NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHERS.Copyright © 1996 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers First Edition : 1996 Reprint : 2005 NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002 Visit us at : www.newagepublishers.com Offices at: Bangalore, Chennai, Cochin, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jalandhar, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai and Ranchi This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. This book cannot be sold outside the country to which it is consigned by the publisher without the prior permission of the publisher. Rs. 450.00 ISBN : 81-224-0750-1 3456789 10 Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110 002 and printed in India at A.P. Offset, Naveen Shahdara, Delhi-110 032.Contents Preface v CHAPTER 1: CONCEPT OF ACCURACY LL Introduction 4 1.2 Part Accuracy 1 136 = 14 General Concept of Accuracy of Machine Tool 8 1.5 Spindle Rotation Accuracy 12 1.6 Test Methods for Radial Spindle Rotation Error 16 1.7 _ Significance of Spindle-rotation Error for Machine Tools 18 1.8 Displacement Accuracy 19 1.9__ Influence of Geometric Accuracy of Machine Tools on Workpiece Accuracy 24 1,10 Important Data on Economically Attainable Accuracy 2 1.11 Accuracy Under Cut 33 2.1.__Intraduction 2.2__ Errors Due to Numerical Interpolation 2.3 Errors Due to Displacement Measurement System 24 __ Definition of Accuracy of a Numerical Control System 2S___Periodic Errors 2.6 Errors Due to Velocity Lags 2.7___ Transient Response 2.8 Slideways Friction 2.9__ Feed Drive Stifiness 210 Zero Stability S BIBS BIISie 3.1__Tolerance 3.2 Zero Line 3.3 Sign Convention 3.4 Tolerance Zone 2.5__Fits 6: 3.7___Basic Hole System of Fits 3.8 Asic Shaft System 3.9 Standards of Limits and Fits 3.10 Probable Percentage of Clearance and Interference Fits in a Transitional Fit 3.11 Expected Accuracy of a Manufacturing Process RRB Sageviii Contents 3.12__Selected Shaft and Hole Tolerances and Bits 3.13 314 3.15 3.16 3.17 318 3.19 3.20 3.21 Commonly Used Classification of Types of Fits Tolerances and Fits for Bearings Calculation of Limiting Values of Interference in Interference Fits Calculation of Clearance in Journal Bearings: Methods of Specifying Fits on Splined Shafts and Holes Selective Assembl} Coaxiality Tolerance and Tolerance on Distance Between Axes Calculation of Dependent Tolerances on Distance Between Centres of Holes Gauges for the Control of Distances Between Axes 3 1S jz Sle lelels 4.1 Introduction 87 }.2__ Basic Types of Tests 87 4.3 Testing Methods and Use of Checking Instruments 38 4.4 Measuring Instruments Used for Testing Machine Tools 39 45 Alignment Tests 92 56 Compliance of Workpiece Errors Due to the Variation of the Cutting Force Errors Due to Variation of the Total Compliance Errors Caused by Cutting Force Deformation in Turning, Boring and Milling. A Case Study Errors Due to Compliance While Machining Surfaces on Vertical Milling Machines Errors Due to Compliance While Grinding on Cylindrical Grinding Machines CHAPTER 6: INACCURACIES DUE TO THERMAL EFFECTS 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 6.10 6.1L 6.12 6.13 614 Introduction Heat Sources Consequences of Environment/temperature Other Than 20°C Calculation of Heat Generated in Heat Sources Heat Dissipation Calculation of Temperature Fields and Deformations Geometry of Thermal Deformations Stabilization Temperature Excessive Fluid Heating in Hydraulic Systems ‘Computation of Temperature Fields and Deformations by Numerical Methods Minimising Departure from Ambient Temperature in a Thermally Controlled Environment Methods of Decreasing Thermal Effects Rates of Thermal Expansion Cutting Too! Axis Growth Due to Cutting Temperature 127 127 128, 131 132 132 134 134 135 136 137 138 138 142 142,Contents ix 7.3. Significance of Forced Vibrations in Various Types of Machine Tools. 