Nelson Thornes PT oe ? lhe } « aS ZL “ al =( inspire achieve eee OR ME eMC eer ey ee eid Neen ee ad 7 Q support and Extension eens Pe eee ee fear (Cea! Deena ree ans Maths skills eon hee une las ee ints Q Teacher support - including WebQuests Teacher and Technician Notes. MN a, DRS Bee eT ur scources available. Product content mayvary by subject in the resources exclusively endorsed by AQA, “This ic the ful selaction of onlin Please note only the content For more information visit and sign up for a FREE 30-day evaluation Ms Nelson Thornesin OVA: Biology Ann ‘Fullick Lawrie e Ryan a aa Nelson Thornes“Text @ Ann Flick 2044 Ciginalilutratione € Nelson Thornes Lis 2044 “The right of Ana Fulci tobe certified as author ofthis work hasbeen assetted by hrin accercance with te Copyright, Oaagne and Patents Act 1968, ‘Al ights reserved. No part ot tis putiication may be reproduced cr vansmtted inany tam or by ary heans electronic oF machancal, including pnesocopy, Fecoraing oF an nirnation storage and ravival syston, wou pormiscien in ‘erting fom fw publsher or under icance nom fe Cop yh eraing Agen {Umiou, of Sutton House, 6-10 Nirby Stat, Londen, El erson wno coms any unauorsed a:nrolton to this pubteation ay ‘elle te cnmina proseculon and evi came for damages. ° ‘AGA examination quostiors are reproduced by parmission of the Assassment ard (Gualifeations Alliance, Published in 2014 by: Nelson Thornes Lid Dela Place DP Bath Road CHeLTENHAM iss 7H Untied Kingcom igs) moe7654 ‘Acatslogue record forthe book ie svalabl rom the Brion Ubrayy 1eBN 072 1 soes ose @ Cover photograph: Bloam Worke ire.Alary lustations include artwork drawn by Weerset Lid and David Russe Page make-up by Wearset Lid, Boldon, Tyne and Wear Indox created by indexing Spectalsis{UK) Lis Prrteg h crinaBiology Payson Hi How does eolance werk? H2 Fundamental ideas about how sclence works H3 Starting an investigation Ha Planning an investigation HS Designing an investigation HE Making measurements H7 Presenting data HB Using data to draw conclusions H9 Scientific evidence and society Hio TheIsA ‘Summary questions ing healthy 14 Dietand exercise 1.2 Weight probleme 1.3. Inneriance, exercise and health 114 Pathogens and disease 4.5. Defence mechanisms 116 Using drugs to treat disease 1.7 Growing end investigating bacteria 4.8 Changing pathogens 1.9 Immunity 1.10 Hovr do we deal witn disease? ‘Summary questions Exemination-style questions 2 Coordination and control 24 Responding to change 2.2 Reflex actions 2.3 Hormones and the menstrual cycle 2.4 Thoartilal contol of forty 2.5 Gortroling conditions 2.6 Hormones end the central of plant growth 2.7 Using hormones ‘Summary questions Exernination-style questions 3 Medicine and drugs 3 Developing new medicines 3.2 How effoctive are medicines? 33 Drugs 3.4 Legal and ilegal drugs 3.5 Does cennebis lead to hard drugs? 36 Drugsin sport ‘Summary questions Exerination-style questions Contents 44 45 4 Adaptation for survival 76 4a 4a ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions ‘Adapt and survive Adaptation ih animals Adaptation i plants Compettion in animals Competition in plants How do you survive? Meesuring environmental change The impact of change es 6 Energy in blomass 94 8A 52 53 5a 85 Pyramics of blomass Energy transfers Decay processes The carhon cycle Recyaling organic waste ‘Summary questions 104 Examinaton-style questions 105 6 Var technology ea 62 63 64 65 6s 67 ton, reproduction and new 106 Inheritance Types of reproduction Genetic and environmental diferences toning AAduit eel coring Genetic engineering Making choices about technology ‘Summary questions 120 Examination-style questions 121 7 Evolution a 72 73 7A 122 Theories af evolution Accepting Darwins ideas Natural selection Classification and evolution ‘Summary questions 120 Examinaton-style questions 131 End of unit examination questions MM 12 13 14 15 18 132 Animal and plart cells Bacteria and yeast Specialised cells Diffusion Tiseues and organo: Organ systems ‘Summary questions 146 Examination-style questions 147 5?2 Organisms in the environment 24 Photosynthess 22 Limtingtectors 23 How plante use glucose 2.4 Making the most of phocosynthesis 2.5 Organisms in their environment 2.8 Measuring the distributlon of organisms 2.7 How valid isthe data? ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions 3 Enzyme: 34 Protaine, catalysts and enzymes 32 Factors affecting enzyme action 33 Enzymes in digestion 3.4 Speeding up digestion 3.5 Making use of enzymes 16 High tech enzymes ‘Summary questions Exarination-style questions 4 Enorgy from respiration 44 Aerobic respiration 42. Theelfectof exercise on the body 42. Anacrobic reapkaton ‘Summary questions Examinaton-style questions 5 Simple Inheritance In animals and plants BA Collision and growth 52. CelldMsion in sevual reproduction 52 Stem cells 8.4 From Mendel io DNA 55 Inheritance in action 86 Inherited conditions in humans 57 Stem cells and embryos - science and ethics ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions 6 Old and new species 61. Theorigine oflife on Earth 62. Exploring the fossil evidence 63. More atoutextinction 64 loolation and the evolution of new speoiee ‘Summary questions Examinaton-style questions End of unit examination questions 148 162 163 164 176 77 4178 te 135 186 200 201 210 an 212 Sas) 1 Exchange of mat 14 Osmosis 1.2. Active transport 1.3. Thesports crink dlemma 4.4 Exchanging materials —the lunge 1.5. Yenilating the lungs 1.8. Anifcial breathing aids 17 Exchange in the gut 1.8 Exchange in plants 1.9 Tranepiration Summary questions Examination-style questions 2 Transporting materials 24 The clroulatory system end the heart 2.2 Keeping the blood flowing 2.2 Tranoportin the blood 24 Anttclalor real? 2.5 Transport ayetame In plants Summary questions Examination-etyle queatione 3 Keeping internal conditions constant 24 Controlling internel conditions 3.2 The human kidney 2.3 Dialysis —an artificial Vicney 34 Kidney ransplants 3.5. Controlling body temperature 216 Treatmentanc temperature iesues 3.7 Controlling blood glucose 2.8 Treating dabetes Summary questions Examination-style questions 214 292 233 244 245: 262 269 4 How humans can affect the environment 264 44 The effects of the population explosion 4.2 Land and water pollution 43 Ait polution 44 Deforestation and peat destruction 45 Global warming 48 Biofuels 47 Biogas 418 Making food production effisient 49 Sustalnable food production 440 Environmental iseuee Summary questions Examination-style questions End of unit examination questions Glossary Index Acknowledgements 284 205 geePe ecu ers keubed eset od Pe te col cad Wet Hints from the examiners who will mark your exams, giving you important advice on things to remember and what to watch outfor. ‘There are lots of interesting, and often strango, facts about ‘science. This feature tells you about many of them. GD links Links wil tell you where you can find more information about what you are learning. Activity ‘An activity is linked to a main lesson and could be a discussion or task in pairs, groups or by yourself. This feature highlights the maths skills that you will need for your GCSE Biology exams with short, visual oxpianations. Welcome to AGA GCSE Biology! This book has been written for you by the people who will be marking your ‘exams, vary experienced teachers and subject experts. It covers everything you need to know for your exams and is packed full o! features to help you achiave the vary best that you can. Questions in yallow boxes check that you understand what you are learning ‘as you go along. The answers are all within the taxt so if you don’t know the answer, you can go back and reread the relevant section. igure 1 Many ciagrams are as important for you to leam as the fest, 30 make sure you vie them earetly. Key words are highlighted in the text. You can look them up in the glossary at the back of the book if you are not sure what they mean. ', Where you see this icon, you will know that this part of the topic ! involves How Science Werks — a really important part of your GCSE and an Interesting way to understand ‘how science works’ in real life. Whara you sae this