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Innovative Solutions for Solar Thermal Systems Implemented in Buildings

Article  in  Energy Procedia · January 2016

DOI: 10.1016/j.egypro.2015.12.249

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ScienceDirect
Energy Procedia 85 (2016) 594 – 602

Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment, EENVIRO - YRC 2015, 18-20 November
2015, Bucharest, Romania

Innovative Solutions for Solar Thermal Systems Implemented in

Buildings
Ion Visaa*, Anca Dutaa*
a
University of Brasov, R&D Centre: Renewable Energy Systems and Recycling,10 Institute Street, Brasov, Romani

Abstract

The transition towards Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (nZEB) requires renewable energy systems to cover the thermal energy need.
These have to cover the demand for domestic hot water, for heating and for cooling, in the needed amount and during the required
periods, according to the building types and the implementation locations. Solar-thermal systems can play a key role in the
sustainability scenario of any nZEB. However, implementing solar thermal systems beyond demonstration projects requires innovative
solutions able to surpass the barriers that currently limit the widespread of these types of systems. Therefore, several prerequisites have
to be fulfilled, related to functionality (efficiency), feasibility (implementation and O&M costs), architectural integration (giving use to
roof, rooftops but also to suitably oriented facades), and end-users acceptance (incentives, promotion, etc.). These novel solutions were
implemented in the R&D Center Renewable Energy Systems and Recycling, in the Transilvania University of Brasov and the results
of infield optimized implementation confirm the viability of the novel trends presented by the paper.
©2015
© 2016 TheTheAuthors.
Authors. Published
Published by Elsevier
by Elsevier Ltd. is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Ltd. This
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee EENVIRO 2015.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee EENVIRO 2015
Keywords: Solar thermal systems; nearly zero energy buildings; energy mixes; solar thermal collector

1. Introduction

The EU legal frame asks for a sustainable built environment, [1], and introduces the concept of Nearly Zero
Energy Buildings (nZEB) that should be developed for any public investment starting with January 1 st, 2018 and for
any new building starting with 2021. The transition towards nZEB requires a massive involvement of renewable
energy systems in covering the thermal energy demand, responsible for over 65% from the total energy consumption

* Corresponding author
E-mail address: a.duta@unitbv.ro; visaion@unitbv.ro

1876-6102 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee EENVIRO 2015
doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.12.249
 Ion Visa and Anca Duta / Energy Procedia 85 (2016) 594 – 602 595

in buildings, to cover the demand for domestic hot water, for heating and for cooling, in the needed amount and
during the required time periods, according to the building types and the implementation locations.
Solar-thermal systems, alone or as part of energy mixes/hybrids, can play a key role in the sustainability scenario
of any nZEB, [2]. Although developed and optimized as a mature technology, solar-thermal systems implemented in
the built environment are still scarce in many European regions (including Romania) and their true potential is far
from being completely exploited, [3].
Implementing solar thermal systems in communities beyond demonstration projects requires innovative solutions
that consider the specific features of the built environment. Therefore, several prerequisites have to be fulfilled, related
to: (1) functionality and efficiency, because the available mounting area is limited; (2), feasibility, particularly focusing
on the implementation and O&M costs that usually have to be directly supported by the end-users; (3) architectural
integration, extended beyond roof and rooftops towards suitably oriented facades, thus raising significant aesthetic
issues, [4], along with (4) end-users acceptance (incentives, promotion, etc.) and commitment.
Considering these issues, the paper presents new trends in the solar-thermal systems development with a
particular focus on building integration, considering their functionality and specificity but also the bottlenecks in
their implementation, for: (1) domestic hot water production (DHW), using flat plate solar-thermal collectors; (2)
heating and DHW, using evacuated tube or flat plate collectors mounted on rooftops or in the close neighbourhood
of the buildings; (3) heating, cooling and DHW production, using small concentrating collectors (parabolic trough or
dish), installed on the rooftops; associated with chillers able to use low temperature sources (adsorption chillers)
these systems can cover a significant share of the cooling demand in buildings. Various novel solutions were
implemented in the R&D Centre Renewable Energy Systems and Recycling, in the Transilvania University of
Brasov and the infield results, [5] confirm the viability of the novel trends presented by the paper.