147 CHAPTER 8: DIMENSIONAL WEAR OF CUTTING TOOLS AND ITS INFLUENCES ON ACCURACY 149 8.1 Introduction 149 8.2. Specific Dimensional Wear of Carbide Tools 150 CHAPTER 9: CLAMPING AND SETTING ERRORS 151 9.1 Introduction 151 92 — Clamping Errors 151 9.3. Setting Errors 153 9.4 Macro Irregularities of Machine Too! Tables 158 CHAPTER 10 : ERRORS DUE TO LOCATION 159 10.1. Location of Blank for Machining 159 10.2 Location of a Rectangular Prism (3-2-1 Principle) 159 10.3 Location of Long Cylinder (4-1-1 Principle) 160 10.4 Location of Short Cylinder 160 10.5 Location ona Long Tapered Hole 162 10.6 Principle of Incomplete Location 162 10.7 Datum for Measurement 163 10.8 Locating Error in Machining by Automatic Size Maintenance 163 10.9 Typical Locators 167 10.10 Principle of Constant Location Surfaces im CHAPTER 11 : SURFACE ROUGHNESS AND MICROFINISHING PROCESSES 174 11.1 Definition of Terms 174 11.2 _ Relation Among the Various Indices of Surface Roughness 175 11.3 Ideal and Final Roughness in Machi 175 11.4 Influence of Machining Parameters on Surface Roughness 7 11.5 _ Ideal Surface Roughness in Slab Milling 182 11.6 Correlation of Ry with ftmax 182 11.7 The Concept of Form Factor, F and Bearing Area Curves 183 118 Bearing Area Curves 184 11.9 Microfinishing Processes in the Machining of Metals 185 11.10 Some Observations on Surface Texture Measurement 189 11.11 Surface Texture Measurement with Stylus Type Instruments 190 11.12 Cut-off Length in Roughness Measurement 193 11.13. Magnitudes of Roughness from Various Machining Processes 193x Contents CHAPTER 12 : DIMENSIONING AND DIMENSIONAL CHAINS 195 12.1 Introduction 198 12.2. Definition of Terms 196 12.3. Dimensional Chain — An Example with Basic Equations 197 124 Dimensioning a Stepped Shaft 200 12.5 Machining a Hub or Bush with Keyway 201 126 1g Tolerances on the Constituent Dimensions 203 12.7 Tolerance on Dimensions of a Stepped Hole 208 12.8 Solution of Dimensional Chains When the Tolerances Are Normally Distributed 210 12.9 Dimensional Chains with a Rigid Compensating Element 213 (CHAPTER 13 : METHODS OF IMPROVING ACCURACY AND SURFACE FINISH 216 13.1 Concept of Precision Machining 216 13.2 Finish Turning 217 133. Finish Boring 218 134 Finish Grinding 223 135 Precision Cylindrical Grinding 26 13.6 Internal Cylindrical Grinding 229 13.7 _ Enorsin Shape of Surface Grinding 232 BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES 0028 Appendix | : Standard Normal Distribution _227 ‘Appendix 2 : Survey of Geometric Accuracy Tolerances for Machines with Rotating Workpieces 238 Appendix 3 : Survey of Geometric Accuracy Tolerances for Machines for Box ‘Type Workpieces 240 Appendix 4 : Commonly Used Classification of Types of Fits 242 Appendix 5 : Recommended Shaft Fits _ 243 ‘Appendix 6: Recommended Housing Fits _245 Appendix 7 : Approximate Compliance Values for Elements of Metal-Cutting Machine Tools 247 Appendix : Approximate Values of Rigidity and Compliance for Metal-Cutting ‘Machine Tools 24 Appendix 9 : Calculation of the Radial Component of Cutting Force in Lathe Work, Py. 249 INDEX. 251CHAPTER I CONCEPT OF ACCURACY 1.1 INTRODUCTION By the accuracy of a part or machine we mean the degree with which it approximates its geometrically correct prototype. It is practically impossible to manufacture any part or machine absolutely ac- curately, that is, it exactly corresponds to its geometrical representation. Therefore, the deviations from the theoretical values are taken as a measure of accuracy. After measuring these deviations, they are checked against those permitted by the service function of the part or machine. Consequently, permissible deviations or tolerances should be established for all quality features of a part or machine. Thus, the measures of accuracy are the established permissible deviations on the one hand and the measured (measured with a known degree of approximation) actual deviations of a real part, on the other. 1.2 PART ACCURACY ‘The accuracy of a part consists of the following elements: (4) Dimensional accuracy. (2) Accuracy of geometrical form or macrogeometry of the surface. (3) Locational accuracy or positional accuracy of surfaces in relation to each other, (4) Surface waviness. (5) Surface roughness or surface microgeometry. The geometrical form of a part is usually a combination of flat, cylindrical, tapered, spherical and other surfaces. The actual form of a part inevitably differs from the theoretically specified form and depends on a number of factors such as compliance of the tool-workpiece machine tool system, metal cutting conditions, de- gree of wear of machine and tool, geometric accuracy of the machine tool, thermal effects, setting and clamping errors. Waviness and microgeometry of a surface essentially influence the functional qualities of mating parts and are given elaborate treatment later in the book. 1.3 ERRORS Errors in form and relative location of surfaces comprise the following: 1.3.1 Errors of Cylindrical Form (a) in a transverse section: (i) Oval form, (ii) lobed