applied

sciences
Article
Corrosion-Fatigue Evaluation of Uncoated
Weathering Steel Bridges
Yu Zhang, Kaifeng Zheng, Junlin Heng * and Jin Zhu
Department of Bridge Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University,
Chengdu 610031, China
* Correspondence: j.l.heng@foxmail.com; Tel.: +86-182-8017-6652




Received: 19 July 2019; Accepted: 19 August 2019; Published: 22 August 2019


Featured Application: The new findings highlight the enhancement in corrosion-fatigue

performance of steel bridges by using the uncoated weathering steel. Besides, an innovative
approach has been established to simulate the corrosion-fatigue process in uncoated weathering
steel bridges, providing deep insights into the service life of the bridges. The approaches
suggested in the article can be used (not limited to) as a reference for the research and design of
uncoated weathering steel bridges.

Abstract: Uncoated weathering steel (UWS) bridges have been extensively used to reduce the lifecycle
cost since they are maintenance-free and eco-friendly. However, the fatigue issue becomes significant
in UWS bridges due to the intended corrosion process utilized to form the corrodent-proof rust
layer instead of the coating process. In this paper, an innovative model is proposed to simulate the
corrosion-fatigue (C-F) process in UWS bridges. Generally, the C-F process could be considered as
two relatively independent stages in a time series, including the pitting process of flaw-initiation
and the fatigue crack propagation of the critical pitting flaw. In the proposed C-F model, Faraday’s
law has been employed at the critical flaw-initiation stage to describe the pitting process, in which
the pitting current is applied to reflect the pitting rate in different corrosive environments. At the
crack propagation stage, the influence of pitting corrosion is so small that it can be safely ignored.
In simulating the crack propagation stage, the advanced NASGRO equation proposed by the NASA
is employed instead of the classic Paris’ law, in which a modified fatigue limit is adopted. The fatigue
limit is then used to determine the critical size of pitting flaws, above which the fatigue effect joins as
a parallel driving force in crack propagation. The model is then validated through the experimental
data from published articles at the initiation stage as well as the whole C-F process. Two types of
structural steel, i.e., HPS 70W and 14MnNbq steel, have been selected to carry out a case study. The
result shows that the C-F life can be notably prolonged in the HPS 70W due to the enhancement
in fatigue strength and corrosion resistance. Besides, a sensitivity analysis has been made on the
crucial parameters, including the stress range, stress ratio, corrosive environment and average daily
truck traffic (ADTT). The result has revealed the different influence of the above parameters on the
initiation life and propagation life.

Keywords: corrosion-fatigue; pitting corrosion; critical pitting size; fracture mechanics; uncoated
weathering steel

1. Introduction
Weathering steel has been widely used in bridge engineering in the U.S., Europe and Japan since
half a century ago. Due to the excellent corrosion resistance of weathering steel, it can be applied in
the corrosive environment without coating. Various grades of weathering steel have already been

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461; doi:10.3390/app9173461 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
3461 2 of 24