2. State of the art and current needs

Two major and largely implemented applications are currently associated to solar-thermal systems: residential
DHW (using flat plate or evacuated tubes collectors), and electricity production from wet or dry steam generated in
solar-thermal plants that mainly involve large parabolic trough collectors, Fig. 1. Other applications are
implemented in a lesser extent as heat production for agriculture and environmental processes (e.g. drying [6], and
pollutants removal [7]), while very high temperature processes are also mentioned in solar furnaces and solar lasers
for semiconductors processing, [8], using parabolic dish collectors or heliostats.

Fig. 1. Main functionalities of the solar-thermal energy conversion

596 Ion Visa and Anca Duta / Energy Procedia 85 (2016) 594 – 602

However, the transition towards sustainability requires to extend the implementation of the solar thermal systems
in large scale applications and the built environment is one of the most important candidates. Thus, besides DHW,
solar-thermal systems should be employed for heating and cooling. While the amount of DHW is almost constant
over the year and has values that depend on the number of consumers and applications (residential, laundry, hotels,
etc.), the heating and cooling demand has a rather large variation during one year and significantly depends on the
implementation location. The main issues that currently limit the wide spread of solar heating and cooling are
related to the buildings as such and to the solar-thermal systems:

x Thermal energy demand in the building: any renewable energy system able to directly or indirectly provide
thermal energy is currently more expensive as compared to the solutions based on fossil fuels. This means that,
before implementing renewable-based systems, the thermal energy demand has to be reduced, at the level of Low
Energy Buildings, LEB (at a total energy demand lower than 60…80 kWh/m2 per year, out of which above 60%
is represented by the thermal energy), [9, 10]. Thus refurbishing (for already existent buildings) or adequate
design (for new buildings) must be firstly employed.
x The heating installations in the buildings: solar-thermal systems with flat plate or evacuated tube collectors are
basically low enthalpy sources thus large heating surfaces are required in buildings, like floors, walls or
ceilings, either in the common approach (at the surface) or by using larger thermal masses, as in the solutions
based on temperate concrete. The first approach is rather easy to implement, even in older buildings, by
replacing the currently used heaters with surface/ floor heating; however, the use of the more efficient
temperate concrete (or alternative solutions) has to be done from the design and construction phases and is
highly recommended, as proved through the experimental tests done in the R&D Institute of the Transilvania
University where this solution was adopted for all the laboratory buildings and allows simultaneously heating
the ceilings and floors, [5].
x Available surface for implementing the solar-thermal collectors: the DHW demand represents less than 5…10%
of the total energy demand while the heating demand in a temperate climate exceeds 60%. For the Solar House in
the Transilvania University, the total energy demand is 59.5 MWh/year, [2, 9], and the shares of each main
functionality are given in Fig. 2. Therefore, to cover the thermal energy demand for heating, a larger
implementation area is required, usually larger than what a rooftop or roof can offer. To extend the
implementation area, other solutions were proposed as on suitably oriented facades, balconies or near the
buildings. All these are highly visible places, therefore additional pre-requisites are formulated related to
architectural acceptance, [4, 11], along with high efficiency in the working conditions. However, for
temperate/cold regions, a heating solution fully based on solar-thermal systems does not represent a feasible
alternative, therefore sustainable heating will imply energy mixes of solar-thermal systems with heat pumps
and/or biomass heaters and a backup source for the peak demand.

