like intelligent typewriters, computer terminals, optical disk, intelligent circuitry,

word processors, electronic mailing system, teleconferencing, computer

conferencing, satellite, electronic fund transfer system and computer management

information system, Nwosu (1996). The present “cold war” and suspicious

relationship between in-housePublic Relations departments and consultancies is

also another inhibiting factor. Inadequate number of qualified or competent Public

Relations practitioners also tends to militate against the effective practice of Public
28
Relations.

Another is education and training of practitioners in Nigeria for instance, the

Nigeria Institute of Public Relations (NIPR) determines the nature and scope of

knowledge required to practice the profession. “What such bodies usually prescribe

are considered to be basic. A true professional or successful practitioner of Public

Relations must therefore endeavour to go beyond this basic prescription.” Some

practitioners are intellectually lazy and not upright in the course of discharging

their professional duties. What they fail to realize is that the body of knowledge

and skills required to survive in Public Relations is rather wide and the industry’s

scope or area of coverage is always expanding. In Nigeria and other developing

countries where Public Relations management is relatively young, Public Relations

programmes are underfunded, thus, this inadequate funding has grossly affected

the effective practice of the profession. The present situation by which foreign

Public Relations firms are contracted for Nigeria will not give room for Public

Relations practice in Nigeria to grow into a powerful tool of rural and national

development This shows inadequate support from government and its agencies,

perhaps, we should think globally and act locally. It is believed that Nigerian

Institute of Public Relations (NIPR) is not doing enough in the areas of promoting

the profession and warding off unscrupulous miscreants. It is believed that at the

29
end of every tunnel there is always light, little wonder when Onahin Nwosu (1996,

p. 56) runs thus:

Public Relations has grown from press agentary,

publicity or a minute aspect of marketing,
communication and management studies and practices,
to a full-fledged discipline and profession. This is
global trend. It is a trend which the developing
countries are working hard to move along with. In
Africa, Nigeria seems most determined to remain at
the forefront of this effort towards the
professionalization of Public Relations practice in all
its ramification.
In the study conducted by Odo (2001) on A Study of Public Relations Practice in

the Nigerian Army: A Case Study of 82 Division Enugu and one Mechanized

Division, Kaduna, it was revealed that public relations practice has been

confronted with the following challenges:

i. Lack of interest in public relations activities on the side of some commanding

officers resulting to inadequate funding of the public relations department.

ii. Lack of trained man power, the trained public relations officers is few and it is

not too easy for others to attain the training due to the cost and time.

iii. Lack of effective communication channel from the topmost officers to the

lowest officers and even the public.

2.3 Review of Empirical Studies

30
This section reviews related empirical works that have direct bearing on the

practice of public relations in organizations

2.3.1 A Quantitative Assessment of Public Relations Practitioners’

Perceptions of their Relationship with the Organization they Represent

Boudreaux (2005), in a study titled: A Quantitative Assessment of Public Relations

Practitioners’ Perceptions of their Relationship with the Organization they

Represent, attempts to identify how public relations practitioner roles and

organizational decision-making style impact the relationship that is shared between

the practitioner and the organization they represent.

The purpose of this study was to better understand the relationship between the

public relations practitioner and the organization he or she represents. This was

achieved by identifying the role the public relations practitioner plays in his or her

organization, how the organization makes decisions, and measuring the

practitioners’ perceived levels of trust, satisfaction, commitment, and control

mutuality regarding their organization. To achieve the desired objectives, the

following hypotheses were developed and tested:

H1: Trust, commitment, satisfaction, and control mutuality are predictors

relationship quality.

H2: Public relations practitioner role is a predictor of relationship quality.

31
P2.1.Managerial role is a positive predictor of relationship quality.

P2.2 Technical role is a negative predictor of relationship quality.

H3: Organizational decision-making style influences relationship quality

A survey of public relations practitioners was conducted to measure public

relations roles, organizational decision-making style, and relationship components.

The survey used in this study was both descriptive and analytical, allowing the

researcher to analyze two public relations roles, four organizational decision-

making styles, and four components of relationships. A descriptive survey was

used to document current circumstances and conditions, and generally describe

what existed in a population. An analytical survey, on the other hand, was used to

explain why certain circumstances, attitudes and behaviors exist among members

of a specific population.