form, (iii) Random irregularities characterized by significant departures from the basic round form. These are also called roundness errors.2 Precision Engineering in Manufacturing (b) in a longitudinal section. (i) Barrel form, (ii) Cradle or bow form, (iii) Curvature of the axis, (iv) Taper 1.3.2 Errors in a flat surface (a) Lack of straightness, (b) Lack of flatness 1.3.3 Errors in relative location of surfaces (a) Misalignment, (b) Radial run-out, (c) Axial run-out, (4) Non-parallelism of axes, (€) Incorrect location of intersecting axes, (f) Surfaces not parallel with each other, and (g) Surfaces not square with the each other. The degree of ovality is judged by the difference A between the major and minor axes in a single cross-section (Fig. 1.1). Ovality is likely to arise duc to misalignment in the machine tool centres, and/or the centre holes in the part. Normally ovality errors occur in bored holes due to radial spindle rotation error. The lobed form is one in which the cross-sectional contour is composed of arcs. This is likely to arise due to inaccurate and/or wom out centre holes. The degree of “lobedness’, A, may be characterised by the difference between the diameter Describ- ing the cross-section and the distance L between parallel planes tangent to the part (Fig. 1.2). 1 Fig. 1.2 Lobed formConcept of Accuracy 3 Three methods of evaluating roundness from the roundness-tracing curve traced ‘on a roundness measuring and recording instrument are explained in Figs. 1.3a to 1.3c. The roundness error may be expressed by the radial separation of two concentric circles which just contain the actual traced curve. NGS fa) (b) B= (Rnax — Rin) 6 =(Rmax - Rein ) =224mm =1.93mm \ TT {c) B=(Rmax — Rmin) = 183mm Fig. 1.3 The assessment of the same roundness tracing curve by 3 different mathods to illustrate the variation4 Precision Engineering in Manufacturing There are three commonly used methods for establishing the centre of the bound- ing circles. (i) Ring-gauge centre method Considering the tracing of an outside surface, itcan be assumed that from a functional point of view the external protruberances of the tracing line represent those areas of the surface where mechanical contact with mating parts will eventually result, For the evaluation of roundness, acirele may be sought which just contains these external protuberances and the other bounding circle will be concentric with that guiding one, independently of the radial separation (Fig. 1.3a). This separation could be substan- tially greater than the one obtained by establishing the best fitting or minimum-zone concentric circles (Fig. 1.3c). In the described method where the outside bounding circle is the reference circle, its function can be compared to that of a ring gauge and for that reason the method is known as the RGC (ring gauge centre) system. (ii) Plug gauge centre method This is the reverse of the preceding method and is applicable to tracings representing abore contour, The method is based on plug gauge centre (PGC) system (Fig. 1.3b). (iti) Minimum zone centre method In this method, that particular centre location is found by which the radial separation of the bounding circles will be the least. In practice this goal is accomplished by Floating Chart Reader (a transparent glass or plastic template with concentric circles at scaled distances apart) which is shifted on the roundness tracing curve till two fitting circles are obtained (Fig. 1.3c). This method of assessment called the mini- mum zone centre method (MZC) is frequently used because it produces the smallest numerical value for the measured departures from roundness. The error barrel and bow forms, A is defined as the difference in the diameters at the middle and end cross-sections (Fig. 1.4). Barrel form is produced when very slender workpieces are turned between centres. Bow form is produced due to an inherent variation of compliance of the machine tool along the length of the workpieces when stiff workpieces are turned between centres. ‘The error due to the curvature of axes, A is determined by the deflection of the axis or elements of the axis or elements of the cylinder (Fig. 1.5). Taper is evaluated by the difference in diameter over a given length. (Fig. 1.6). Lack of straightness in a flat surface is determined as the distance between 2 parallel lines located in a plane P square with the tested surface. The plane P inter- sects the surface in the required direction and the two lines enclose the section profile of the tested surface (Fig. 1.8). 