21.4
2.1

76.5

Heating DHW Electricity

Fig. 2. Share of the heating, DHW and electricity consumption in the Solar House (Transilvania University of Brasov)
 Ion Visa and Anca Duta / Energy Procedia 85 (2016) 594 – 602 597

x Thermal energy production: there is variability in the heating demand and this has large peak values in temperate
(and cold) regions. Thus, when designing a solar-thermal system to cover a certain share of the heating demand a
problem will be faced related to the thermal energy that will be produced also when not actually needed, during
warm(er) periods of the year. The problem is serious because during summer the amount of solar radiation is
higher than during the cold seasons, thus the energy production is large. There are technical and economic
consequences: not using the thermal energy will bring the solar-thermal systems in the stagnation regime, when
the collectors can be subjected to accelerated aging; additionally, not using (or throwing away) the heat results in
a longer pay-back time. Many storage solutions were proposed, based on ground/boreholes, [12] or latent heat
storage (including phase-change materials), [13]; however, the ideal long-term heat storage (produced during
summer and consumed in winter) is far from being solved, lacking in up-scalable solutions with acceptable costs.
To mitigate these consequences, solar-thermal systems should be designed to simultaneously consider solar
heating (cold seasons) and solar cooling (warm periods). Even so, the initial investments make unfeasible the
solutions 100% based on solar thermal systems (and almost impossible), again recommending the energy mixes.

As this brief analysis show, there are certain technical and economic restrictions that currently limit the wide
spread of solar thermal systems integrated in the built environment. These requires not only innovation (re-design,
improving the efficiency, etc.) but also may ask for new concepts. Once these developed, a combination of
feasibility, incentives and legal constraints could further support the community acceptance.

3. New trends

Following the state of the art analysis, the R&D Centre Renewable Energy Systems and Recycling (RESREC) in
the Transilvania University of Brasov focused on the development of renewable-based energy mixes, able to
support the transition towards the nZEB status.
(a) Solar-thermal systems:
the L7 rooftop:

(1) Solar-thermal testing rig

with tracked platform
(2) Parabolic trough collectors
(3) Durability testing rig in
saline media
(4) Photovoltaic-thermal
(PVT) modules
(b) In-field Solar-thermal
laboratory
(1) Flat plate solar thermal
collectors
(2) Evacuated tubes collectors
(3) New solar-thermal
collector

Fig. 3. Solar-thermal outdoor testing facilities in the R&D Institute of the Transilvania University:(a) Rooftop; (b) Facade
598 Ion Visa and Anca Duta / Energy Procedia 85 (2016) 594 – 602

Fig. 4. Indoor solar simulator with UV and VIS radiation, temperature control and tracking options

The theoretical and experimental investigations are developed in the R&D Institute of the university, where each
of the 11 buildings are LEB, embedding novel architectural concepts and advanced solutions for insulation, glazing,
temperate concrete, etc., [5]. The RESREC Centre is located in the Laboratory building L7, Fig. 3a, which is used as
a 1:1 experimental rig, where various concepts are implemented and optimised, before being delivered towards
community. Additionally, the outdoor solar-thermal laboratory (Fig. 3b) and the indoor testing rig (Fig. 4) supported
to formulate new concepts for the convertors (flat plate solar thermal collectors), for the system durability and
functionality (tracking), and as part of integrated, personalized solutions of energy mixes to be implemented at
buildings’ or communities’ levels.

3.1. Novel flat plate solar thermal collector with un-conventional shape for facades integration

To support increased architectural acceptance, a novel flat plate solar thermal collector was proposed, having
isosceles trapeze shape and coloured absorber plate and/or glazing, as presented in Fig. 3b, position (3). This type of
collector, with an aperture area of about 0.62m2 was designed for facades integration, allowing the development of
various geometries and colours.
The demonstrator, tested with black absorber plate and using water as thermal fluid proved a nominal efficiency
of 62% on the indoor testing rig and about 60% in the outdoor solar-thermal laboratory, [14].
An optimised prototype, with lighter weight and improved tightness was recently developed and tested on the
indoor testing rig (Fig. 4), according to ISO 9806:2013, at four input temperatures of the heating fluid, in the 25…60
0
C range. The experimental characteristic efficiency curve follows a linear equation, Eq. (1):