icon, there are supporting electronic rascurcas in our Kerboodle online service. roe “This feature helps you become familiar with key practicals. it may be simple introduction, a reminder or the basis for a prectical in the classroom, Anything in the Higher Tior boxes must be learned by those «itt 1g the Higher Tier exam. If you'll be sitting the Foundation Tier, these boxes can be missed out. ‘The same is true for any other places which are marked Higher or [H. Enno a toe) “These questions give you the chance to test whether you have leamed and understood everything in the topic. If you get any wrong, go back and have another look ‘And atthe end of each chapter you will find Summary questions ‘These will st you on what you have leamed throughout the whole chapter, helping you to vork aut what you have understood and where you need to go back and revise, PTT) important points that you must remember. They can be used AQA/ Examination-style questions “These questions are examoles ofthe types of questions you will answer in your actual GCSE exam, s0 you can get lots of practice during your course to help with revision and Se erHow Science Works How does science work? {« Sees This frat chepter looks at ‘How Science Works. It's an important part of your CTEM SSO GCSE because the ideas introduced here wil crop up throughout your course. > What ls meant by How You will be expected to collect scientilic evidence and to understend how Pliner wo use evidence. These concepts will be assessed as the major part of your internal school assessment. Ge You will take one or more 45-minute tests. These tasts are based on data SOCIETY) you have collected previously plus data supplied for you in the test. They Sra haaentd are called investigative Skills Assignments (ISA). The ideas in ‘How Science ORE PO Works’ will also be assessed in your examinations. Pee How science works for us Science worke for us all day, every day. You do net need to know how a mobile phone works to enjoy sending text massages. But, think about how you startad to use your mobile phone or yaur television remote control. Did you work through pages of instructions? Probably not! ‘You knew that pressing the buttons would change something on the screen CO links (knowledge). You played around with the buttons, to sco what would happon You can find out more about your (observation). You had a guess based on your knowledge and observations ISA by looking at H'0 The ISA atthe at vhat you thought might be heppening (prediction) and then tested your end of this chapter. idea (experiment), Perhaps ‘How Science Works’ should really be called ‘How Scientisis Work’ ‘Science moves forward by slow, steady steps. When a genius such as Einstein comes along, it takes a giant leap, Those small steps build on knowledge and experience that wa already have. The steps dor't always lead in a straight line, starting with an observation and ending with a conclusion. More often than not you find yourself going round in circles, but each time you go around the loop you gain more knowledge and 980 can make better predictions. Observation KN [eta tr —— Each small step is important in its own way. It builds on the body of knowledgo: that we have, but obsarvation is usually the starting point. In 1796, Edward Jenner observed that people who worked with cows did net catch smallpox but did catch a very similar disease called cowpox. This observation led him ‘agenive, to develop a system of inoculating people with cowpox to prevent them from bathe wakedtioughacentie Catching amalipos. Jenner called tis prooeas vaccination, rom the Lath word w. GCSE for cow, vacea. Figure 1 Albert Einatoin wCoconut seeds Once you have got the idea of holidays out of your | photograph in Figure 2 with your scientific brain. Work in groups to observe the beach and the plants grawing on it. Then 10, look att the you can star! to think about why the plants can grow (knowledge) so close to the beach. One idea could be that the seeds can float for a long while in the sea, without taking in any water. You can use the fell ‘with the rast of your class. ing headings to discuss your investigation. One person should be writing your ideas down, so that you can discuss them © W/bat prediction can you make about the mass of the coconut seed and the time it eponds in the soa wator? © How could you test your prediction? © What would you have to cortrol? © Write 2 plan for your investi © How could you make sure your results ware repeatable? Figure 2 Tropical beach Emre ee 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: experiment knowledge conclusion prediction observation You have loamod bofore that a cup of toa loses onergy ifitis loft standing. This is a piece of... ‘some results, and from these you make a. You make an... coloured cups will cool faster. So you make a. a blaok cup, this will cool fastast of all. You carry aut an ....... to get that dark- that if you have ‘Tne Greeks were arguably the first rue scientists. They challenged traditional myths about life. They put forward ideas that they knew would be ‘challenged. They wore keen to argue the point and come toa reasoned conclusion. ‘Other cultures relied on long-established myths and argument was seen as heresy. Com rr oe ed the starting point for an ee cas Or tae intended to explain certain Cee ye eure eect) Cas Te cal Pec crocsH2 PR ead een chou ed eats hal ccc} Cd © What Is the Importance of Cee ecu) Ped Tou td evidence is valid? eit eed between a resutt being repeatable and a result being eee Read a newspaper article or watch the news on TV. Ask yourself whether any research presented is valid. Ask yourself whether you can trust that erson’s opinion and wry. Figure 1 Cress seedlings growing ina i dish How Science Works te UC emer ee- Lele ey re) Mau ude) Science is too important for us to get it wrong ‘Sometimes it is easy to spot whan people try to use science poorly. ‘Sometimes it can be funny. You might have sean adver's claiming to give your hhair ‘body’ or sprays that give your fost ‘ft On the other hand, poor scientific practice can cost lives. ‘Some years ago a company sold the drug thalidomide to people asa sleeping pill, Research was cavried out on animals to see ifit was safe. The research cid not include work on pregnant animals. The opinion of the peopla in charge was that the animal research showed the drug could be used safely with humans. ‘Then the crug was also found to help ease morning sickness in pregnant women. Unfortunately, doctors prescribed it to many women, resulting in ‘thousands of babies being born with deformad limbs. It was far fram safe, These are very difficult decisions to make. You need to be absolutely certain of what the science is telling you. ‘Why was the opinion of the people in charge of developing thalidomide based on poor science? Deciding on what to measure: variables Variables are physical, chemical or biological quantities or characteristics. In an investigation, you normally choose one thing to change or vary. This is called the independent variable, When you change the independent variable, it may cause something alse to change. This is called the dependent variable. Accontrol variable is one that is kept the same and is not changed during the investigation, You need to know about two different types of these variables: © Acategoric variable is one that is best described by a label (usually a word). The ‘colour of eyes! is a categoric variable, e.g. blue or brown eyes. © Acontinuous variable is one that we measure, 90 its value could be any number. Temperatura (as measured by a thermometer or tamperature sensor) is a continuous variable, 2.g. 97.8", 45.2°C. Continuous variables can have values (called quantities) that can be found by making measurements (¢.0. light intensity, flow rate, etc). 