Systematic random sampling methods were used to select a sample from the

populationofinterest.Theuseofpropersamplingmethodsisoneofthemostcriticalaspect

sofanyresearch project and an especially important characteristic of scientific

survey research was employed by this study. An Online survey was used to collect

data for the study.

The study comprised 43 items covering each of the three areas discussed in the
32
study. No identifiers were collected from survey participants in the questionnaire.

In order to measure practitioner roles, the researcher used measures developed by

Broom and Dozier (1995). According to Hatch (1997), the researcher used

information found in the organizational theory literature to test four decision-

making processes− the rational model, the coalition model, the trail-and-error

model, and the garbage can model. These items measured the practitioner’s

perception of how the organization makes decisions. Measures developed by

Grunig and Hon (1999) were used to measure aspects of the relationship between

the practitioner and the organization.

Relationship measures that were tested include trust, satisfaction, commitment, and

control mutuality. All responses were measured on a seven-point Likert-types

scale, from1 (strongly disagree)to 7 (strongly agree).

Approximately 1,150 e-mail surveys were sent to public relations practitioners

listed in the 2003-2004 PRS A Blue Book. Once practitioners responded to the e-

mail survey, their responses were coded and analyzed using SPSS, version 13.

Data analysis began with obtaining descriptive statistics for the data set. After

analyzing the descriptive statistics, the researcher tested for Chronbach’s alpha,

followed by factor analysis. To ensure the reliability of the measures designed,

Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine how the variables under study form
33
subgroups among themselves, and whether or not, or to what extent the variables

belong together. Factor analysis was used because it is a multivariate statistical

procedure used to reduce and condense the data, it identifies how certain constructs

form groups, and allows the researcher to investigate the relationships between

variables (Wimmer & Dominick, 2000). Factor analysis places different variables

into groups, allowing the researcher to come up with labels/concepts for the groups

statistically.

After obtaining descriptive statistics and Chronbach’s alpha, and conducting factor

analysis, regression analysis was used to identify relationships between variables.

Specifically, regression analysis was used to examine H1 and how the independent

variables of trust, commitment, satisfaction, and control mutuality influence the

relationship quality. Regression analysis was also used to test H2, that practitioner

role is a predictor of relationship quality, and H3 that organizational decision-

making style is a predictor of relationship quality.

Prior to data analysis response statistics were calculated to determine the

generalibility of the results to the larger population. Of the total sample of 1,150

practitioners for the online survey, 250 had invalid e-mail addresses. This resulted

in a valid sample of 900 practitioners. Of these exactly 200 completed the online

questionnaire, yielding a response rate of 22.2%. Twenty-five practitioners refused

34
to participate in the study, resulting in a refusalrateof2.7%.

Findings indicated that public relations roles and organizational decision-making

styles impact the quality of the relationship shared between the public relations

practitioner and his or her organization. Specifically, it hypothesized that the

manager’s role is a positive predictor of relationship quality and the technician role

is a negative predictor of relationship quality. Findings also indicated that

practitioner’s roles and organizational decision-making style impact the levels of

trust, commitment satisfaction, and control mutuality present in the relationship

between the public relations practitioner and his or her organization.

Specifically, the public relations manager’s role and the rational decision-making

style were found to have a significant influence on the relational variable of

satisfaction and the quality of the overall relationship. The findings support the

conclusion that practitioner’s roles and organizational decision-making style do

influence the relationship that is shared between the practitioner and the

organization he or she represents. In addition, the findings provide new

information related to how specific organizational decision-making styles

influence the relationship between the practitioner and the organization both

positively and negatively.

Based on the information presented, the study recommended that in linking theory
35
to practice it is important for organizations with public relations departments to

invest time and resources into understanding how they can build and maintain

better relationships with their public relations practitioners by evaluating the

specific decision making style they use. By involving both the public relations

manager and technician in the strategic decision-making process, using the rational

model, it may be predicted that both managers and technicians will be more

satisfied with the organization. It is equally as important for organizations to

identify the decision-making styles that have a negative influence on the relational

variables. This is necessary in order to try and build better relationships with the

public relations practitioner.