already been incorporated in the codes of practice, such as American grades A242, A588, A606 and
incorporated
A709, Japanese in the codes
grades JISofSMA
practice,
and such as American
the British S355J2G1W grades[1,2].A242, A588,
Since A606
2017, and50%
over A709, Japanese
of highway
grades JIS SMA and the British S355J2G1W [1,2]. Since 2017,
steel bridges in the US were constructed with weathering steel. In Japan, 75% of the weatheringover 50% of highway steel bridges in the
US were
steels constructed
were used inwith bridgeweathering steel. In
engineering in Japan,
2008, 75% andof80% the weathering
of newly built steels steel
were used
bridgesin bridge
were
engineering in 2008, and 80% of newly built steel bridges were
constructed with weathering steel in the past 25 years [3,4]. In China, the first weathering steel constructed with weathering steel in
the past 25 years [3,4]. In China, the first weathering steel
bridge was constructed in 1991 [5], followed by the massive application in the 2010s. bridge was constructed in 1991 [5], followed
by the A massive application
great advantage in the 2010s.
of uncoated weathering steel (UWS) bridges is the reduction of cost. Dolling
A great advantage
et al. [1] claimed that approximately of uncoated 5%weathering
of the initialsteel cost and(UWS) far inbridges
excess isof the
the 5%reduction
on capital of costs
cost.
Dolling
could beetsaved.al. [1]Moreover,
claimed that Horiiapproximately
et al. [6] indicated 5% of thattheweathering
initial coststeelsand could
far in reduce
excess aboutof the25% 5%
on capital costs could be saved. Moreover, Horii et al. [6] indicated
life cycle cost according to recently under construction bridges. In addition, Dolling also listed the that weathering steels could reduce
about 25% life cycle
environmental benefitscostof according
UWS bridges to recently
arising under
fromconstruction
avoiding painting bridges. [1].InItaddition, Dolling
is also worth also
noting
listed
that thethefire
environmental
incident has benefits of UWS abridges
now become arising issue
very critical from avoiding paintingsince
in steel bridges [1]. Ititiscan
alsolead
worth to
noting that the fire incident has now become a very critical issue
extremely detrimental consequences [7]. Wan et al. [8] claimed that the chemical element Mo could in steel bridges since it can lead to
extremely
notably improvedetrimental consequences
the fire-resistant [7]. Wan
of steel. Sinceetthe al. [8] claimed
element Mothat the chemical
is generally element
included Mo could
in making the
notably improve the fire-resistant of steel. Since the element
high-performance weathering steel, a much better fire-resistant performance can be expected whenMo is generally included in making the
high-performance
compared with the weathering
common steel, carbon a much
steel. better
However, fire-resistant
further performance
investigationscan arebestill
expected
required when to
compared with the
reveal the actual firecommon
resistance carbon steel. However,
of weathering steel. further investigations are still required to reveal
the actual fire resistance
In steel bridges, ofthe weathering
fatigue steel.
issue is of particular concern due to the persistent
loading-and-unloading process byissue
In steel bridges, the fatigue is of particular
the vehicles. Similar concern due to theofpersistent
to the degradation steel bridgesloading-and-
from the
unloading
fire hazardprocess
[7], theby the vehicles.
corrosion effectSimilar
shouldtobethe degradation
considered intoofthe
steel bridges
design. from the fire the
Nevertheless, hazard [7],
fatigue
the corrosion effect should be considered into the design. Nevertheless,
issue of steel bridges will be further accelerated when exposed to the corrosive environment. The the fatigue issue of steel
bridges
corrosion will be further
process willaccelerated when exposed
lead to geometric to the corrosive
irregularities environment.
in components, The corrosion
escalating the localprocess
stress
will lead to geometric irregularities in components, escalating
concentration, which serves the fatigue issue. In UWS bridges, the problem is even more serious: the local stress concentration, which
serves the fatigue
The fatigue crackissue.is hard In UWS
to be bridges,
detectedthe due problem
to the is even
rust more
layer serious:
used The corrodents.
to proof fatigue crackThus, is hard it to
is
be detected
crucial to takedueinto to the rust layer used
consideration the to proof corrodents.
coupling Thus, it is crucial(C-F)
effect of corrosion-fatigue to takeoninto consideration
the service life of
the
UWS coupling
bridges.effect of corrosion-fatigue (C-F) on the service life of UWS bridges.
Figure
Figure 11shows showsa typical
a typical fatigue crackcrack
fatigue in a UWS in a bridge,
UWS bridge, which iswhichidentified by the dye by
is identified penetration
the dye
check [9]. Itcheck
penetration is worth [9]. stating
It is worth that,stating
this typethat,ofthiscracktype is of
very difficult
crack is verytodifficult
be detectedto beusing
detected common
using
approaches, especially in its early stage. Due to the difficulty in
common approaches, especially in its early stage. Due to the difficulty in detection, a considerable detection, a considerable number of
unrecognized fatigue cracks
number of unrecognized might cracks
fatigue exist inmight
the aged existUWS bridges,
in the agedimposing
UWS bridges,high risks on the high
imposing durability
risks
or
oneven safety of the
the durability or bridge consequently.
even safety Therefore,
of the bridge a well-established
consequently. Therefore, model is urgently required
a well-established modelfor is
the evaluation on the service life of UWS bridges considering the
urgently required for the evaluation on the service life of UWS bridges considering the C-F process. C-F process.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Typical
Typical fatigue
fatigue crack in uncoated
crack in uncoated weathering
weathering steel
steel bridges.
bridges.