'b Imagine you were growing seedlings in different volumes of water. Would it be better to say that some were tall and some were short, or some were taller than others, or to measure the heights of all the seedlings?Making your evidence repeatable, reprodu: and valid ‘When you are designing an investigation you must make sure that other people can get the same results 2s you. This makes the evidence you collect reproducible. ‘A measurement is repeatable if the original experimenter repeats the investigation using the same method and equipment and obtains the same results, ‘A measurement is raproducibla if the investigation is repeated by anothar parson, or by using cifterent equipment or techniques, and the same results are obtained. ‘You must also make sure you are measuring the actual thing you want ‘to measure. If you don't, your data can't be used to answer your original question. This seems vary obvious but itis nat always quite so easy. You need to make sure that you have controlled as many other variables as you can, 80 that no one can say that your investigation is not valid, A measurement is valid if it measures what itis supposed to measure with an appropriate level of performance. © State one way in which you can show that your results are repeatable. How might an independent variable be Ii dependent variable? Looking for a link between your independent and dependent variables is very important. The patter o your graph or bar chart can often help you to see if there is a link. ked toa But bewarel There may not be a link! If your results seem to show that there is no link, don’t be afraid to say so. Look at Figure 2. ‘The points on the top graph show a clear pattern, but the bottom graph shows random scatter. Bina atone 1 Gopy and complete this paragraph using the following words: continuous independent categoric dependent Stefan wanted to find out which was the strongest supermarket piastic carrier bag. He tested five different bags by adding weight to them until they broke. The type of bag he used was the ......... variable and the ‘weight that it took to break it was the ........ variable. The ‘type of bag’ is called a......... variable and the ‘weight needed to break’ it was a. variable. A researcher claimed that the metal tungsten ‘alters the growth of leukaemia cells’ in leboratory tests. A newspaper wrote that they would ‘wait until other sciontists had reviewed the research before giving thair opinion’. Why is this a good idea? ACA Examiner's tip ‘When designing your investigation yu should always tty to measure continuous data whonever you can. This is not always possible, so then you have to use a label (categorie variable). You might still be able to put the variables in an order so that you can spot a pattern. For example, you could describe flow rate as ‘fast flowing’, ‘stead | ‘flow’ or ‘slow flowing’. Figure 2 Which graph chows that there rmightbe a ink between x end y? a era Te Lee Aristotlo, a brillant Grook scientist, once proclaimed that men had more teeth than women! Do you think that his data collection was, reproducible? © Continuous data give more Pua ake Cros et ool Skee hedLearning objectives eed scientific knowledge to he ect) po ed Cea Ly Dead eee dod ee eta Cet Figure 1 Plant showing postive photetropism | ree ‘Some biologists think that we stil have about one hundred niilions apecios of insects to discover - plenty te go for then! Of course, observing one is the easy part - knowing that itis undiscovered is the difficult bit How Science Works Starting an investigation Observation ‘As humans we are sensitive to the world around us. We can use our many senses to detect whit Is happening, As scientists we use observations 10 ask questions. We can only ask useful questions if we know something about the observed event. We will nat have all of the answers, but we know enough to slart asking relevant questions. It we observe that the weather has been hot today, we would not ask whether itwas due to global warming. If the weather was hotter than narmal for several yeers, we could ask that question. We know that glabal warming takes many years to show Its effect. ‘When you are dasigning an investigation you have to observa carefully which variables are likely to have an effect. ‘@ Would it be reasonable to ask whether the plant in Figure 1 is ‘growing towards the glass"? Explain your answer. ‘Marmor noticed that hor corn was much smaller at the edge of the field than, in the middle (observation). She noticed that the trees were quite large on that side of the field. She came up with the following ideas that might explain why this is happening: © Tha trees at the edge of the fiald were blocking out the light. © Tha trees ware taking too many nutriants out of the soil @ The leaves from the tree had covered the young com plants in the spring. © The trees had taken too much water out of the soll. fe The seeds at the edge cf the field were genetically small plants. © The dill had planted fewer seeds on that side of the field. © The fertiliser spray had not reached the side of the field. © The wind had been too strong over winter and had moved the roots of the plants. @ Tha plants at the edge of the field had a disease. 'b Discuss each of these ideas and use your knowledge of science to decide which four are the most lkely 10 have caused the poor growth ofthe corn, Observations, backed up by really creative thinking and good scientific knowledge, can lead to a hypothesis. Testing scientific ideas Sciontists always try to think of ways to explain how things work or why they bbahave in the way that they do. ‘Aitor their obsorvations, thoy uso their undorstanding of science to come up with an idea that could explain what is going on. This idea is sometimes called a hypothesis. They use this idea to make a prediction. A prediction is like a guess, but itis not just a wild guess — itis based on previous understanding,[ _Staringan investigation Accientist will say, ‘Ifit works the way I think it does, | should be able to change this (the independent variable) and that will happen (the dependent variable.” Pradictions are what make solence 60 powerful. They mean that we can work outrules that tall us what will happen in the future. For example, electricians can predict how much current will flow through a wire when an electric cooker is connacted. Knowing this, they can choose the right thicknass of cable to use. Knowledge of energy transfer could lead to an idea that the insides of chips cook by anergy baing conducted from the outside. You might predict that ‘small, thinly sliced chips will cook faster than large, fat chips. © Lock al the photograph of a frog in Figure 2. Note down anything you find interasting. Use your knowledge and somo oreative thought to suggest a hypothesis based on your observations. Not all predictions are correct. I scientists find that the prediction doesn’t work, i’s back to the drawing board! They either amend their original idea or think of a completely new one, Starting to design a valid investigation Figure 2 arog observation + knowledge —» hypothesis —»> prediction <=» investigation Wo can tost a prodistion by carrying out an investigation. You, as tho scientist, predict that there is a relationship between two variables. ‘The independent variable is one that is selected and changed by you, the investigator. The dependent variable is measured for each change in your dependent variable, Then all other variables become control variables, kept constant so that your invastigation is a fair test. Hryour measurements are going to be accepted by other people, they must ba valid. Part of this is making sure that you ara really measuring the effect of changing your chosen variable. For example, if other variaoles aren't controlled properly, they might be affecting the data collec‘ed. Look at Figure 3. When investigating his heart rate before and ater Figure 3 Measuring a puso exercise, Darren got his ginriend to measure his puise. Would Darren's investigation be valid? Explain your answer. Aimee one Copy and complata this paragraph using the following words: ec: controlled dependent independent knowledge prediction hypothesis ea ‘An observation linked with scientific... an be used to make a Ck eens AoccliMkS AM sn VAMHRBIC to a... Variable. All other Crs variables needito be... '* Tosting prodictions can What is the difference between a prediction and a guess? ees Imagine you were testing how an enzyme affects the rate of reaction. Cee ‘The reaction might