4=(D-d) Fig. 1.4 Barrel form=z ap. Fig. 1.5 Bow form6 Precision Engineering in Manufacturing Lack of flatness is expressed as the distance between parallel planes I and I which enclose the tested surface between them (Fig. 1.9). Fig. L9 Lack of flatness Misalignment is the parallel deviation, A (Fig. 1.10a) of axes which normally should coincide. It is also the amount of cocking (Fig. 1.10b) between these axes determined as the distance A, between the centres of the holes on the tested length L. A Fig. 1.10 Misalignment The radial run-out is the maximum difference in the distances from the tested surface to the axis of centres (Fig. 1.10c). Radial run-out may be a result of misalign- ment of axes, as well as ovality, lobed form or other form of roundness error or cur- valure of axes.Concept of Accuracy 7 Axial run-out or slip is the maximum deviation, A of an end surface from a plane square with the axis of the part (Fig. 1.11). Fig. 1.11 Axial runout or slip Non-parallelism of axes is the difference in the distances a and a2 (Fig. 1.12) between the axes measured in cross-sections square with one axis and at the given distance L apart from each other. ul \ 1 \ i \ | \ i \ i \ I \ i \ a A=(a2-a)) Fig. 1.12 Nonparallelism of axes ‘The error of out-of-squareness is the deviation from a right angle of the angle between the surfaces (Fig. 1.13). Fig. 1.13 Surfaces not square with each other (Surfaces A and B)8 Precision Engineering in Manufacturing Non-parallelism of surfaces is the difference in the distances between the surfaces measured at the given distance L (Fig. 1.14). Fig. 1.14 Surfaces not parallel with each other (Surfaces C and D) 1.4 GENERAL CONCEPT OF ACCURACY OF MACHINE TOOL ‘The accuracy of a machine tool is understood as a complex of its parameters influenc- ing the accuracy of the machined work-pieces. This implies that while the accuracy of a part or workpiece can be expressed in purely geometric concepts of form, diemensions, surface waviness and surface roughness, the accuracy of the machine tool consists of not only its geometric aspects but also the kinematic considerations related to the machining movements. In acceptance testing of machine tools, many kinematic aspects are included under the overall term ‘geometric accuracy testing’. The concept of machine too! geometric accuracy can be divided into the following subconcepts. Accuracy of reference surface of the nfachine: This refersto the accuracy of those surfaces which are mated with reference surfaces of workpieces or tools such as spindle flanges, spindle cones, surfaces of beds, tables and T-slots. Some geometric features of significance requiring a check in acceptance testing of machine tools are given below: (a) Straighness of bed (e.g. Lathe), (b) straightness of slideways (e.g. grinding machine), (c) Flatness of tables in the longitudinal and transverse directions (e.g., milling machine), (4) Straightness and flatness of base plate (e.g., radial drilling machine). Accuracy of motions along basic axes of the machine tool, or practically, ac- curacy of linear motion: These include geometric form of relative tool-work paths of points located on workpiece and geometric relationships as parallelity, squareness and concentricity of these paths relative to each other or to the reference surface of the machine tool. Acceptance tests on machine tools consists mostly of tests of this type. Some examples are listed below: (a) Lathe work spindle parallel to bed in horizontal plane (carriage moved in the longitudinal direction on the bed), (b) Movement of upper slide of carriage of lathe parallel with work spindle in vertical plane,Concept of Accuracy 9 (c) Tail-stock guideways parallel with movement of carriage, (d) Rise and fall of milling machine table in longitudinal motion, () Movement of work table of milling machine parallel to the spindle axis, (f) Transverse movement of table of milling machine parallel to cutter spindle in vertical plane, (g) column ways for knee of milling machine square with work table during vertical movement of knee, (h) work table of drilling machine square with guideways during the vertical movement of table along the guideways, and (i) straightness of table movement of grinding machine A comprehensive treatment of the above can be found in the poineering work “Testing Machine Tools’ by Georg Schlessinger. (2] These are elaborately