The aim of the present study is to provide a deep insight into the corrosion-fatigue (C-F)
performance
performance of ofUWS
UWSbridges,
bridges,which
whichcancanserve
serveasas
a useful guidance
a useful guidance for for
design andand
design maintenance
maintenance of this
of
type of bridges. On this end, an innovative deterioration model has been established
this type of bridges. On this end, an innovative deterioration model has been established to to simulate the
coupled
simulateC-F theprocess.
coupledInC-Ftheprocess.
model, theIn whole C-F process
the model, has been
the whole divided has
C-F process into been
two interrelated
divided into stages,
two
i.e., the corrosion-critical
interrelated stage
stages, i.e., the and fatigue-critical
corrosion-critical stage.
stage andInfatigue-critical
the study, the C-F process
stage. In theisstudy,
assumed thetoC-F
be
started with the pitting corrosion, in which the crack-like pitting flaw will initiate
process is assumed to be started with the pitting corrosion, in which the crack-like pitting flaw will [10]. In modeling
the pitting
initiate corrosion,
[10]. the electrochemistry
In modeling theory isthe
the pitting corrosion, applied, and the pitting
electrochemistry current
theory is utilized
is applied, andas the
index
pittingreflecting
current isthe influence
utilized as theofindex
different environments.
reflecting Meanwhile,
the influence the environments.
of different critical pitting Meanwhile,
flaw size is
used to connect
the critical theflaw
pitting two size
stages smoothly,
is used beyond
to connect which
the the fatigue
two stages process
smoothly, can come
beyond whichintothe
effect as a
fatigue
driving
process force
can in crackinto
come propagation.
effect asInasimulating
driving the fatigue-induced
force crack propagation,
in crack propagation. the fracture
In simulating the
fatigue-induced crack propagation, the fracture mechanics-based NASGRO equation, which is
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 3 of 24

mechanics-based NASGRO equation, which is proposed by the NASA [11,12], is applied to consider the
propagation behavior of short cracks. In addition, a competition-based criterion has been introduced,
in which the corrosion process and fatigue process are competing in terms of the propagation rate and
the C-F process is controlled by the one with the higher rate. Based on the above method, the service
life can be predicted at the two stages, respectively. Through combining the life at the two stages,
the whole service life under the C-F process can be solved. The proposed model has been carefully
verified through the experimental data collected from several publications. With the validated model,
sensitivity analysis has been made on the crucial parameters, including the stress range, stress ratio,
corrosive environment and average daily truck traffic (ADTT). The result reveals the influence of
different factors on the C-F life of UWS bridges. Meanwhile, the proposed method can be referred to in
the fatigue design of UWS bridges. Moreover, this study also highlights the advantage of UWS bridges
in service life under corrosion and fatigue when compared with the traditional steel bridges.