cause the solution to get hat. ee a ‘a. How could you monitor the temperature? Ce eae td b What other contol variables can you think ofthat might affect the valid results if you are to be results? neHow Science Works Planning an investigation Fair testing Afair testis one in which only the roto independent vasiabie affects the Lai dapendent variable. All ther variables SEE aca) (called contro! variables) should be kept the same. Ifthe testis no fair, the results of your invastigation will not be valid. DIU Sometimes itis very dificult to heap MEE OTE Control variables the same. However, at least you can monitor thom, so that you know whether they have changed or not. PR ead seh heal Poker seed FAQQA Examiner's tip Ityou are asked about why it i important to keep control variables constant, you need to give a delalled explanation. Don't just answar, ‘To make it a Figure 1 Com being examined fair test! When you are asked to write ‘@ Imagine you were testing how close together you could piant com to get a plen for your investigation, the most cobs. You would plant five different plots, with different make sure that you give all the numbers of plants in each plot. List some of the variables that you could eialls. Ask yourself, ‘Would not control someone alse be abla tofollow my written plan and use it to co the investigation?” ‘Surveys Not all sciontifio invostigations involve deliberately changing the indopendent variable. Imagine you were investigating tho affect of diet on diabetes. You might conduct a survey. You would have to choose people of the same age and ‘same family history to test. The larger the sample size you test, the better your results will be Control group Control groups are used in investigations ta try to make sura that you are ‘measuring the variable that you intend to measure. Wnen investigating the effects of a new drug, the control group will be given a placebo. This isa ‘pretend’ drug that actually has no effect on the patient at all. The control group think thay are taking a drug but the placebo does not contain the crug, This way you can contro! the variable of ‘thinking that the drug is werking’ and separate our the effect of the actual drug. Usually neither tho pationt nor the dostor knows until after the trials have been completed which of the patients were given the placebo. This is known as a double-blind trial,Le Risks and hazards (One of the first things you must do is to think about any potential hazards and then assass the risk. Everything you do in lifa presents a hazard. What you have to do is to identify the hazard and then decide the dearee of risk that it cives. Ifthe risk is very high, you must de something to reduce it. For example, if you decide to go out in the pouring rain, lightning Is a possible hazard. However, you decide that the risk is 0 small that you will ignore it and go out anyway, Ifyou decide to cross @ busy road, the cars travelling along it at high speed represent a hazard. You decide to reduce the risk by crossing at a pedestrian crossing. Burning foods Imagine you were testing crisps to seo how much onergy they give out when burned. © What are the hazards that are present? © What could you do to reduce the risk from these hazards? Ameen 1 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: investigation hazards assessment risks Before you carry out any practical... you need to carry out a risk -You can do this by looking for any potential ...... and making sure that the are as small as possible. 2 Explain the difference between a control group and a control variable. 8. Briefly describe how you would go about setting up a fair test in a laboratory investigation. Give your answer as general acvice. Figure 2 The hazard is the busy road, We reduce the risk by using a pedestian crossing, Before you start your practical work you must make sure that itis safe. What are the likely hazards? How could you reduce the risk causad by these hazards? This is known as arisk assessment. You ‘may well be asked questions like this on your ISA papor. eet fair tosting - as far as is fs eek Feu investigation. Oe ey eck hea) Fey independent variable is Cre a eee i! Ges ear Ce ua ua Rete reePR ead Sr shat Peete epic ece ee sek un Cea i koe eu suitable interval? © How do you ensure accuracy and precision? How Science Works Designing an investigation Choosing values of a variable Trial runs will tell you a lot about how your early thoughts are going to work out, Do you have the correct conditions? A photosynthes's investigation that produces tiny amounts of oxygen might, not have enough light, pondweed or carbon dioxide. Alternatively, the ‘temperature might nat be high enough. Have you chosen a sensible range? Range means the maximum and minimum values of the independent or dependent variables. Itis important to choose a suitable range for the independent variable, otherwise you may not be able to see any change in the dapendent variable. For example, ifthe results aro all very similar, you might not have chosen a wide enough range of light intensities. Have you got enough readings that are close together? “The gap batwaen the readings is known as the interval. For example, you might altr the ight intensity by moving @ lamp to different distances from the pondweed, A set of 11 readings equally spacad over a distance of 1 metie would give an interval of 10 centimeties. Ifthe results are vary different from each other, you might not see a pattem if you have large gaps between readings over the important par! of the range. Accuracy Accurate measurements are very close to the true value. ‘Your investigation should provide data tha is accurate enough to answer your original question. However ite not aways possible to know what that the tro valuo i. How do you get accurate data? @ You can repeat your measurements and your mean is more likely to be accurate, © Try repeating your measurements with a differen whether you get tha same readings. ¢ Use high-quality instruments that measure accurately €¢ The more carefully you use the measuring instruments, the more accuracy you will get. rument and seePrecision, resolution, repeatability and reproducibility A precise measurement is one in which thara is very little spread about the ‘mean value. Ifyour repeated measurements are closely grouped together, you have precision. Your measurements must be made with an instrument trat has a suitable resolution, Resolution of a measuring instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being measured (input) thet gives a perceptible change the reading. It's no use measuring the time for a fast reaotion to finish using the seconds hand on a clock! If there are big differences within sets of repeat readings, you will not be able to make a valid conclusion. You won't be able to trust your datal How do you get precise data? @ You have to use measuring instruments with sufficiently small scale divisions. © You have to repeat your tesis as often as necessary. © You have to repeat your tesis in exactly the same way each time. It you repeat your investigation using the same method and equipment anc. ‘obtain the same results, your results are seid to be repeatable. Itsomeone else repeats your investigation in the same way, ori you repeat it by using different equipment or techriques, and the same results are obtained, tis s2id to be reproducible You may be asked to compare your results with those of others in your group, or with data from other scientists. Research like this is a good way of checking your results. A word of caution! Precision depends only on the extent of random errors - it gives no indication of how close resuits are to the true value. Just because your results show precision does not mean they are accurate, a Drawa thermometer scale reading 49.5" both accurata and precise. ‘showing four results that are Rte e teen 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: range repeat conditions readings runs give you a good idea of whether you have the correct. to collect any data; whether you have chosen the correct forthe independent variable, whether you have enought ......., and whether you noad to do. readings. 