K ൌ K଴ െ ܽܶ௠‫כ‬ (1)

where: K0 represents the nominal efficiency and ܶ௠‫ כ‬is calculated as the difference between the average fluid
temperature in the collector (Tm) and the ambient air temperature (Ta) divided to the total radiation, Eq. (2):

ሺ்೘ି்ೌ ሻ
ܶ௠‫ כ‬ൌ  (2)
ீ

The results in Fig. 5 allows estimating a nominal efficiency of 68.3%. Considering the dimensions of the
collector and the manufacturing conditions (that can be subject of further improvements) this efficiency is highly
promising.
 Ion Visa and Anca Duta / Energy Procedia 85 (2016) 594 – 602 599

Tm: average temperature in the solar thermal collector

Ta: ambient temperature
G: solar radiation power

Fig. 5. Characteristic efficiency curve a the novel trapeze solar-thermal collector

Coloured absorber plates were obtained based on an environmentally friendly and mature technology (cold
spraying), by using aqueous inks, i.e. dispersed pigment oxides (obtained through sol-gel technique, followed by
annealing). A rather broad colours pallet (light orange…red…dark brown) was obtained for absorber plates with the
structure: Al/Al2O3/Fe2O3/TiO2, by simply modifying the Fe 2O3 and TiO2 concentrations in the inks. It is important
to notice that the Vis absorptance is almost unchanged, regardless the concentration, while the IR/thermal emittance
slightly increases (as expected) for the light and bright shades of colours.
When using collectors with differently coloured absorber plates, [15], in lego -type serial or parallel
connections, various arrays can be developed, giving use to facades in a novel solar architecture concept; further
on, as Fig. 6 shows, trapeze and rectangular collectors can be matched, along with photovoltaic modules (hereby
with triangle shape):

Fig. 6. Various solar facades embedding the trapeze solar collector

3.2. Increasing the output and durability of the flat plate solar thermal collectors through adaptive tracking

As already outlined, the limited implementation area available on/near the buildings asks for good efficiencies
and maximized output. Tracking the solar radiation may increase the input energy on the flat plate solar collector
600 Ion Visa and Anca Duta / Energy Procedia 85 (2016) 594 – 602

with an average of 30% (even higher during summer days), [16], thus this could represent a viable option for
increasing the amount of thermal energy delivered by a solar-thermal system. However, this larger amount of heat
may lead to faster reaching the stagnation regime, when the heat is not used, thus reducing the actual working time
of the installation; additionally, stagnation increases the thermal stress on the convertor, with negative consequences
on its durability. Therefore, in the solar-thermal conversion tracking has to be adapted to the heat consumption.
A concept of adaptive tracking was proposed along with a 4-programs algorithm, differentiating between direct
tracking (increasing the amount of solar radiation), reversed tracking (that preserves an almost constant temperature
in the boiler, close to the threshold stagnation temperature by employing controlled tracking backwards), stand still
program (during low radiation periods or during night, when the collector has a horizontal position that mitigates the
wind effect), and the holyday program (when heat is not required) that keeps the collector in extreme positions, with
low solar radiation, [17].
When higher temperature applications are targeted, e.g. in buildings solar cooling using adsorption or absorption
chillers, small parabolic (trough) collectors can be employed, having accurate tracking mechanisms and algorithms.
A novel cam-follower tracking mechanisms was developed and optimised for this type of collectors, [18].
Last but not least, durability depends on the collector quality and on the working environment. Most of the
building integrated solar-thermal systems are used for DHW and are extensively implemented at the seaside, being
therefore subjected to a long term contact with saline aerosols. So far, durability tests for the solar collectors are not
considering this aging factor, but this is a problem that drastically limits the convertors’ performance and lifetime.
Therefore, a testing rig was developed for outdoor testing in saline environment and the experiments developed on
highly efficient market collectors proved that 20 days of testing lead to the development of “whit spots” of salt that
entered the collectors through the most vulnerable part: the polymeric sealing (between glazing and casing), [19].
These spots are further acting as corrosion precursors that eventually destroy the selective absorber coating.