2. Literature Review
Extensive efforts were made by researchers on the C-F process of weathering steel. Hyun et al. [13]
predicted the fatigue life of the aged car-body. In the analysis, the effect of corrosion on the car-body
was simulated by proportionally reducing the plate thickness with the time. As a result, when
considering corrosion, the fatigue life of the car-body was decreased by 20% and 40% for the 23-years
old car and 40-years old car, respectively. Ludvík Kunz et al. [14] studied the fatigue performance
of weathering steel Atmofix 52 in corroded and non-corroded situations. The result was expressed
by the fatigue strength at 1 × 107 cycles under two stress ratios, i.e., R = −1 and R = 0. When the
stress ratio equals to −1, the fatigue strength of non-corroded steel and corroded steel was 240 MPa
and 140 MPa, respectively. Under the stress ratio of zero, the two values were respectively 190 MPa
and 120 MPa. Overall, the fatigue strength of corroded steel could be significantly lower than that
of uncorroded steel. Albrecht et al. [15] investigated the fatigue performance of weathering steel
A588 in two corrosive environments, including pure water and salt spray. The result indicated a
significant increase in the fatigue notched factor, which reflects the degradation in fatigue strength.
According to the result, the fatigue notched factors of sheltered welded steel beam were 1.52 and
3.07 in pure water and salt spray, respectively. At the same time, the fatigue notched factors of the
sheltered plate steel beam were respectively 2.56 and 3.01 in pure water and salt spray. Several similar
studies also demonstrated the degradation in fatigue performance under the corrosion, especially in
the chlorine-rich environment [10,16]. Zampieri [17] studied the fatigue strength of bolted connections,
which indicates that corrosion can influence the fatigue life of the joint. Moreover, extended studies
were done by Zampieri et al. [18,19] that showed the degradation of the corroded bolted joint due to
pitting corrosion. Besides, relevant studies suggested that the pitting flaw initiated by corrosion could
be regarded as the source of fatigue cracking [14,16,20]. However, since the C-F process is a highly
complicated issue, few models can be yet found on the C-F issue of steel bridges.
As a matter of fact, the most reliable way to investigate the C-F process is the fatigue test under
the corrosive environment. However, the corrosion is such a long-term process that it is difficult to
be incorporated in the fatigue test employing a relatively high loading frequency (from 5 to 50 Hz).
Alternatively, pre-corroded specimens were commonly used in the fatigue test [7,10]. Garbatov et al. [21]
made specimens with corroded ship building steel in seawater, and the result showed that the fatigue
strength decreases from FAT 86 to 64.95 MPa. In this case, the whole C-F process cannot be revealed
comprehensively since the two interactive processes are artificially separated in the test. Generally,
Kondo [16] claimed that the pitting corrosion is believed as the dominating effect at the early stage
of the C-F process. On this end, the electrochemistry theory has been applied to evaluate the pitting
corrosion process, which has been validated by the experimental data on aluminum alloy, stainless
steel and crude steel [22,23]. Under this content, the electrochemistry theory is employed to describe
the time-dependent development of pitting flaws, which can be regarded as the initial flaw in the crack
propagation. Nevertheless, it is still difficult to find a way to couple the two processes systematically.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 4 of 24

Thus, efforts are now gradually made to combine the electrochemistry theory and fracture mechanics
in describing the C-F process of metal materials [10,23,24]. For instance, according to the article [10],
under the pitting corrosion the initial flaws will be generated on the exposed material surface at the
beginning of the C-F process. Then, when the stress intensity factor (SIF) reaches the fatigue limit,
the process will be dominated by the fatigue-induced crack propagation. Similarly, in the article [24],
the corrosion-fatigue performance of carbon steel in the corrosive solution was experimentally studied.
In the test, the cyclic bending loads were applied to the specimens. According to the study, the C-F
process can be divided into the pitting growth stage, small crack growth stage and long crack growth
stage. Besides, the pitting growth stage can be evaluated by Faraday’s law, while the Paris law can be
utilized to evaluate the small crack growth stage and long crack growth stage. In addition, it is also
claimed in the study that the moment when the SIF reached the fatigue limit can be considered as the
end of the pitting growth stage.
Some recent studies worked on the C-F issue on steel. Zampieri et al. [19] studied the fatigue
life of corroded bolted connections by a certain scale of tests and numerical analyses, in which pitting
corrosion was taken into consideration. In this study, the Smith–Watson–Topper strain-life method was
utilized to evaluate the fatigue life of corroded joints. Meanwhile, the result indicated that corrosion
was not the only influence factor on the fatigue life of bolted connections. Xu et al. [20] also studied the
fatigue behavior of corroded steel, which indicated that the fatigue life of corroded steel decreased
rapidly due to the increasing rough surface. Peng et al. [25,26] combined the uniform corrosion and
NASGRO equation to determine the remaining life of structures, the result indicated that the C-F life
of the structure was decreased with the assumed initial flaw size increasing.