2 Use an example to explain how a set of repeat measurements could be accurate, but not precise. 3. Explain the difference bstween a set of results that are reproducible and 4 set of results that are repeatable. LL ACA Examiner's tip ‘You must know the difference between accurate and precise results, Imagine measuring the ‘temperature after a set time when a fuel is used to heat a fixed volume of water. “Two students repeated this, exporimont, four times each. “Their resuits are marked on the ‘thermometer scales below: © A precise set of repeat readings will be grouped closely together. © An accurate set of repeat readings will have a mean (average) close to the true value. sec 4erc (but not acuratey ut ratprecise) Como eo ad Dey Cheeni Res eee Dee ar Rees Setter between the values of a Pe Ree okie? Pe aueete wl aad accuracy and precision. '* You should try to reproduce Pete eanPR ead BAe SC Sead Cee ea Eee eT eka eee uke Me eed Feu eu il and a random error? © How does human error affect eat sci) Send Figura 1 Student tating the rate at “which oxygen is produced using an enzyme How Science Works Making measurements Using instruments ‘Try measuring the temperature of a beaker of water using a digital thermometer. Do you always get the same result? Probably nol! So can we say ‘that any measurements absolutely correct? In any experiment there wil be doubts about actual measurements, a Lock at Figure 1. Suppose, like this student, you tested the rete at which ‘oxygen was producad using an enzyme. Itis unlikaly that you would get two readings exactly the same. Discuss all the possible reasons why. ‘When you choose an instrument you need to know that it wil give you the accuracy that you want. You need to be confident that itis giving a true reading. Ifyou have used an electric water bath, would you trust the temperature (on the dial? How do you know its the true temperature? You could use a very expensive tharmomater to calibrate your water bath. The expensive thermometer is more likely to show the true temperature. But can you really be suro it is accurate? ‘You also need to be able to use an instiument properly. 1b In Figure 1 the student is reading the amount cf gas in the measuring cylinder. Why is the student unlikaly to get a true measurement? Instruments that measure the same thing can hava different sensitivities. Tha resolution of an instrument refers 10 the smallest change in a value that can be dltected, This is one factor that determines the precision of your measurements. Choosing the wrong scale can cause you to miss important data or make silly conclusions. We would nat measure the weight of a pras kilograms, we would use miligrams. ion drug in © Match the following scales to thelr best use: Used to measure Resolution of scale ‘Se cla cel rilimetres Human height metres. Length ofa running rao to test iness | micrometres Growth of seedlings centimetres Errors Even whan an instrument is used correctly, the results can still show differences. Results may differ because of random error. This is most likely to be due to @ poor measurement being made. It could be due to not carrying out the method consistently. Ifyou repeat your measurements several timas and thon caleulato a mean, you will reduce the effect of random errors.Pwaxingmeasuenscts ‘The error might be a systematic error. This means that the method was TTT carried out consistently but an error was being rapeatad. A systematic error will make your readings be spread about some value other than the tue valu. [Ifyou are asked whal may have This is bocause your results will differ from tho tua value by a consistant caused an error, never answer amount each time a measurement is made. simply ‘human error’ - you won't get any marks for this. No number of repeats can do anything about systematic errors. t you think that you have a systernatic error, you need fo repeat using a different set of equipment | You need to say what the ra diferenttechnique. Then compare your results and spot the aiferencel experimenter may have dena ‘Azeto error is one kind of systematic error. Suppose that you were trying to _| 10 Cause the erro, or give more measure the lerath of your desk with ametre rule, but youhacn*t noticed thet | etal, og, ‘Human reaction someone hed sawn off hal a centimetre from the end of the ruler. twouldn't |e might have caused an cerrorin the timing when using a ‘ter how many tir jeated the measurement, ld never get matter! iny times you reps ‘measurement, you would never g stopwatch: any nearer to the true value, Look at the table, Itshows the two seis of data that were taken from the investigation that Sara did. Sho tostod five differont volumes of enzyme. Sars’ ivetiglion into the volumes at enzymes Amount of enzyme used (mm?) 1[2[,3,4][5 ir Alecander Fleming had ‘Oxygen produced ( 32 | 80 | 05 127 | 750 | ownbacteria on agar plates. Ga) He noticed an anomaly. There Volume ot oxygen expectea em) | 31 | 04 | 97 | 125 | 71 was somemoudgrowngon Caled onvoenroducon ms) [a> | aa [0s [vee | 207 | oneeftoplaes and ecund en) itthere were no bacteria, He = = decided to investigate further 4. Discuss whether there fs any evidence of random errorinthese suits. | Ses aw meet te mou! © Discuss whether theres any evidence of systematic erorin these sults. Oniy begause Femring owcked cout his anomaly didi load to Anomalies the discovery of penicillin. Anomalous results are cleerly out of line. They are not these that are due to ‘the natural variation you get from any measurement. These should be locked at carefully. There might be a very interasting reason why they are so different. ‘You should always look for anomalous results and discard them before you Doar caloulete a mean, if necessary. © If anomalies can be identified while you ara doing an investigation, itis bast [Paina d Anil ha ‘to repeat that part of the investigation. @ Ifyou find anomalies efter you have finished collecting data for an oe investigation, they must be discarded. Pec ts Bina eee © The resolution of an Peete) 41 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: preety accurate discarded random resolution systematic detect. Coe maratC De UT Thoro will aways be some in rosults. You should always choose random and/or systematic the best instruments that you can in order to get the most... fesults. Co You must know how to ...... the instrument properly. The... of an . re Puce Cae Interesting ideas, If they are Ce cay Whet kind of error will most likely occur in the following situations? eek nett 2 Asking everyone in the class fo measur the length of the bench Cue Using @ ruler that has a piece missing from the zaro end. Petr cue instrument refers to the smallast change that can be detacted. There are two types of error— and ‘Anomalies due to random error should be...PR ead eHow do you calculate the facut etc eT Cd Se Bias Ce i Lf Figure 1 Petr cish witn discs showing grown inhibition of bacteria How Science Works Presenting data For this section you will be working with data from this investigation: Mel spread some bacteria onto a dish containing nutrient jelly. She also placed some dises onto the jolly. The discs contained differant concentrations of an antibiotic. The dish was sealed and then left for a couple of days. Then she measured the diameter of the clear part around each disc. The clear part is where the bacteria have not been able to grow. The bacteria grew all over the rest of the dish. Tables Tables are really good for getting your results down quickly and clearly. You should design your table before you start your investigation. Your table should be constructed to fit in all the data to be collected. It should ba fully labelled, including units. You may want to have extra columns for repeats, calculations of means or calouleted values. Checking for anomalies While filing in your table of results you should be constantly looking for anomalies, © Check to see whether any reading in a set of repeat readings is significantly iferent from the others. © Check to see whether the pattern you are getting as you change the jependant variable is what you expected. Remember, a result thet looks anomalous should be