This study shares some similarities with the present study in the fact that it studied

the relationship between public relations practitioners and the organizations they

represent which in part is the thrust of this study. The present study is however

different from the study in terms of focus and location. While the study focused on

the relationship between public relations practitioners and the organizations they

represent, the present study is designed to assess public relations practice in

Edward Clark University. In terms of location, while the present study is in

Nigeria, the reviewed study was located in Florida, in the United State of America.

2.3.1 The Role of Public Relations in a Non-Governmental Organization: A

36
Case Study of Ten Selected Christian Churches in Maiduguri.

Ogedebe and Matthew in (2012) carried a study titled: The Role of Public

Relations in a Non-Governmental Organization: A Case Study of Ten Selected

Christian Churches in Maiduguri. The study examined the role of public Relations

in a non-governmental organization, using ten selected Christian Churches as a

case study. The objectives of the study were: to examine the nature and practice of

Public Relations in NGOs with particular reference to Christian Churches, how

public relations can be used in propagating the image of Christian churches in

Maiduguri, to identify likely problems churches encountered in the use of Public

Relations and recommend ways of improving public relations practice within and

outside the selected Christian Churches in Maiduguri.

The study found out that 50% of the respondents said they do not have functional

publicrelationsunitintheirChurchesand40%ofthosewhorespondedsaidtheyusedvideo

coverageof programmes to publicize the church activities, while another 88.89% of

the respondents said they used public relations to propagate the gospel. The study

found out that finance, lack of PR expertise, the size of the church and ignorance

were the major problems associated with public relations practice in churches.

Solution proffered for these problems include: allocation of enough fund, training

leaders, creating awareness and reorganization of administrative structure.

37
Among other things the study recommended that each department in a Christian

church should have Public Relations unit apart from the public relations unit of the

church. By so doing each arm of the church will attract members of the external

public to become members of the church. The study concluded that to avoid

Christian church activities from being shrouded in secrecy, Christian churches no

matter their size should have public relations units to publicize the church activities

using the most widely acceptable medium.

2.4 Theoretical Framework

This section of the study considers theories that are relevant to this study.

Accordingly, this study is anchored on Excellence Theory and supported by

a n o t h e r theory that this study found relevant. Which is: Systems Theory of

public relations. The study was anchored on the Excellence Theory because the

role of public relations as a communication discipline is more important than ever,

yet, the dilemma of how to think and act strategically (practice) (i.e.,

communicating in the best interests of the organization) and at the same time

ethically (i.e., considering the potential effects on the system) remains a

fundamental challenge. Applying Excellence Theory to the study of public

relations will help solve this dilemma.

2.4.1 Excellence Theory

38
The excellence theory is a general theory of public relations that resulted from a

15-yearstudy of best practices in communication management funded by the

International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Research

Foundation. The theory assumes that the main value of Public Relations lies in the

relationship between the organization and its publics (Grunig and Hunt, 1984). The

question that this theory tries to answer is, “How must public relations

bepracticedandthecommunicationfunctionorganizedforittocontributethemosttoorga

nizationaleffectiveness?” (Grunig and Grunig, 2000, p. 304).

The origin of this theory is as a result of a project named the Excellence Study,

alsoreferredtoastheExcellenceTheory,conductedbyJ.E.Grunig&L.A.Grunig.IntheE

xcellenceStudy,theresearchersattemptedtoanswerthreecriticalquestions,namely“ho

w,why and to what extent does communication affect the achievement of

organisational objectives”. These questions not only are of great importance in

terms of theoretical interest but also for the practice of PR. The study was

conducted in two stages, namely a literature or theoretical stage and an empirical

stage. The result of this theory is an integration of the many theories in the

literature of various fields such as communication, PR, management,

organisational psychology and sociology, social and cognitive psychology,

feminist studies, political science, decision making and culture focused on

39
measuring the ideal of communication excellence (Grunig, 1992,pp. 1-2).

In his explanation, Grunig (1992, p.3) noted that in order to answer the empirical

question of “how must PR be practiced and the communication function be

organized for it to contribute the most to organizational effectiveness?"the focus

falls on the “programme” level and how PR should be managed. The focus,

according to him, also falls on the “departmental” level, explaining the

characteristics of a department that manages communication in a particular way.

At “organizational” level, organisations and their environments were researched in

order to determine the conditions associated with excellent PR departments.

According to Dozier, Grunig& Grunig (1995:4), the excellence study empirically

found that PR excellence is universal across countries and types of organisations.