3. Corrosion Pitting Evaluation

3.1. Mechanism of Pitting Corrosion

In UWS bridges, corrosion is always a big challenge to durability [27]. Generally, the corrosion
process can be classified into two types, i.e., uniform corrosion and pitting corrosion. The two types of
corrosion usually occur simultaneously in steel bridges, both of which can degrade the performance of
the bridge. Under the uniform corrosion, the thickness of structural members will be reduced with
time, which raises the stress level in the members. However, the effect of uniform corrosion in UWS
bridges can be almost ignored due to the corrodent-proof rust film.
Thus, the pitting corrosion is of particular concerns in UWS bridges. The pitting corrosion is an
autocatalytic process inducing local corrosion interspersing on the material surface. The interspersing
could be regarded as a kind of local irregularity, which in turns escalates the local stress concentration.
Generally, the pitting corrosion is believed as the most detrimental form of corrosion, which could
even cause structural failure [28]. In a C-F analysis, pitting flaw can be regarded as an equivalent initial
flaw, from which the final critical fatigue crack can be formed under cyclic stress [29,30].
Based on the mechanism of corrosion, Zaya [31] divided the post-rust pitting corrosion into four
different stages as the following: (1) The rupture of the stable rust layer; (2) the achievement of the
critical condition that the pit begins to grow; (3) the dissolution of the substrate and (4) the formation
of visible pitting irregularity.
Referring to the above classification, the pitting process in the UWS bridges can be defined in a
similar way, as shown in Figure 2. It is shown that the rupture of the protective film occurs at first,
followed by the initiation of the pitting flaw with weakened protective film. Finally, the pitting flaw
grows without a protective film. However, some researchers [32–34] indicated that the rupture of
the protective film occurred very rapidly. Besides, Melchers reported that the initiation of the pitting
process only costs as short as several microseconds [32]. On this end, it is assumed in the following
analysis that the C-F life is roughly equal to the time cost by the latter two stages, i.e., the initiation of
pitting flaws and the propagation of the flaw.
corrosive environment, especially the concentration of chlorine (Cl). Albercht et al. [36] claimed that
pitting flaw could appear to the surface of the steel in high Cl ions concentration. For instance, the
pitting corrosion rate of bridges in the marine environment, where the Cl ions concentration is high,
is significantly higher than those in the non-marine environment. Meanwhile, the structural
member will experience serious pitting corrosion when located in the sheltered position of UWS
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 5 of 24
bridges, since the Cl ions attached on the surface cannot be washed directly by the rain [37].

Figure
Figure 2. Illustration of
2. Illustration of the
the pitting
pitting corrosion.
corrosion.