3.3. Integrating solar-thermal systems in renewable-based energy mixes

Due to the seasonal and daily variability of the solar radiation, solar-thermal systems are delivering a non-
constant flux of output energy, usually not matching the variability in the demand. As already outlined, storage
might be a short term option but it significantly raises the investment costs and/or is not always possible to
implement in the built environment. This is why energy mixes are recommended to cover the thermal energy
demand in a given building.
The design methodology of an energy mix was previously detailed, [5] and mainly consist of:

x accurate estimation of the thermal energy demand (heating, cooling and DHW) as global, seasonal and peak
values;
x estimating the renewables energy potential, e.g. solar radiation, biomass, geothermal sources, etc. For a reliable
design, data should be collected over at least one year; obviously, simulated solar radiation data can be used
(either based on models or e.g. using Meteonorm) but comparative investigations showed that deviations from the
infield data are registered, particularly during the seasons with low solar radiation.
x designing the energy mix considering the share that will be covered by using renewables. It is to notice that in an
energy mix the systems have to synergistically function, thus being more performant in terms of output as
compared to a simple summing up the components. This implies considering the multi-functionality of each
component system and their overall match: e.g. a solar-thermal system used for DHW, heating and cooling
should be complementary designed with a ground coupled heat pump used in direct and reversed modes.

Following this concept, an energy mix was designed and implemented in the Solar House and, based on the
lesson learned, the energy mix was implemented at an extended scale in the RESREC Centre, [2, 20].
The optimization studies were done considering the L7 laboratory building, with a total area of 1560 m 2, and
yearly average energy demand of 69 kWh/m2. An energy mix consisting of a ground coupled heat pump can cover
80% of the total thermal energy demand and a solar-thermal system, covers the rest of 20%. The electricity required
to power the solar-thermal system and the heat pump can be provided by a photovoltaic array. This energy mix was
selected considering the output, the available solar energy, and the initial investment.
 Ion Visa and Anca Duta / Energy Procedia 85 (2016) 594 – 602 601

All the thermal functionalities can be covered over the year by this energy mix and an excess heat is generated by
the 50m2 of flat plate solar thermal collectors, as Fig. 7 shows. For a regular residential environment, this leaves
room for further optimization, in terms of tuning the STS:HP power ratio, or adding new functionalities (e.g. pond,
pool, etc.)

[kWh/year]
100000

75000
65817
50000

25000 9865
6440 18601
16454 4244
0 367
Heating DHW Cooling Electricity

STS Useful STS Excess HP

Fig. 7. Thermal energy components produced by the energy mix: solar-thermal system (STS 20%) and heat pump (HP 80%)
and the electricity consumption to power the mix

When designing solar-thermal systems or energy mixes involving these, one has to outline that the
costs are important issue in the relation with the end-users; these costs significantly vary with the
building energy efficiency. For the 80:20 STS-HP energy mix a simulation based on common market
costs was done, considering two scenarios that cover 50% and, respectively, 70% from the total
energy demand by using renewable energy systems (RES), as presented in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. RES Initial investment according to the energy efficiency of the building
602 Ion Visa and Anca Duta / Energy Procedia 85 (2016) 594 – 602

The financial effort for implementing renewables in a larger extent (70%) is not much higher as compared to the
50% share, if the building is LEB; however, costs are almost double for a building that has an average energy
consumption of 110 kWh/m2/year (corresponding to what today is considered to be a “well refurbished” building).

4. Conclusions

The paper reviews the main barriers that limit the large scale implementation of solar-thermal systems in the built
environment, beyond the DHW production. Addressing issues like efficiency, durability, architectural integration
and costs, the papers presents novel, integrated solutions at conceptual and applicative levels. These solutions can be
further refined when stepping on to the next level: sustainable communities, where the integrated approach building
– community allows the design of efficient and affordable sustainable energy mixes.

Acknowledgements

We hereby acknowledge the project EST in URBA, PNII-PCCA Type 2 contract no. 28/2012 financially
supported by the Romanian National Research Council.

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