The reason provided was that PR excellence involves knowledge that surpasses

any public, organizational unit, industry, organizational type or national setting.

Further findings referred to knowledge as being the base of a PR department,

followed by a set of shared expectations between the PR manager and top

management and lastly the organisational culture.

There is a concern here that, the excellence theory is a normative theory aimed at

providing an idealistic framework of how PR practice should be undertaken in

order to serve public interest. The excellence in PR describes the ideal state in
40
which knowledgeable communicators seek symmetrical relations through the

management of communication with key stakeholders (Dozier, Grunig & Grunig,

1995). On a philosophical level, symmetrical PR is more ethical and socially

responsible as practitioners manage conflict. On a pragmatic level, literature shows

that symmetrical PR programmes contribute to organisational effectiveness

(Grunig, 1992,pp.6-7).

Autonomy, interdependence and relationships reveal the contribution PR makes to

organizational effectiveness. These three concepts are all interlinked, as PR

practitioners need to manage the communication of various external and internal

stakeholders that the organization has relationships with. Relationships limit

autonomy but in order for organizations to be effective, they must adapt, cooperate

and interact with groups that might limit their autonomy. Organisations with good

relationships are more effective as they have more freedom and more autonomy.

Consequently, building relationships and managing the interdependence is the

substance of PR (Grunig, Grunig, Ehling in Grunig,1992, pp.66-69).

There is also a concern that the contribution that PR makes to organizational

effectiveness is the management of the organisations’ independence by building

and maintaining quality relationships with key stakeholders. This can only take

place if PR functions at a management level and partakes in the decision making,

41
by providing information about the environment of the organisation, the

organization itself and the relationships between the organization and its

environment (Grunig,1992,pp. 11-12).

The theory of excellence or excellence theory identifies four major categories of

effective Public Relations applications (Grunigand Grunig, 2000): First, goal

attaining (organizations are effective when they meet their goals), second, systems

approach (organizations are effective when they survive in their environment and

successfully bring in resources from the environment that are necessary for their

survival), third, strategic constituencies (these are the elements of the

organization’s goals or help to attain them), and fourth, competing value approach

(provides a bridge between strategic constituencies and goals). (p.306).

The last category provides several communication models or modes of how an

organization can communicate with its publics: Distinctively, Press

Agentry/Publicity Model, Public Information Model, One-Way Asymmetrical

Model, and Two-Way Symmetrical Model. These models are categorized by two

communication traits, one-way or two-way communication, between the company

and its publics. The normative theory of excellence is two-way symmetrical

communication between the organization and its publics (Oldenbanning, 2013).

The theory was tested through survey research of heads of public relations, CEOs,
42
and employees in 327 organizations (corporations, non-profit organizations,

government agencies, and associations) in the United States, Canada, and the

United Kingdom (Survey; Interview).

Dozier et al. (1995) opined that based on this theoretical premise about the value of

public relations, the excellence theory derived principles of how the function

should be organized to maximize this value. First, the research showed that

involvement in strategic management was the critical characteristic of excellent

public relations. Public relations executives played a strategic managerial role as

well as administrative manager role. Public relations also were empowered by

having access to key organizational decision-makers (the dominant coalition).

Second, the study showed that public relations loses its unique role in strategic

management if it is sublimated to marketing or other management functions.

Sublimation to another function resulted in attention only to the stakeholder

category of interest to that function, such as consumers for marketing (Dozieret

al.,1995). According to Gruning (2002), sublimation to marketing also usually

resulted in asymmetrical communication. An excellent public relations function

was integrated, however. Programmes for different stakeholders were gathered into

a single department or coordinated through a senior vice president of corporate

communication. An excellent public relations function did work with other

43
management functions to help them build relationships with relevant stakeholders.

Third, the excellence study showed that a symmetrical system of internal

communication increased employees’ satisfaction with their jobs and with the

organization (Dozier et al., 1995).However, internal communication generally was

not practiced unless organizations had a participative rather than authoritarian

culture and a decentralized, less stratified (organic) structure rather than a

centralized, stratified (mechanical) structure.

Fourth, the excellence study examined the effect of the growing number of women

in public relations and evidence that women had difficulty entering managerial

roles. The research showed that organizations with excellent public relations

valued women as much as men for the strategic role and developed programmes to

empower women throughout the organization. The emphasis on gender also led to

inclusion of diversity of race and ethnicity as a fifth part of the excellence theory.

