Superconductivity

Bart Raes, Raes.Bart@kuleuven.be

 Summary Second lecture
▪ Superconductivity a “macroscopic quantum effect”
• Macroscopic quantum model of superconductivity
• Manifestation I :Flux quantization
• Manifestation II: Introduction of the Josephson effect
- Application: the SQUID Modulation critical
- Effect finite size junction current by field
• Exercise

Third lecture
▪ RCSJ-model of a Josephson junction
• IV characteristic of a Josephson junction under dc current bias
• IV characteristic of a Josephson junction under dc voltage bias
• Exercise
 1
Recap: The Josephson effect
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟~1𝑛𝑚
𝑆1 𝑆2

𝑛𝑆1 𝑒 𝑖𝜙𝑆1 𝑛𝑆2 𝑒 𝑖𝜙𝑆2

𝜑 = 𝜙𝑆1 − 𝜙𝑆2
~Ohm’s law for JJ

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 (1st Josephson Equation or Current-phase relation)

𝑑 𝜑 2𝑒𝑉
= (2th Josephson Equation or Voltage-phase relation)
𝑑𝑡 ℏ

2𝜋 2 𝜑=“gauge invariant
In the presence of a magnetic field: 𝜑 = 𝜙𝑆1 − 𝜙𝑆2 − Φ න 𝐴Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑ℓ phase difference”
0 1

Q: What if the Josephson junction is biased with a current I>> 𝑰𝒄 ?

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Model of a Josephson junction
Today: response of a Josephson Junction to a bias current I > 𝐼𝑐 ?
• Josephson equations only describe the response of the superconducting electrons
(“Cooper pairs”), that’s sufficient to describe the response for 𝐼 < 𝐼𝑐
• For 𝑇 > 0 or 𝐼 > 𝐼𝑐 , besides Cooper pairs, there is a finite density of normal electrons
(called “quasiparticles”, see BCS theory) due to thermal or current induced break-up of
Cooper pairs, which can carry the excess current!
• So the current through a JJ can be
carried by 3 channels:
• Superconducting current channel
➢ Described by Josephson equations
• Normal current resistive channel
➢ 𝐺𝑁 (𝐼, 𝑇) is a nonlinear conductance that
(𝐼, 𝑇)
depends on current and temperature

• Displacement current due to the

junction capacitance, C
 3
Model of a Josephson junction
• Intermezzo

Looks like an RLC circuit with

a non-linear inductor and a
current and temperature
dependent conductance

• A Josephson junction ~non-linear inductor:

𝑑𝐼𝑠 𝑑𝜑 2𝑒𝑉 𝑑 𝜑 2𝑒𝑉

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 ⟺ = 𝐼𝑐 cos 𝜑 = 𝐼 cos 𝜑 Where we used : =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ℏ 𝑐 𝑑𝑡 ℏ

𝑑𝐼𝑠
𝑉 = 𝐿𝐽
𝑑𝑡
ℏ ℏ 1 ℏ
𝐿𝐽 = =± = ±𝐿𝑐 ≥ ±𝐿𝑐 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐿𝑐 = ±
2𝑒𝐼𝑐 cos(𝜑) 2 cos 𝜑 2𝑒𝐼𝑐
𝐼
2𝑒𝐼𝑐 1− 𝑠
𝐼𝑐

Can be positive and negative….so it has a completely different behaviot than a

normal geometric inductance! The minimum value is given by 𝐿𝑐
 4
Model of a Josephson junction
• Intermezzo

• Energy stored in a JJ?