The pitting
3.2. Proposed corrosion
Model process
for Pitting can be accelerated by both the mechanical (e.g., cyclic loads) and
Corrosion
chemical factors (e.g., corrosive environment), as suggested by studies [23,35]. In the presence of cyclic
loads,Kondo [16] proposed
the protective film isthat thetopitting
prone ruptureflaw depthofhas
because theareduced
power relation
strength.with the same
At the time based on
time, the
the test data, in which the power index is 1/3. The similar relation is also reflected
pitting corrosion rate could be notably increased under the high-level stress range induced by the by the
well-known
cyclic Faraday’s
loads [23,35]. law established
Besides through
the mechanical electrochemistry
factor, [38,39],
the pitting process canasalso
shown in Equation
escalate (1):
the corrosive
environment, especially the concentration of chlorine (Cl). Albercht et al. [36] claimed that pitting flaw
= , (1)
could appear to the surface of the steel in high Cl ions concentration. For instance, the pitting corrosion
rate
whereof bridges
𝑉 is thein the marine
volume of theenvironment, where thetime;
pit; 𝑡 is the corrosion Cl ions
𝑀 concentration is high,
is the atomic mass is significantly
of the material; 𝑛
higher than those in the non-marine environment. Meanwhile, the structural member
is the number of electrons released during corrosion of the metal; 𝐹 is the Faraday constant;will experience
𝜌 is
serious
the density of the material and 𝐼 is the pitting current related to the corrosive environment.Cl ions
pitting corrosion when located in the sheltered position of UWS bridges, since the
attached
The on the surface
pitting currentcannot be solved
could be washedusing
directly by the(2):
Equation rain [37].
∆
3.2. Proposed Model for Pitting Corrosion 𝐼 = 𝐼 exp(− ) , (2)

whereKondo
𝐼 is[16]theproposed
pitting that the pitting
current flaw depth
coefficient; has universal
𝑅 is the a power relation with the𝑇time
gas constant; based
is the on the
absolute
test data, in which
temperature and ∆𝐻 theispower index isenthalpy.
the activation 1/3. The similar relation is also reflected by the well-known
Faraday’s law established through electrochemistry
Obviously, the pitting volume is a natural index [38,39], as shown
describing in degree
the Equationof (1):
pitting corrosion.
Thus, as shown in Equations (1) and (2), the degree is determined by factors such as the time
dV MIp
exposed to corrosion, corrosive environment, temperature = , and activation enthalpy. In this study, (1)
dt nFρ
the pitting flaw is idealized as a semi-ellipsoid with the round projection on the material surface, as
a common
where V is practice [10].ofThe
the volume the pitting
pit; t is volume could time;
the corrosion be calculated
M is the as shown
atomic in Equation
mass (3):
of the material; n is the
number of electrons released during corrosion of the metal; F is the Faraday constant; ρ is the density
of the material and Ip is the pitting current related to the corrosive environment.
The pitting current could be solved using Equation (2):

∆H
Ip = Ip0 exp (− ), (2)
RT
where Ip0 is the pitting current coefficient; R is the universal gas constant; T is the absolute temperature
and ∆H is the activation enthalpy.
Obviously, the pitting volume is a natural index describing the degree of pitting corrosion. Thus,
as shown in Equations (1) and (2), the degree is determined by factors such as the time exposed to
corrosion, corrosive environment, temperature and activation enthalpy. In this study, the pitting
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 6 of 24

flaw is idealized as a semi-ellipsoid with the round projection on the material surface, as a common
practice [10]. The pitting volume could be calculated as shown in Equation (3):

2
V= πab2 , (3)
3
where a is the pitting depth and b is the radius of the round on the project surface.
Since the pitting depth is believed as the major index reflecting the pitting process [28], it can be
solved by combining Equations (1) and (3), as shown in Equation (4):

a = Bm2/3 1/3 1/3

asp Ip t , (4)

where masp is the aspect ratio of the pitting flaw lateral section, i.e., a/b; B is a material-related constant
and t stands for the time exposed to corrosion.
Studies show that the aspect ratio of pitting flaws is close to 1.0 [10,40]. On this end, the aspect
ratio in this study was determined as 1.0. Meanwhile, the constant B can be determined by the
aforementioned material properties, as shown in Equation (5):
s
3 3M
B= , (5)
2πnFρ

where the parameters could be applied as M = 56 × 10−3 kg/mol, n = 2, F = 96,500 C/mol and
ρ = 7850 kg/m3 , respectively.