Based on these basic assumptions of this theory, this theory is considered to be

relevant to this study.

Relevance of Excellence Theory to this Study

One of the challenges of every organisation is the management of relationship with

various stakeholders. Public relations is therefore one of the key communication

tools that make harmonious relationship among stakeholders of the organisation

44
achievable. However, effective public relations that ensure that organization

achieves its aims and objectives cannot be possible if the practice is not properly

carried out. The excellence theory therefore identifies major categories of effective

Public Relations applications in the management of organizations such as goal

attaining (organizations are effective when they meet their goals); systems

approach (organizations are effective when they survive in their environment and

successfully bring in resources from the environment that are necessary for their

survival); strategic constituencies(these are the elements of the organization’s goals

or help to attain them); and competing value approach (provides a bridge between

strategic constituencies and goals) (Grunig and Grunig,2000).

Theexcellencetheoryprovidesthisstudyabetterunderstandingofthewaypublicrelation

s is or is to be practiced. This therefore, assist the current study in understanding

whether the way public relations is practiced in Edwin Clark University aligns with

the defined principles of public relations in the excellence theory or there is a

deviation from what the theory specified.

2.5 Summary

This chapter reviewed the literature that was relevant to this work. It also

considered there view of empirical works that were related to this study. Also

considered in this chapter were the theories that this particular study finds relevant.

At the end of the review, it was evidenced that public relations was a useful
45
communication tool employ by different organizations in their operations and

management. Empirical studies reviewed in this chapter also indicated that there

was a link between effective public relations practice and organizational success.

Two theories revealed in this chapter also pointed out the relevance of their

application and usage in Public Relations campaigns.

However, there were still some gaps in the literature reviewed in this chapter. One

of the gaps in the previous literature reviewed is that none of the works revealed

was focused exactly on assessment of public relations in Nigeria, thereby, creating

a knowledge gap how the practice of Public Relations in the operations of Edward

Clark in Nigeria is undertaking. It is as a result of these gaps and many more that

the present study is set up to fill up the gaps in the previous literature by

investigating the assessment of pubic relations in Edward Clark University.

46
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research design

The study adopted the survey design. The reason for this is that whenever the

major source of primary data for a study is the views of members of the public

or any particular group, a survey is better called for. The aim of survey is to

provide empirical data collected from a population of respondents on which

valid conclusions can be made. Therefore, research designs simply imply a

comprehensive plan or blue print showing how the research will be used to

solve the already identified problems.

3.2 Population of the Study

 The population for this study comprised of all students of Edwin Clerk
University. They include students from the Humanities, Management and
Social Sciences
 Law
 Sciences
o Department of Biology Sciences: offers Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.)
degrees in biology and microbiology
47
 o Department of Chemical Sciences: offers B.Sc. degrees in chemistry
and industrial chemistry
o Department of Mathematical Sciences: offers B.Sc. degrees in
mathematics and computer science
o Department of Physical Sciences: offers a B.Sc. degree in physics

3.3 Sample size and sampling Technique

One hundred and fifty (150) respondents were drawn from the total population

that made up the departments in the university. According to Wimmer and

Dominick (2005:96), the size of a sample required for a study depends on at

least one of the following seven factors: i. Project type, ii. Project purpose,

iii. Project complexity, iv. Amount of error tolerated, v. Time constraints, vi.

Financial constraints and vii. Previous research in the area. Similarly Okoro

(2005: 69) notes that the choice of a sample size should be sufficient to assure

the investigator that the sample will be representative of the population from

which it is drawn. In the light of the project type and the research method, the

researcher used three hundred (200) persons as sample size. Fifty (50) persons

from each of the three departments.

The sample size was determined through simple random sampling. This enable

the researcher to eliminate bias and gave equal chance to every member of the

population to be selected.

48
3.4 Instrument for data collection

Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection. This is because

questionnaire standardizes and organizes the collection and processing of

information in a better and concise manner. This study made use of two forms

of data collection namely – primary and secondary data. The primary source

are data gotten from respondents as answers to questionnaire administered to

them while the secondary source are data generated from library materials,

authoritative books, government publications, journals, news papers and

magazine reports that are relevant to the study. These secondary data were used

in the review of related literature in this research in chapter two.