checked out to see iit really is a poor reading. Planning your table Mel had deciced on the values for her independant variable. We always put ‘these In the first column ofa table. The dependent varlable goes in the second column. Mol will fin its values as cho carriae out tho investigation. So she could plan a table like this Concentration of antibiotic Gugimi) ‘Size of clear zone (mm 4 @ 16 2 4 Or like this: Concentration of antibiotic (ugimi) + [8 [wl |e Size of clear zone (mm) Al she had to do in the investigation was to write the correct numbers in the second column to complete the top table,[Presenting deta Mel's results are shown in the alternative format in the table below. QU TITTIT Concentration af antibiotle (g/m!) @ [8 [6 | 2 | 6 | Pimenyoumekea table for your Size of clear zone (mm) a [16 | 2 | 26 | 28 results, remember to include: headings, inclucing the units The range of the data eatite, Pick out the maximum and the minimum values and you have the range of a When you draw a line graph or vvar'able. You should always qucte these two numbers when asked fora range. | bar chart, romomisor to: For example, the range of the dependent variable is between 4mm (the lowest | @ uso sensible scale thet is vvalue) and 28mm (the highest value) - and con't forget to include the units! easy to work out @ use as much of the graph peper es possible; your data should occupy at least a third of each axis @ label both axes of best fit ‘a Whatis the range for the independent variable and for the dependent variable in Mel's cat of date? The mean of the data Cfton you have to find tho moan of oach repoated sot of measurements. ‘The first thing you should do is to look for any anomalous resuits. If you find any, miss these out of the calculation. Then add together the remaining measurements and divide by how many there are, For example: © Mel takes four readings, 15mm, 18mm, 29mm, 15mm © 29mm is an anomalous result and so is missed out. So 15 +18 + 15 = 48 © 48 divided by thrae ithe number of valid results) = 16mm ‘The repeat values and mean can be recorded as shown below: © draw lina graph @ label each bar ifitis a bar chart. ACA Examiner’s tip ‘Marks are often dropped in the ISA by candidates plotting Concentration of antibietio ‘Size of clear zone (rm) points incorrectly Also use Wain) pceroar| casey Tala (rasa aline of best fit where ee res appropriate — don't just join the points ‘dot-to-dot! a 15 18 6 16 Displaying your results Bar charts Ione of your variables is categorie, you should use a bar chart, LOTS ee Line graphs ert Ifyou have a continuous independent and a continuous dependent variable, a Ve fe graph should be used, Plot the points as small ‘plus’ signs (+. Aurea eed De aoe Res 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following worde: categorio continuous mean range ‘The maximum and minimum values show the ofthe data. The Sr EES ‘sum of he values in a set of rapeat readings divided by the ‘otal number Lasts of these repeat values gives the... Bar char's are used when «© Bar charts are used when ee Same oem eee variable. Line graphs are used when you have... independent and a dependent variables. to dloplay data thet are 2 Draw a graph of Mat's resulis from the top of this page. Ces reHow Science Works Using data to draw conclusions Identifying patterns and relationships Now that you have a bar chart or a line graph of your results you can begin to PR ead EE cok for pattems. You must have an open mind at this point. ond pattorns? First, there could stl be some anomalous results. You might not have picked! ‘these out earlier. How do you spot an anomaly? It must bea significant ee distance away from the pattern, not just within normal variation, If you do have Leibalablipbiehenlsediintly any anomalous results plotted on your graph, circle these and ignore them CEG SCIGE when drawing the line of best fit. rata Now look at your graph. Is there a pattern that you can see? When you have Conclusions trom decided, draw a line of best fit that shows this patter. een id Aline of best fits a kind of visual averaging process. You should draw the LOU NIST ine so that it leaves es many points slightly above the line as there are points Rd balow. In other words itis a line that steers a middle course through the fiald of points. ‘The vast majority of rasuits that you get from continuous data require a line of best iit Remember, a line of best ft can be a straight line oritcan be a curve - you have to decide from your results. ‘You nead to consider whether your graph shows a linear relationship. This simply means, can you be confident about drawing a straight line of best fit on your graph? Ifthe answer is yes —is this lina positive or nagative? ‘a Say whether graphs i and iin Figure 1 show a positive or a negative linear relationship. Look at the graph in Figure 2. It shows a positive linear relationship. Italso goes through the origin (0,0). We all this a directly proportional relationship. A\4 ‘Your results might also show a curved line of best fit. These can be predictable, complex or very complex! Look at Figure 3 below. a b Figure 1 e relationships z bs s 3 8 Tine “Temperature Alrtemperaure © ° o Time Figure 2 Graph showing a directy Figure 3 a Grach showing predictable resuts b Graah showing complex results ¢ Graph a relationship showing very complex oaultsSr Drawing conclusions If there is @ pattern to be seen (for example as one variable gets bigger the other also gets bigges), it may be that: © changing one has caused the other to change © the two are related, but one Is not necessarlly the cause of the other. Your conclusion must go no further than the evidence that you have. Looking at relationships ‘Some people think that watching too much television can cause an increase in violence. The table shows the number of talavision sets in the UK for faur different years, and the number of murders committad in those years. ‘Year| Numberof televisions (nillions) | Number of murders 1970 6 310 1980 25 500 80 2 350 ‘When you read scientific you read scier 2000 £0 750 claims, think carefully about the Plot 2 graph to show tha relationship. Do you think this proves that evidence that should be there watching television causes violence? Explain your answer. to back up the claim. Poor science can often happen if a wrong decision is made here. Newapapers have said that living near electricity substations can cause cancer. Allthat sclentists would say is that there is possibly an association. Evaluation ‘You will often be asked to evaluate eithar the method of the investigation or the conclusion that has been reached, Ask yourself: Could the method have been c 4 © Drawing lines of best fit helps improved? Is the ccnolusion that has been made a valid one? P netusion a * ee Smee eee peut 1 Gopy and complete this paragraph using the following words: Weta Sane anomalous complex directly negate positive Clg, Lines of best fit can be used to identity results. Linear eer mle uel reletonsbips oan be nf nnn fa ereight lino goes through the ee origin of a graph, the relationship is proportional. Often a line of best fit is a curve which can be predictable or Creu eee cy Nasma knew about the possiple link between cancer and living near es to electricity substations. She found a quote from a National Grid Company survey af substations: ‘The reproducibility of data, . Cope) ‘Measurements of the magnetic field were taken at 0.5 metres above prprenshernmnn nest ground ‘evel within 7 metre of fences and revealed 1.9 miorotesas. After by othere, perhape onthe 5 metres this dropped to the normal levels measured in any house. nan pepe ers Discuss the type of experiment and the data you would expect to see to CL eae ‘support a conclusion that itis safe to build houses over 5 mates from Dea helo) an electricity substation. RotaPR ead Sera Poveda te aac aed uated ed Oe eid Re eet See Ly Pea eT CCL ‘Asscientist who rejected the idea of a causal link between smoking and lung cancer was lator found to be being paid by a tobacco company. KO Ifyou are asked about bias in scientific evidence, there are ‘two types: ‘© the measuring instruments may have introduced a bias