𝑡 𝑡 𝐼𝑆
𝑑𝐼𝑠 Φ0
𝐸 = න 𝐼𝑉𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐼𝑠 𝐿𝐽 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐼𝑠 𝐿𝐽 𝐼𝑠 𝑑𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼 1 − cos(𝜑) = 𝐸𝐽0 1 − cos(𝜑)
0 0 𝑑𝑡 0 2𝜋 𝑐

Φ0
𝐸𝐽0 ≡ 𝐼
2𝜋 𝑐
is the so called “Josephson energy”

• How is energy is stored in a JJ? Kinetic energy of the carriers

↔ For a normal inductor it is stored in the magnetic field

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RCSJ Model
Kirchoff: 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠 + 𝐼𝑁 + 𝐼𝐷
𝑑𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 + 𝐺𝑁 𝐼, 𝑇 𝑉 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

Voltage-phase relation:
𝑑𝜑 2𝑒𝑉
=
𝑑𝑡 ℏ

ℏ 𝑑2 𝜑 ℏ 𝑑𝜑
𝐶 2 +𝐺𝑁 𝐼, 𝑇 + 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 − 𝐼 = 0
2𝑒 𝑑𝑡 2𝑒 𝑑𝑡

… Nonlinear second order diff. Eq. with nonlinear coefficients…..numerical methods

• Approximation:
𝐺𝑁 𝐼, 𝑇 ≡ 𝐺 = 𝑅−1 =const and 𝑅 usually taken =junction normal resistance
• Simplified Model of a Josephson junction:
The Resistively and Capacitively Shunted Junction Model (RCSJ- model)

ℏ 𝑑2 𝜑 1 ℏ 𝑑𝜑
𝐶 +𝑅 + 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 − 𝐼 = 0
2𝑒 𝑑𝑡 2 2𝑒 𝑑𝑡
 6
RCSJ Model: mechanical analogue

RCSJ- model

ℏ 𝑑2 𝜑 1 ℏ 𝑑𝜑
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 2 +𝑅 + 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 − 𝐼 = 0
2𝑒 2𝑒 𝑑𝑡

ℏ
• Let us rewrite this by multipying by a factor and by normalizing the current by 𝐼𝑐
2𝑒

ℏ 2 𝑑2 𝜑 1 ℏ 2 𝑑𝜑 ℏ 𝐼 𝑖 ≡ 𝐼/𝐼_𝑐
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 2 + + 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 − 𝐼 = 0
2𝑒 𝑅 2𝑒 𝑑𝑡 2𝑒 𝑐
ℏ Φ0 𝐼𝑐
ℏ 2 𝑑2 𝜑 1 ℏ 2 𝑑𝜑 𝑑 𝐸𝐽0 ≡ 𝐼𝑐 =
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 2 + + 𝑑𝜑 𝐸𝐽0 1 − cos 𝜑 − 𝑖𝜑 =0 2𝑒 2𝜋
2𝑒 𝑅 2𝑒 𝑑𝑡

…Looks a lot like the equation for a particle with mass 𝑀 , damping 𝜂 in a potential 𝑈

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑀 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝜂 𝑑𝑡 + ∇𝑈 = 0 2
ℏ 1 ℏ 2
𝜑 ↔ 𝑥, 𝑀 ↔ 𝐶, 𝜂 ↔ 𝑅 2𝑒 ,𝑈 ↔ 𝐸𝐽0 1 − cos 𝜑 − 𝑖𝜑
2𝑒
 7
RCSJ Model: mechanical analogue
ℏ 2 𝑑2 𝜑 1 ℏ 2 𝑑𝜑 𝑑
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 2 + + 𝑑𝜑 𝐸𝐽0 1 − cos 𝜑 − 𝑖𝜑 =0 (∗)
2𝑒 𝑅 2𝑒 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑀~𝐶
⟷ 𝑀 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝜂 𝑑𝑡 + ∇𝑈 = 0
𝜂 ∼ 1/𝑅

Behavior of a Josephson junction determined by

𝜑 t can be described by the motion
of a “phase particle” in a tilted washboard

𝑡 t
Eq. ∗ often written in dimensionless form. By using the normalized time 𝜏 = =
ℏ/2𝑒𝐼𝑐 𝑅 𝜏𝑐

𝑑2 𝜑 𝑑𝜑
2𝑒 2
𝛽𝐶 𝑑𝜏2 + + sin 𝜑 − 𝑖 = 0 𝛽𝐶 ≡ 𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝑁 𝐶
𝑑𝜏 ℏ
“Stewart-McCumber parameter”
 8
Response to a dc current bias?
• Dc current bias: 𝐼 is fixed!