3.5 Validity of research instrument

Validity is defined as the degree to which an instrument actually measures what

it sets out to measure. Wimmer and Dominick (2003:159). To achieve this

objective, above all, suggestions and corrections effected by the supervisor, so

as to tailor the questions to the objective of the study.

3.6Reliability of the instrument

A study is reliable when repeated measurement of the same material results in

similar decisions or conclusion; Wimmer and Dominick (2003:156). Pilot study or

pretest technique was used in establishing the reliability of the instrument. In this

49
way, the questionnaire was tested for coherence, ability to elicit responses,

comprehensibility and consistency.

3.6 Procedure for data collection

The main data collection method or technique for this study is questionnaire.

The questionnaire contained questions which helped the researcher to get the

right opinion or view of the subjects or respondents. The questionnaire gave the

respondents considerable choice of responses. The researcher personally

administered these questionnaires and personally collected them immediately

the respondents were through with the questions.

3.7 Method of analysis and presentation of data

Data collected were analysed using simple percentage and presented in a

tabular form.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
50
This chapter deals mainly with the presentation of data. These data were

gathered from the questionnaires duly answered by respondents.

4.2Data Presentation and Analysis

One hundred and fifty questionnaires were administered to different

respondents who are students of the university; filled and returned to the

research.

Table 1: Gender distribution of the respondents

Gender Frequency Percentage (%)

Male 86 57.3
Female 64 42.7
Total 150 100%
Source: field survey, 2021

Table 1 above shows the frequency distribution of respondents by gender. The

table reveals that 86 representing 57.3% were male while 64 representing 42.7%

were female.

Table 2: Age distribution of the respondents

Age range Frequency Percentage (%)

15-20 years 46 30.7
21-25 years 54 36
51
 26 years above 50 33.3
Total 150 150
Source: field survey, 2021

Table 2 shows the 46 respondents (30.7%) were aged between 15-20 years, 54

(36%) were21-25 years while 50 respondents (33.3%) were 26 years and above.

Presentation and Analysis of Data Collected

TABLE 3: Is there public relations unit in Edwin Clark University?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 150 100
No 0 0
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

One hundred and fifty (150) respondents representing 100% of the population

agreed that there is a public relations unit in Edwin Clerk university is functioning.

TABLE 4: If yes, is the public relations unit functioning?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 150 100
No 0 0
Total 150 100%

52
 Source: field survey 2021

The entire respondents, that is one hundred and fifty (150) representing 100%

agreed that the public relations unit in Edwin Clerk university is functioning.

TABLE 5: If yes, is the public relations unit functioning?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 150 100
No 0 0
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

The entire respondents, that is one hundred and fifty (150) representing 100%

agreed that the public relations unit in Edwin Clerk university is functioning.

Which of the following activities are carried out by public relations:

TABLE 6: Is there media relations in the public relations unit?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 150 100

53
 No 0 0
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

The entire respondents, that is one hundred and fifty (150) representing 100%

agreed that there is media relations in the unit

TABLE 6: Is there community relations in the public relations unit?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 98 65.3
No 52 34.7
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

Table 6 above shows that 98 respondents (65.3%) agreed that the public relations

unit runs community relations while 52 (34.7%) disagreed.

TABLE 7: Do the public relations unit offer events organization and

Management in the school?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 150 100
No 0 0
Total 150 100%
54
 Source: field survey 2021

The entire respondents, that is one hundred and fifty (150) representing 100%

agreed that the public relations office run events organization and management for

the school.

TABLE 7: Do the public relations unit carry out publicity in the school?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 150 100
No 0 0
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

The entire respondents, that is one hundred and fifty (150) representing 100%

agreed that the public relations unit carry out publicity in the school.

TABLE 8: Do the public relations unit carry out press release?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 150 100
No 0 0
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

55
Table 8 shows that entire respondents (150/100%) agreed that the public relations

unit carry out press release for the school.

TABLE 9: Can students access the public relations unit for any information?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 150 100
No 0 0
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

Table 9 shows that the entire respondents, 150 (100%) agreed that the students can

access the public relations office for any information.