discussed in a separate chapter of this book. However, some important aspects of the technique of measurement of straight- ness of motion of a body are given below. ‘They are essential to comprehend fully the concept of machine tool accuracy. Figure 1.15a shows the three basic angular motions of a machine table during its rectilinear movement, namely, pitch, roll and yaw with respect to X, Y and Z axes respectively. The straightness of motion is checked by checking one or more of these angular motions. In Fig. 1.15b, the straightness of motion is checked by measuring the pitch. Even if the level does not show any pitch motion, a roll around an axis could exist which would result in an up and down movement of the table, causing an error of straightness of motion. Fig. |.15c and 1.15d representing artificial cases prove that measuring the motion of a point P as in Fig. 1.15a will not be valid. In Fig. 1.15¢ an up and down motion is present without pitch, roll or yaw. Similarly.in Fig. 115d a sideways movement is present without pitch, roll and yaw. However, in normal cases, the measurement of angular deviations are very valu- able in evaluating the motion of a point P located above the table surface. Z Pitoh x Yaw I LAN (1.6)16 Precision Engineering in Manufacturing Fig. 1.19 Influence of spindle rotation error on workpiece roundness in turning. Itcan be shown that the generated surface differs from a true circle by an amount 8, given by Ar (7) 2k which is negligible. For example, if A, = 10 ym, R= 50mm, then 8 = 0.001 pm. Thus, it is seen that the fundamental radial motion does not cause any roundness error in turning. 1.6 TEST METHODS FOR RADIAL SPINDLE ROTATION ERROR (a) The basic method for boring: The scheme of the method is depicted in Fig. 1.20. The main feature is the use of an oscilloscope screen from which a photograph of the figure representing radial motion of the spindle is taken. There has to be a basic refer- ence circle on which the radial motion may be superimposed so that the trace will have the same significance as a Talyrondgram (roundness record) has for a machined workpiece. ‘The basic circle is obtained using two pickups located in two perpendicular direc- tions X and Y, which sense the circular motion of a high precision ball fixed to the spindle with a small eccentricity e. The signals from the pickup are amplified and fed to the horizontal and vertical deflection plates of an oscilloscope. If the rotation of the spindle is perfect, the trace of the motion of the ball would be a true circle having a radius e. This is so as each pick-up picks up the component of the motion falling into its direction. The signals are sine and cosine one which when combined will form a circle in the cartesian coordinates of the oscilloscope. In reality the radial motion errors of the revolving spindle will be superimposed on the circular motion of the centre of the ball. The pick-ups will sense the X and Y components of the summary motion, and these get amplified and appear on the oscil- loscope screen.Concept of Accuracy 7 Such a trace will correspond to a Talyrondgram of the imprints of the spindle rotation error into a round surface machined by a rotating tool. In this way the tool is represented in the measurement by the eccentricity located ball. The above method can be used at high speeds and has none of the disadvantages of the classical method. Oscilloscope Fig. 1.20 Method of radial motion measurement (Rotating tool) (b) The method for lathes: The method described in Fig. 1.20 does not reflect errors machined into the workpiece when the workpiece rotates while the tol is sta- tionary. It has been pointed out earlier that there is a basic difference between the boring and turning cases. In boring, the errors occur in the continuously varying direction of the rotating tool and get imprinted on the workpiece. In turning, the error sensitive direction is stationary. In turning only one pick-up replacing the tool is used. It is necessary to superim- pose the signal of the pick-up on acircular trace on the screen of the oscilloscope. The scheme is shown in Fig. 1.21. Wobble plate Circle generating cams Oscilloscope ‘Spherical master Demoduiators and Differential amplifiers amplifiers Fig. 1.21 Method of radial motion measurement (Rotating workpiece)18 Precision Engineering in Manufacturing ‘Two circle generating cams fixed to the spindle are used. These are two cylindrical cams etcentric to