• As a response to a dc current bias you measure with a voltmeter the time

averaged voltage as response!!
1 𝑇 1 𝑇 ℏ 𝑑𝜑
𝑉 = න 𝑉(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜑
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝜑 ↔ 𝑥, ↔𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑉 ~time average velocity of “phase particle”

• Question? How does the measured 𝑉 − I characteristic looks like?

𝑉
?

I
 9
Response to a dc current bias?
• 𝐼 < 𝐼𝑐 or 𝑖 < 1: Current can be carried as pure super current
The phase difference over the junction is constant
𝜑 = sin−1 (i) and 𝑉 = 0

𝑑2 𝜑 𝑑𝜑
𝛽𝐶 𝑑𝜏2 + + sin 𝜑 − 𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝜏

“phase particle remains stuck in a minima of the

washboard potential”

I
𝐼𝑐
 10
Response to a dc current bias?
• 𝑰 > ~𝑰𝒄 or 𝒊 > ~𝟏 𝛽𝑐 = 0

𝐼
= 1.1
𝐼𝑐

ℏ 𝑑𝜑
𝑉 𝑡 =
2𝑒 𝑑𝑡

▪ “phase particle performs a highly nonlinear

motion down the softly tilted wasboard potential”

▪ Current can not be carried any more by a

supercurrent alone: finite voltage and a time
evolution of the phase
▪ Highly non-sinusoidal oscillations
𝑉
▪ Long oscillation period
1
▪ 𝑉 ~ small
𝑇

I
𝐼𝑐
 11
Response to a dc current bias?
• 𝑰 ≫ 𝑰𝒄 or 𝒊 ≫ 𝟏

▪ “phase particle flows down over the strongly tilted

washboard potential”
▪ Junction voltage 𝑉 is almost constant and large: fast
time evolution of the phase
▪ All most all current flows as normal current
▪ Nearly sine Josephson current that averages out to
zero
▪ Linear 𝑉 − 𝐼 characteristic 𝑉

I
𝐼𝑐
 12
Response to a dc current bias?
▪ The 𝑉 − 𝐼 characteristic can be hysteretic (depend on history current bias)
𝑑2 𝜑 𝑑𝜑 2𝑒 2
𝛽𝐶 + + sin 𝜑 − 𝑖 = 0 𝛽𝐶 ≡ 𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝑁 𝐶
𝑑𝜏2 𝑑𝜏 ℏ

▪ Non-hysteretic IV curve: 𝛽𝐶 ≪ 1 ▪ Hysteretic IV curve: 𝛽𝐶 ≫ 1

• 𝑅 and 𝐶 small / 𝑀 small, 𝜂 large • 𝑅 and 𝐶 large / 𝑀 lare, 𝜂 small

• The phase particle is immediately • Due to large inertia of the phase
retrapped at 𝐼𝑐 due to large damping particle an low damping you have to
tilt the potential almsot horizontally to
stop it’s motion

𝑀~𝐶
𝜂 ∼ 1/𝑅
 13
Response to a dc current bias?
• Summary for the 𝑽 − 𝑰 characteristic:

▪ 𝑖 < 1: Current can be carried as pure super current

The phase difference over the junction is constant 𝜑 = sin−1 (i) and 𝑉 = 0
Zero-voltage state

▪ 𝑖 ≫ 1: Current can not be carried anymore as pure super current

A voltage drop appears over the junction 𝑉 ≠ 0 and 𝜑(t) oscillates in time
Voltage state or dissipative state (Note there is still supercurrent!!!)

▪ The 𝑉 − 𝐼 characteristic can be hysteretic (depend on history current bias)

• On the previous slides we discussed the response using the washboard potential model
We didn’t solve explictely the equation of motion for 𝜑(t)…difficult for the general case

In the next exercise you will do it for a particular case 𝛽𝐶 ≪ 1 (strong damping)
 14
Response to a dc current bias?
Exercise IV@ home
𝑑2 𝜑 𝑑𝜑
• Consider the strong damping limit 𝛽𝐶 ≪ 1 𝛽𝐶 𝑑𝜏2 + 𝑑𝜏
+ sin 𝜑 − 𝑖 = 0