TABLE 10: Do the public relations unit offer advisory services to the
students?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 128 85.3
No 22 14.7
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

Table 10 shows that 128 respondents representing 85.3% agreed that the public
56
relations office offer advisory service to the students while 22 (14.7%) disagreed.

TABLE 11: Is the operation of the public relations unit highly effective in the
school?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 112 74.7
No 38 25.3
Total 150 100%
Source: field survey 2021

Table 12 shows that 112 respondents representing 74.7% agreed that the operations

of the public relations unity is highly effective while 38 (25.3%) disagree.

TABLE 13: Do the activities of the public relations unit improve organizational

communication?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 132 88
No 18 12
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

Table 13 shows that the activities of the public relations unit improve organization

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communication in the school while only 18 (12%) disagree.

TABLE 14: Do the activities of the public relations unit improve organizational

communication?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 132 88
No 18 12
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

Table 13 shows that the activities of the public relations unit improve organization

communication in the school while only 18 (12%) disagree.

TABLE 15: Overall, I am happy and satisfied with the public relations in the

school?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 138 92
No 12 8
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

Table 15 shows that 138 respondents representing 92% agreed that they are happy

and satisfied with the public relations office in the school while 12 (8%) disagree.

TABLE 16: The public relations really listen to what the public have to say?
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 Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 122 81.3
No 28 18.7
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

Table 16 shows that 122 respondents (81.3%) agreed that the public relations

office really listen to what the public have to say while 28 (18.7%) disagreed.

TABLE 17: The public relations produce brochures, pamphlets, and other

publications?

Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 150 100
No 0 0
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

Table 17 shows that the entire respondents (100%) agreed that the public relations

produce brochures, pamphlets and other publications in the school.

TABLE 18: There are certain areas where the public relations have to improve
upon?

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 Response No of Percenta
Respondents ge
Yes 150 100
No 0 0
Total 150 100%

Source: field survey 2021

Table 18 shows that the entire respondents (100%) agreed that there are certain

areas of improvement in public relations unit.

Table 19: What makes public relations more credible?

Response Frequency Percenta

ge (%)
Ability to present issues 150 100
in a balanced way
Giving one side to a story 0 0
the
opportunity to be heard
Praise-sing the dominant 0 0
class
Total 150 100%
Source: Field Survey 2009

From the table 19 above, 100% of the sample did not see giving one side to a story

or praise singing the dominant class as what makes a public relations credible,

instead, they unanimously agreed that what makes a news medium credible is the

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ability to present issues in a balanced way.

Table 19: What do you think are the key challenges to the public relations in
the school?

Response Frequency Percenta

ge (%)
Inadequate personnel 88 58.7
Inadequate modern facilities 22 14.7
Staff package 34 22.7
Ineffective communicational 6 4
channel to the public
Total 150 100
Source: Field Survey 2009

Table 19 above shows that 88 respondents (58.7%) indicates that the major

challenge of the public relations unit in the school is inadequate personnel, 22

(14.7%) indicates inadequate modern facilities, 34 (22.7%) indicates staff package

and 6 (4%) indicates ineffective communication channel to the public

Table 20: In which of these ways do you think the public relations unit can be
improved upon most?

Response Frequency Percenta

ge (%)
Employment of more 56 37.3
professional public relations
experts
Regular promotion of staff 43 28.7
Purchase of modern and 27 18
adequate office equipment
Appropriation of more fund 24 16
Total 296 100
Source: Field Survey 2009
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The table above shows that 56 respondents representing 37.3% suggest that

employment of more professional expert in the field of public relations will

improve the unit more, 43 (28.7%) suggest regular promotion of staff, 27

(18%) purchase of modern facilities while 24 (16%) suggests appropriation of

more fund.

4.4 Discussion of Findings

Are there Public Relations activities of the Edwin Clark University?

From the analysis on the tables, it shows that the entire respondents agreed that

there are public relations activities in Edwin Clark University, also the entire

respondents agreed that the public relations unit is functioning in the school.

Findings equally shows that there is media activities in the public relations unit,

65.3% equally agreed that the unit relate with the community.

What are the activities of Public Relations unit in Edward Clark University?

Findings from the tables shows that the public relations unity carry out activities

such events organization and management for the school, the entire respondents

(100%) also agreed that the public relations unit carry out publicity in the school,

the entire respondents also agreed that the unit carry out press release, and the

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entire respondents as well agreed that public relations produce brochures,

pamphlets, and other publications.