because they were not calibrated correctly «the scientists themselves may have @ biased opinion (e9 ifthey are paid by a company to promote their produc). How Science Works Seu Ur RUL Reeling Now you have reached a conclusion about a piece of scientific research. So ‘what is next? If itis pure research, your fellow scientists will want to look at it very carefully. fit affects the lives of ordinary people, society will also want to examine it closely, ‘You can help your cause by giving a balanced account of what you have found out. Itis much the same 2s any argument you might have. If you make ridiculous claims, nobody will beliave anything you have to say. Be open and honest. Ifyou only tell part ofthe story, sameone will want to know why! Equally, it somebody is only telling you part of the truth, you cannot bbe confident about anything they aay. @ Adisinfectant claims thatit kills 99.99% of germs on surfaces that you come in contact with every day. What is missing? Is itimportant? ‘You must be cn the lockout for people who might be biased when presenting scientific evidence. Some scientists are paid by companies to do research. ‘When you are told that a cartain product is harmless, just chack out who is telling you. 'b Bottles of perfume spray contain this advice: This finished product has not been tested on animals.’ Why might you mistrust this statoment? ‘Suppose you wanted to know about how to slim. Who would you be more likely to believe? Would it be a scientist working for ‘Stim Kwi independent scientist? Sometimes the differences are not quite so obvious. We also hava to he very careful in reaching judgaments according to who is presenting scientific evidence to us. For example, ifthe evidence might provoke public or political problems, it might be played down. Equally, otners might want to exaggerate the findings. They might make more of the resulta than the evidence suggests. Take as an example the data available on animal research. Animal liberation followers may well present the same evidence completely differently to pharmaceutical companies wishing to dovolop now drugs. © Check out some websites on smoking and lung cancer. Do a balanced review looking at tobacco manufacturers as well as anti-smoking lobbies such as ASH. You might also check out government websites.‘The status of the experimenter may place more weight on evidence. Suppose a lawyer wants to convince a jury enquiry that a particular piace of scientific evidence is valid. The lawyer wil choose the most erninent scientist in that eld who is likaly to support them. Cot deaths are a particularly difficult problem ‘for the police. Ifthe medical evidence suggests that the baby might have been murdered, the prosecution and the defence get the most eminent scientists to argue the validity of the evidanca. Who does the jury believe? EXPERT WITNESS IN COT DEATH COURT CASE MISLED THE JURY ‘or ghirg seriously o'a woven bong id abuco expert was ack of a5 doctor ‘Atoaingesdchce na cnr camp The po cese Tray banc of murdering Fer wo cre. The limitations of science Science can help us in many ways but it cannot supply all the answers. We aro still finding out about things and developing our scientific knowledge. For example, the Hubble telescope has helped us to revise our ideas about the beginnings of the universe, ‘There are some questions that we cannot answer, maybe because we do not have enough reproducible, repeatable and valid evidence. For example, resaarch into the causes of cancer still needs much work to be done to provide data, There are some questions that science cannot answer at all. Thesa tend to be questions where beliefs, opinions anc ethics are important. For example, science can suggest what tho universe was like when it was first formod, but cannot answer the question of why it was formed. Ane 4 Copy and complete this paragraph using the following words: status balanced bias political Evidence from sciontific investigations should be given in a... Way. lt must be checked for any __... from the experimenter. Evidence ‘can be given too little or too much weight iit is of........ significance. The of the experimanter is likely to influence people in their judgement of the evidence. 2 Collect some nawspaper articles to show how scientific evidence is used. Discuss in groups whether these articles are honest and fair representations of the science. Consider whethar they carry any bias. This is the opening paragraph from a review of GM foods. The UK government has been promoting ... a review of the science of GM, led by Sir David King (the Government's Chief Scientific Adviser) working witi Protessor Howard Dalton (the Chief Scientific Adviser 10 the Secretary of State for the Environment, Food and Rural Aifairs), with independent advice from the Food Standards Agency. Discuss this paragraph and decide vihich parts of it make you want to belleve the evidence they might give, Next, consider which parts make you mistrust any conclusions they might reach. [ Scientitc evidenceand soctety Science can often lead to the development of naw matarials or techniques. Sometimes. these cause a problem for society where hard cnoices ave to be made. Scientists can give us the anewors to many questions, but not to every question. Scientists have a cortribution to make to a debate, but sodo others such as environmentalists, economists and politicians. Figure 1 The Hubble epace faloscope can look deop into space ard tll us ‘ings aoour the Universe's begioning ‘rom the formations of eerly galaxies ene Such that points out clearly how Peta Sect) contain any bias from the edad sets checked to appreciate Neder Poe Deas eae er Cea the weight placed on the CeeRu eae rsa ened Cece Pie eects © How do you arrive at a ere ca ‘When you are making a blank table or drawing a graph or bar chart, make sure that you use full heacings, eg, @ the length of the lea’, not just ‘length’ © the time taken for the reaction’, not just ‘time’ @ the height from which the ball was dropped’, not just ‘height’ and don't forget to include any units. How Science Works There are several different stages to the ISA (Investigate Skills Assignmant) ‘that you will complete for your Controlled Assessment. This will make up 25% of your GCSE marks. Stage 1 Your teacher will tall you the problem that you are going to investigate, and you will have to develop your own hypothesis. They will also set the problem in a context - in other words, where In real fe your investigation could bbe useful. You should have & discussion about it, and talk about different ways in which you might solve the problem. Your teachar should show you the equipment ‘that you can use, and you should resaarch one or two possible ‘methods for carrying out an ‘exporiment to test the hypothesis. ‘You should also research the context and do a risk assessment for your practical wor. You will be allowed to make one side of notes on this research, which you can take into the written part of the ISA Figure 1 Doing practical work allows you to develop bre skils needed to do wall the ISA You should be ellovred to handle the equipment and you may be allowed to carry out a preliminary experiment. ‘Make sure that you understand what you have to do - nowis the time to ask questions if you are not sure, Section 1 of the ISA ‘At the ond of this stage, you will anewor Section 1 of the ISA. You will need to: © develop a hypothesis © identity one or more variables that you nead to control © describe how you would carry out the main experiment © Identify possible hazards and say what you would do to reduce any risk © make a blank table ready for your results. What features should you include in your written plan? What should you include in your blank tablo? ooStage 2 AC QA Examiner's tip ‘This is whore you carry out the experiment and get some rasuts. Dor'twory — P'when you are comparing your too much about soending a long time getting fantastically accurate results -it | conclusion with the Fypethesis, ie more important to get some results that you can analyee. make sure that you also tak about tho oxtent to which your results support the hypothasis. Which of these answers do ‘© How do you decide whather you should draw a bar chart or a lino graph? you think would score the most After you have got results, you will have to compare your results with those of others. You will also have to draw a graph or a bar chart. marks? ‘© My results suppor the Stage 3 hypothosie. ‘This ie whero you answor Section 2 of the ISA. Section 2of the ISA isall about | @ Inmy results, asx got your own results, so make sure that you look at your table and graph when bigger, y gotbigger, as you are answering this section. To get the best marks you will need to quote stated in the hypothesis. some data from your results. © Inmy results, ao x got oo bigger. y got bigger. as, stated in the hypothesis, but unlike the hypothesis, y stopped increasing after a while, Section 2 of the ISA In this section you will need to: © say what you were trying to find out © compare your results with those of others, eaying whether you think they are similar or different analyse data that is given in the paper. This data will be in the same topic area as your investigation ideas from your own investigation to answer questions about this © write a conclusion © compare your conclusion with tha hypothesis you have tested. ‘You may neod to change or oven reject your hypothesis in response to vyour findings. Poh ha) Pi ee eri ee ca kd Pues) a hot! Behe ed Tue yee say how you are going to Eine eter 1 Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: cet ab ay ial control independent dependent Stet ‘When writing a plan, you need to state the varieble thet you are Secpheto hii daliberetely going to change, called the variable. You also need het eatin to say what you expect will change because of this; this is called the ‘Always refer back to the ~~ Variable. You must also say what......... variables you will keep hypothesis when you aro constant in order to make ita fair test. Seas tos Aire ceeGCM) Summary questions a Put these words into order. They should be in the order that you might use them in an investigation. design; prediction; conclusion; method; sepeat; controls; graph; results; table; improve; safety; ‘hypothesis 2) a How would you tell the differance between an opinion that was scientific anc a biased or prejudiced opinion? b Suppose you were describing tha height of piants ‘or some fieldwork. What type of variable would you choose and why? You might havo observed that lichons do not grow whore there is air pollution. You ask the question why. You use ‘some theory to answer the question. a Explain what you understand by the term ‘hypothesis’ Sulfur cioxide in the air forms acids that attack the lichens. This is a hypothesis. Develop this into a radiation © Explain why a prediction is more useful than a hypothesis, Suppose you have tasted your prediction and have some data. What might this do for your hypothesis? Suppose the data does not support the hypothesis. ‘What should you do to the theory that gave you the hypothesis? @ a Whatdo you understand by a ‘fair test"? b Explain why setting up a fair test in fieldwork is, difficult, ¢ Describe how you can make your results valid in fieldwork. d Suppose you were carrying out an investigation into how pulse rates vary with exeroise. You would noed to carry out a trial. Describe what a trial would tell you about how to plan your method. 5 Suppose you were watching a friend carry out an’ investigation measuring the carbon dioxide produced by yeast cells. You have to mark your friend on how: accurately she is making her measurements. Make a list of points that you would be leaking for. How do you decide on the range ofa set of data? How do you calculate the mean? When should you use a bar chart? When should you use a lina graph? aoce 1% a What should happon to anomalous results? b What does a line of best ft allow you to do? ¢ When making a conclusion, what must you take into consideration? d_How can you check on the repeatability and reproducitilty of your results?@ a Why is it important when reporting science to ‘tell he truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth’? b Why might some poople be tempted not to bo ‘completely fair when reporting their opinions on scientific data? @ a ‘Science can advance tachnology and tachnology can advance science.’ What do you think is meant by this statment? b Who should answor the questions that start vit ‘Should we... 10 Look at the electron micrograoh image below. Stomata are very small holes in the leaves of plants. They allow carbon dioxide to diffusa into the leaf cells for photosynthesis. The size of the hole is controlled by guard cells. It was suggested that the size of the hole might affect the rata at which carbon dioxide diffused through the hole. End of chapter questions Stomata are very small holes (when fully open they are 40-20 ym in diamatar). The question was: Aro small holes better than large holes? This would seem reasonable as plants have very small stomata, The hypothesis was that small holes would allow more carhon dioxide to pass through than large holes. Itwas decided to use much largar holes than the stomata because it would be easier to get accurate measurements. The investigation was carried out and the results ware as follows. Diameter ot hole | Volume of CO, diffusing per hour (eum (eon) 227 oz 124 10 60 006 82 os 20 002 a What was the observation on which this investigation was based? b What was the original hypothesis? © What was the likely prediction? d What was the independent variable? What was the dependent variable? What is the range for the diameter of the hole? g Why was the temperature kept the same during the investigation? h Was this @ sensible range of size of holes to use? Explain your answer. How could the investigation be made more repeatable and reproducible? | Was the sensitivity of the instrument measuring volumes of CO, satisfactory? Provide come evidence for your answar from the data in the table. k Draw a graph of the results in the table above, 1 Describe the pattem in these results, m What conclusion can you inake? 1 Does your conclusion support the prediotion?Learning objectives errors Corea cud aruda lots of food without getting a tri Cert ‘Whether you prafar sushi, dahl, Cor roast chicken, you need to cat a varied diet that includes everything you need to keep your body healthy. Figure 2 Athletes have 2 great deal cf rmuscie tissue so they have to eat alot of Keeping healthy Diet and exercise What makes a healthy diet? (9 A balanced diet contains the correct amounts of © carbohydrates proteins fats @ vitamins © minerals © fibre © water. ‘Your body uses carbohydrates, proteins and fats to release the energy you need to live and to build new cells. You need mall amounts of vitamins and minerals for your body to work healthily. Without them ‘you will suffor doficioncy Figure 1 Abalanced ct provides everything you diseases. it youdon'thave a need 10 surwwve, cluding plenty of energy balanced diet then you will end Fortunately, in countries like the UK, most of us take in all the minerals and vitarrins we need from the food wa eat. Howaver, our diet can easily be unbalanced in terms of the amount of energy we take in. if we take in too much energy we put on weight. If we don't take in enough we become underweight. Itisn't always easy to get it right because cifferent people need different amounts of energy. Even if you eat a lot, you can still lack vitamine and minerals if you don't eat the right food. ‘@ Why de you need to eat food? How much energy do you need? The amount of energy you naed to live depends on lots of diferent things. ‘Some of these things you can change and some you cart. Males need to take in more energy than a famale of the same aga — unless she is pregnant Ifyou are a teenager, you will need more energy than if you are in your 708, b Why does a pregnant woman need more energy than a woman who isn't pregnant? Your food supplies anergy to your muscles as they work. So the amount of exercise you co affects the amount of enargy you need. If you do very litte exercize, then you don't need as much food. The more you exeraige the more food you nead to take in. sod to supply the energy hey need ©