spindle axis. Their eccentricities are perpendicular to each other: Two gauge heads | and 2 sense the surface of these cylindrical cams. In this way a sine and a cosine signal led to the horizontal and vertical plates of an oscilloscope will create a basic circular trace. The gauge 3 is the one in place of the tool and it senses the movement of a high precision ball. The master must be centred as accurately as possible. The signal 8 of the gauge 3 has to be superimposed radially to the circular trace onthe screen. This means that two signals Ssin wt and dcos ax will have to be added to the signals of 1 and 2. This is achieved by multiplying the signal of 3 once with that of 1 and once with that of 2 as shown in Fig. 1.21. A trace of spindle rotation error is shown in Fig. 1.22. The radial distance between the inner and outer envelop- ing circle A, may be considered to be the radial motion error. ar Fig. 1.22 Trace of spindle rotation error. 1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF SPINDLE-ROTATION ERROR FOR MACHINE TOOLS The significance of spindle rotation error for some basic machine tools is discussed below: (a) Grinding wheel spindles: Neither the radial nor axial motion errors of grind- ing wheel spindle will affect the roundness error of the ground workpiece. They cause only waviness and roughness of the ground workpiece. (b) Work spindles of cylindrical and internal grinding machines: The error radial motion of work spindle will affect directly the roundness error of the workpiece. This applies to cylindrical grinding machines for chuck work only. (©) Spindles and rotating tables of boring and turning machines: The form of the generated surface will be directly affected by spindle rotation error. (@) Spindles of milling machines: From the point of view of accuracy of milled surfaces, the spindle rotation error is of no consequence. In spite of this the spindle mounting is made precise to get increased stiffness. (©) Tables of gear cutting machines: High requirements of spindle rotation ac- curacy are imposed as the radial error is directly imprinted on the accuracy of the produced gears. For hob spindles small radial errors and still smaller axial errors are required. Radial errors of | to fraction of a micron are al- lowed on precision machine tools. The values of “‘radial runout of the inner ring’*, ¢,, which is the total indicator reading of the movement of the stationary outer ring of the assembled bearing as specified by I.S.O. are given in Fig. 1.23.Concept of Accuracy 19 — nf 4 Ps 1] . Pe 4 / T ——f* ql P2 J 183030 30 Ti 1m 186 70 mn Fig. 1.23 Radial runouts of inner rings of rolling bearings (LS.0.) ‘The tolerances shown in Fig. 1.23 give only maximum permissible values. They also include eccentricities which do not count when the spindle rotation error is deter- mined by the trace method on an oscilloscope. Thus the best rolling bearings can give spindle rotation errors below one micron. 1.8 DISPLACEMENT ACCURACY The displacement accuracy of a machine tool is the accuracy with which a relative displacement between tool and work may be imparted. Displacement accuracy is also called lead accuracy or positioning accuracy. It refers to the length of displacements and in the design of the machine itis related to the displacement system, The displace- ment system in the machine can be very simple as a lead screw connected with a dial or disc or ean be very complicated as in a position control servo system. It isnecessary to point out that positional accuracy in the direction of a particular axis may be dif- ferent in different parts of the working zone. The displacement accuracy depends not only upon the location of the displacements but also on the prevailing thermal condi- tions, weight and cutting forces and clamping effecis. Displacing a body along a line to a target will involve several types of errors. These can, first of all, be divided into two groups: (a) Static, (b) dynamic. In the simple control systems, the dynamic part is the one comprising the effect of velocity with which the target is reached. There is no need to distinguish between the static and dynamic errors except for servo systems and NC systems of the continuous-path type. The basic components of displacement error are as follows: (a) Cumulative error: This is the systematic error over a certain length of travel or over full length of travel. A part of this error may be cyclic. This is typical of a lead