• 𝑖 < 1: Only super current, 𝜑 = sin−1 (i) is a solution and 𝑉 = 0

• 𝑖 > 1: a super current alone is insufficient, normal current necessary

𝑑𝜑
▪ Solve 𝑑𝜏
+ sin 𝜑 − 𝑖 = 0 to find

1 𝑡 𝑖2 − 1 1 −1
𝜑 𝑡 = 2 tan−1 1 − 2 tan + with 𝜏𝑐 = 2𝑒𝐼𝑐 𝑅/ℏ
𝑖 2𝜏𝑐 𝑖

Hint:

▪ Plot 𝜑 𝜏 for a few values of i > 1 using matlab, pyhton,…

 15
Response to a dc current bias?
Exercise IV@ home
𝐼
▪ Show 𝑉 = Ic R 𝐼/𝐼𝑐 2 − 1 for 𝐼 > 1
𝑐

Hint 1: tan−1 (𝑎 tan 𝑥 + 𝑏) is 𝜋-periodic, find the period and use hint 2
1 𝑇 1 𝑇 ℏ 𝑑𝜑 1 ℏ Φ
Hint 2: 𝑉 = න 𝑉(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜑 𝑇 − 𝜑(0) = 0
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝑇 2𝑒 T

𝜑 𝑡

𝜑 𝑡

Solution:
 16
Applications
• The particular I-V dependence of a JJ and the possible hysteresis (~memory) has
a large number of applications in analog and digital electronics.

• Produce very fast switches (IC’s), low power consumption

http://www.hypres.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/Superconductor-ICs.pdf
 17
Response to a dc voltage bias?
• A direct voltage 𝑉𝑑𝑐 across the junction makes the gauge invariant phase
difference 𝜑 to increase linearly in time
2𝑒𝑉𝑑𝑐 2𝑒𝑉𝑑𝑐 2𝜋
𝜑= t + 𝜑0 = 𝜔𝐽 𝑡 + 𝜑0 𝜔𝐽 = = Φ 𝑉𝑑𝑐
ℏ ℏ 0

• With the first Josephson relation this gives rise to an ac supercurrent:

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜑 =𝐼𝑐 sin 𝜔𝐽 𝑡 + 𝜑0

𝜈𝐽 𝜔𝐽 −1
𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ, = = Φ0 = 483.597 898 19
𝑉𝑑𝑐 2𝜋𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝜇V
𝑑𝑉𝑑𝑐
• Time average of 𝐼𝑠 is zero, also the displacement current is zero as =0
𝑑𝑡

• For 𝑉 ≥ 𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝑁 , the additional normal current is given by 𝐼 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 /𝑅𝑁

• Within RCSJ model you get a linear (Ohmic) I-V relation

In reality you get a nonlinear I-V relation as 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑁 (𝑇, 𝐼)

• The response of a Josephson jucntion also depends on the type of bias!!

(…for a resistor the response is identical…current or voltage bias)
 18
Response to combined ac+dc voltage bias
Exercise V @ home Response of an overdamped junction 𝛽𝐶 ≪ 1 to a
combined dc+ac voltage: the Shapiro effect (or inverse ac Josephson effect)

▪ Solve the second Josepshon equation to find 𝜑 𝑡

▪ Use the first Josephson relation to obtain an expression of 𝐼𝑠 (𝑡) as
2𝜋
𝜔𝑑𝑐 ≡ 𝑉
Φ0 0

Hint use:
 19
The Josephson effect
Exercise V @ home Response of an overdamped junction to a combined dc+ac
voltage: the Shapiro effect (or inverse ac Josephson effect)

▪ When do you have a dc supercurrent component?

▪ What is the amplitude of the dc supercurrent component?

▪ When you not have a dc supercurrent component? What is the current

response (note the response you measure is an average over time <I>) in
this case?
𝜔
▪ Can you sketch the <I>-V characteristic? (consider 2𝜋1 = 10 𝐺𝐻𝑧)
 20
Summary Third lecture
▪ RCSJ-model of a Josephson junction
• Mechanical analogue RCSJ model
• IV characteristic of a Josephson junction under dc current bias (+exercise)
• IV characteristic of a Josephson junction under dc voltage bias
• Exercise