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Luis Anchordoqui
Friday, November 12, 2010
X: Variational Principle
Luis Anchordoqui
Friday, November 12, 2010
Given two points in a plane
y2 y = y(x) 2
⦁
⦁ �
⦁ ds = dx2 + dy 2
y1 1
⦁
x
x1 x2
⇓
find the function y(x) for which the integral is minimum
Friday, November 12, 2010
Fermat’s principle
What is the path that light follows between two points?
⇓
Fermat (1601 - 1665)
⇓
the path for which the time of travel of the light is minimum
� 2 � x2 �
n(x, y)ds = n(x, y) 1 + [y � (x)]2 dy
1 x1
f (x)
x0 x0 x0
x
2 2
✓If d f /dx > 0 ⇒ f has a minimum
✓If d2 f /dx2<0⇒f has a maximum
y(x1 ) = y1 y(x2 ) = y2
y2 2
⦁
1 y(x)(right)
y1
⦁
x
x1 x2
⇓
dS/dα = 0 when α = 0
Friday, November 12, 2010
The Euler-Lagrange Equation (cont’d)
� x2
�
S(α) = f (Y, Y , x)dx
x1
� x2
= f (y + αη, y � + αη, x)dx
x1
differentiate with respect to α
⇓
∂f (y + αη, y � + αη � , x) ∂f � ∂f
=η +η
∂α ∂y ∂y �
⇓ � x2
dS ∂f
= dx
dα x1 ∂α �
� x2 �
∂f � ∂f
= η +η �
dx
x1 ∂y ∂y
=0
Friday, November 12, 2010
The Euler-Lagrange Equation (cont’d)
Re-write second term on the right using integration by parts
� x2 �x 2 � x 2 � �
∂f ∂f � d ∂f
η (x) � dx = η(x) � �� −
�
η(x) �
dx
x1 ∂y ∂y x1 x1 dx ∂y
endpoint term is zero
� x2 ⇓ � x2 � �
� ∂f d ∂f
η (x) � dx = − η(x) �
dx
x1 ∂y x1 dx ∂y
⇓
� x2 � �
∂f d ∂f
η(x) − �
dx = 0
x1 ∂y dx ∂y
This condition must be satisfied for any choice of the function η(x)
We can conclude that ☛ ∂f d ∂f
− �
=0
∂y dx ∂y
∀x ∈ x1 ≤ x ≤ x2
if all the functions concerned are continuous
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) Joseph Lagrange (1736-1813)
Friday, November 12, 2010
The shortest path between two points
We saw that the length of a path between points 1 and 2 is
� 2 � x2 �
L= ds = 1 + y �2 dx
1 x1
y(x) = mx + b
Friday, November 12, 2010
Lagrange’s equations for unconstrained motion
Consider a particle moving unconstrained in 3 dimensions
The particle’s kinetic energy is
1 1 2 1
T = mv = mṙ = m(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 )
2
2 2 2
and its potential energy
U = U (r) = U (x, y, z)
The Lagrangian is defined as
∂L d ∂L ∂L d ∂L ∂L d ∂L
= = =
∂x dt ∂ ẋ ∂y dt ∂ ẏ ∂z dt ∂ ż
Friday, November 12, 2010
Hamilton’s principle
Euler-Lagrange equations then imply
⇓
Hamilton’s principle
(1805-1865)
The actual path which a particle follows between points 1 and 2
in a given time interval t1 to t2 is such that the action integral
� t2
S= L dt
t1
∂L d ∂L ∂L d ∂L ∂L d ∂L
= = =
∂q1 dt ∂ q̇1 ∂q2 dt ∂ q̇2 ∂q3 dt ∂ q̇3
Since these new coordinates are any set of generalized coordinates
the comment ☛ (at least in Cartesian coordinates)
can be omitted from our previous statement
Crucial step in deriving Lagrange’s equations of motion
⇓
observation that yield a result equivalent to Newton’s second law
true only if the original frame in which we wrote down
L=T −U is inertial
Though Lagrange’s equations are true for any choice of (q1 , q2 , q3 )
that may in fact be the coordinates of a non-inertial frame
must be careful when we first write down the Lagrangian
⇓
do so in an inertial frame
Friday, November 12, 2010
Variational Principle for Free Particle Motion
Newtonian mechanics can be summarized by a particle of extremal
action
The straight lines along which free particles move in spacetime are
paths of longest proper time between two events
0 = δS
�
= d4 x [∂φ L δφ + ∂∂µ φ Lδ(∂µ φ)]
∂µ (∂∂µ φ L) − ∂φ L = 0
Friday, November 12, 2010
Maxwell’s equation from the principle of minimal action
For the electromagnetic field we can write
�
4
S= d x L(Aµ , ∂µ Aν )
such that the Euler-Lagrange equation becomes
� �
∂L ∂L
∂µ =
∂(∂µ Aν ) ∂Aν
What are the invariants for the electromagnetic action?
I1 = Fµν F µν
I2 = Fµν ∗ F µν
= F0i F 0i + Fij F ij
1
= −(F 0i )2 + (Fij )2 = �µναβ F αβ F µν
2
= B2 − E2 = 12 �ijk F jk ����
F 0i + 12 �i0jk F jk F i0 + 22 �ij0k F 0k F ij
� �� �
Bi Ei
= Bi E i − Bi E i + Bk E k
� .E
= B �
dL
Lagrangians that differ in total derivatives L +
dt
give the same equation of motion same for Lagrangian
densities that differ by a divergence
hence a term in the Lagrangian of the form
∗ µν ∗ µν
Fµν F = 2∂µ (Aν F )
does not contribute to the equation of motion
Friday, November 12, 2010
Maxwell’s equation from the principle of minimal action
µν µν (cont’d)
We are searching for ∂µ F = 0 the definition of F
guarantees ∗ µν
∂ F =0
Lem = aFαβ Fγρ η αγ η βρ
= a(∂α Aβ − ∂β Aα )(∂γ Aρ − ∂ρ Aγ )η αγ η βρ
= 2a∂α Aβ (∂γ Aρ − ∂ρ Aγ )η αγ η βρ
∂Lem
=0
∂Aν
∂Lem ∂(∂α Aβ ) ∂(∂γ Aρ ) ∂(∂ρ Aγ ) αγ βρ
= 2a (∂γ Aρ − ∂ρ Aγ )η η + 2a∂α Aβ
αγ βρ
− η η
∂(∂µ Aν ) ∂(∂µ Aν ) ∂(∂ A )
� �� � � �� �
µ ν ∂(∂ µ A ν )
� �� �
µ ν
δα δβ δγµ δρν δρµ δνγ
� µγ νρ α βν αν βµ
�
= 2a η η (∂γ Aρ − ∂ρ Aγ ) + ∂α Aβ (η µη −η η )
= 2a [(∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ ) + (∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ )]
= 4aF µν
µν
hence 4a∂µ F = 0 !!!
Friday, November 12, 2010
Maxwell’s equation from the principle of minimal action
(cont’d)
The inhomogeneous equation comes out from the interaction term
� S = Sem + Sint�
µν 4 ν 4
S=a Fµν F d x+b Aν J d x