In which ways and areas does the Public Relations operations influences the

students in Edwin Clark University?

Findings shows that the entire respondents (100%) agreed that they can access any

information from the public relations unit in the school, 85.3% also agreed that the

public relations unit offer advisory service to the students, 74.7% agreed that their

operation is very effective, 88% agreed that the activities of the public relations unit

improve organizational communication, 92% agreed that overall, they are happy

and satisfied with the public relations in the school, 81.3% agreed that public

relations really listen to what the public have to say.

In what areas do the public relations in need to improve for growth and stability the

school?

Findings from tables shows that the entire respondents agreed that there is need for

improvement, first, the entire respondents agreed that their ability to present issues

in a balanced way make them to be credible in operation.

What are the challenges in the use of Public Relations for the operations of Edwin

Clark University?

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Findings shows that the major key challenge is inadequate staff (58.7%), others are

inadequate modern facilities (14.7%), staff package (22.7%). Consequently,

findings shows that there is need for more personnel, improvement in the welfare

of the personnel, acquisition of modern facilities.

CHAPTER FIVE:

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Preamble

Literature materials available to the researcher on the topic lay credence to the fact

that the public relations unit is an essential tool in any organization which foster

the dissemination of information. This is further buttressed by the analysis and

findings in the study. The respondents who participated in the study testified to this

fact. The public relations unit in Edwin Clark University is functioning well and

relate to the students and immediate community and environs of the school. This

they do through publicity, access to information, production of pamphlets,

brochure and other relevant information dissemination gadgets. The study further
64
shows that the public relations unit have an effective relationship with the students

in the school as the respondents claimed to be happy and satisfied with the

operations of the unit.

There is however the need to improve upon the service like they findings shows

that more credibility will be accorded with ability of the public relations unit to

present issues in a balanced way.

There are some key challenges to a more effective operation in the public relations

unit which include inadequate personnel, inadequate modern facilities, staff pay

package. Sequence to this the findings shows that there is need for additional

personnel to the unit, welfare package, purchase of modern facilities and

appropriation of more funds.

5.2 Summary of Findings

This study is predicated on the assessment of public relations in Edwin Clark

University. Therefore, it set to unearth the existence, accessibility and

operation/activities of the public relations unit in the school with students used

respondents for the study.

The study revealed that there is a public relations unit in the university is

functioning well. It has effective relationship with the students and the public

around the school. This was evidence from the analysis that there is

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communication between the public relations and the students, they provide

publicity to the school, plan and manage event for the school, produce and

brochure, pamphlets and bulletin for the school. Though there are some challenges

which include inadequate personnel, inadequate modern facilities, welfare package

to staffs and inadequate funding, which were suggested to improved upon.

5.3 Conclusion

The role of the public relations in the education and dissemination of information

cannot be overemphasized, thus, the study after thorough research, critically came

to the conclusion that the public relations unit in Edwin Clark University has

credibly performed well in the school.

The findings reveal that students practically are happy and satisfied with operations

and activities of the public relations unit in terms of information dissemination,

accessing information from the office and overall activities of unit in the school.

The management of the university need to put in more effort to upgrade and

improve the performance of the unit by tackling the above stated challenges.

Availability of fund is imperative as no development could be achieved with

nothing, therefore, management should define clearly ways through which this

challenges will be efficiently and effectively curbed and this can only be achieved

if the management avoid politicising appointments of staffs, dismissal of staff for

writing the truth and censoring the activities of the staff who have been trained to
66
carry out their responsibilities.

5.4 Recommendations

Arising from the research findings, the researcher wishes to make the following

recommendations.

(1) Objectivity and fairness should be the watch word of the public relations of

Edwin Clark University in order to retain their status of performance.

(2) Under-funding is inimical to the operation of any organization and should

therefore be avoided.

(3) Obsolete equipment should be replaced with modern equipment in order to

stand the challenges of modern public relations activities.

(4) Well articulated editorial policies capable of placing the public relations in the

same pedestal as their counterparts in other developed and developing nations

should be adopted and maintained.

(5) Professionally qualified persons should be recruited to man the affairs of the

organizations to avoid sycophancy.

(6) Training and re-training of public relations expert professionals in terms of

modern media facilities should be done from time to time.

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