screw system or a gear transmission system. (b) Scatter: This is a random error characterising the accuracy while repeatedly displacing to the various targets. (c) Dead zone: [tis defined as the difference in reaching the target from two different directions. This is normally caused by the backlash in the mating parts. (d) Least possible displacement.20 Precision Engineering in Manufacturing Cumulative error can be determined by taking a set of similar measurements over a given length. A typical record of cumulative error of a lead screw system is given in Fig. 1.24, Over the length L1 an error of e will result. Over the length Lo the error is e:. It may be noted that ¢: << e; though L; may be a little greater than L (Fig. 1.24a). The maximum error ¢3 will occur when displacing between P; and P2 over the length L3. PI P2 (b) Fig. 1.24 Typical record of cumulative error Scatter can be found by positioning repeatedly to the same nominal position. As shown in Fig. 1.24b various values of the error corresponding to the position 1 are obtained, one of them being é max and another being ¢: nin. The scatier can be evaluated statistically as + 30 of the various values. The dead zone can be obtained by positioning from two opposite directions and finding the difference between ¢; + and er (Fig. 1.24c), The magnitude of the least possible displacement is important especially in grind- ing machines. When in the last measurement before finishing, it is felt that the dimen- sion isto be reduced by a few microns, it should be ensured that the infeed mechanism is sensitive enough to allow for a small additional displacement accurately. The four basic components of the displacement error are present in all types of machine tools and these need to be determined by suitable tests. Scatter, dead zone ‘and least possible movement depend on the load on the slideways due to workpiece weight and have to be tested under this load. Usually, displacements are effected before the cut is started. On copy lathes, automatic displacements are terminated under cut. 1.8.1 Influence of displacement accuracy on machined workpieces in basic machine tools Ina lathe, a milling machine or a grinding machine, the usual method of controlling the size of the workpiece is by positioning according to a scale or graduated drum and leadscrew for the roughing cut, then measuring the workpiece size and finally using the displacement system for a final small incremental displacement. The cumula- tive error of the displacement system over the whole length of travel is of no great importance, but the cumulative error of the measuring micrometer is important. When workpieces with lesser tolerances are machined, a certain degree of accuracy over the whole travel is required in order to dispense with need to measure theConcept of Accuracy 21 workpiece every time. A much higher degree of accuracy is required for short dis- tance displacements and for scatter. Dead band is not very important as setting is normally done in one direction only. ‘Sometimes, manually operated machines are fitted with a numerical display of the displacement. When the measuring system is attached to the slide directly, the lead screw errors are of no significance. Figure 1.25 shows a hydraulic system for automated machines working in a dead- stop mode. The system has no scale and so no possibility of cumulative error. But the positioning of the dead stop (DS) requires some type of measuring system. It is usually a coarse scale so a test cut is made and then a corrective setting of the dead stop or P on the slide is made. The ease and accuracy of setting of DS or Pas well as the scatter in repeated positioning need to checked. SC) > ma 7 Fig. 1.25 Hydraulic system working in a Dead stop mode In Fig. 1.26 is shown a hydraulic copying system. Apart from the dead zone and other dynamic error which occur in a feed back position control system, the cumula- tive error is represented here by the accuracy of the template. The accuracy of setting of the template has to be checked. The accuracy of the system can be considerably influenced by the offset of the template with respect to spindle axis. Fig. 1.26 Hydraulic copying system 1.8.2 Permissible values of displacement errors for various machine tools Permissible values of displacement errors are given in Tables 1.1 and 1.2. Cumulative error is given in 5 grades, I, Il, II, IV and V. 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