3.3. Degree of Pitting Corrosion

It is important to find an index reflecting the corrosive environment. On this end, the pitting
current Ip could be utilized since it only dependents on the corrosive environment. Thus, the pitting
current has been explicitly expressed by rewriting Equation (4), as shown in Equation (6):

a3
Ip = . (6)
t3 B3 m2asp

The code ISO 9223 [41] classified the corrosive environment into six categories, named C1, C2, C3,
C4, C5 and CX. A series of experiments has been carried out on the corrosion of weathering steel at
various places representing different corrosive environment categories in China [42]. Five key indices
are adopted to reflect various corrosive environments, and the value of each index corresponding to
five corrosive environment categories are statistically obtained based on 8 years of data (from 2006 to
2014), as listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Pitting corrosion data of weathering steel collected for 8 years.

Average Average Maximal

Average Pit Maximal Pit
Location (Category) Corrosion Rate Pitting Pitting
Depth (µm) Depth (µm)
(µm/a) Current (C/s) Current (C/s)
Wuhan (C4) 9 130 150 4.93 × 10−10 7.58 × 10−10
Beijing (C3) 8 140 180 6.16 × 10−10 1.31 × 10−9
Jiangjin (C5) 18 280 390 4.93 × 10−9 1.33 × 10−8
Lhasa (C1) 1 20 30 1.80 × 10−12 6.06 × 10−12
Mohe (C2) 3.5 20 40 1.80 × 10−12 1.44 × 10−11
Xishuangbanna (C2) 9 70 110 7.70 × 10−11 5.48 × 10−9
Shenyang (C2) 8 100 180 2.25 × 10−10 3.51 × 10−9
Qingdao (C4) 18 240 360 3.10 × 10−9 1.05 × 10−8
Guangzhou (C4) 15.5 230 290 2.73 × 10−9 5.48 × 10−9
Qionghai (C3) 10 210 250 2.08 × 10−9 3.51 × 10−9
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 24

the ratio of the max value to average value was highly scattered in different places, ranging from
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 7 of 24
53.6%–700%. It is worth noting that, the most critical place Jiangjin (C5) was not in the marine
location. However, this place is a historic industrial area with heavy pollution of sulfur dioxide
(SO2),
Thewhich
pittingaccelerates the corrosion
current in Table significantly.
1 is plotted In sum, the
against the corrosivity rate ofin pitting
category corrosion
Figure 3, was
along with a
dependent on both the corrosivity category and chemical factor, while the latter could have a
brief description of the geographic feature, i.e., the marine or non-marine. The following letters “-M” larger
influence.
and “-A” stand for the maximal and average value of pitting current, respectively.

Figure 3. Pitting current

Figure 3. current in
in different
different corrosivity
corrosivitycategories.
categories.

It canofbeCorrosion-Fatigue
4. Model observed from Figure 3 that the corrosivity category was directly proportional to the
pitting current. Meanwhile, the result also indicates that the average pitting current was remarkably
higher in the marine location
4.1. Corrosion-Fatigue Progress than in the non-marine location, i.e., 3.38–5.92 times higher. Besides,
the ratio of the max value to average value was highly scattered in different places, ranging from
Since UWS bridges are exposed to the corrosion and fatigue action simultaneously, it is critical
53.6%–700%. It is worth noting that, the most critical place Jiangjin (C5) was not in the marine location.
to incorporate the coupling effect of the two processes in solving the service life. At the early stage,
However, this place is a historic industrial area with heavy pollution of sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), which
pitting flaws will be generated on the surface of components by the corrosion. The size of these
accelerates the corrosion significantly. In sum, the rate of pitting corrosion was dependent on both the
flaws increases with the time, as suggested by the Faraday’s law [22,39]. Meanwhile, the pitting
corrosivity category and chemical factor, while the latter could have a larger influence.
process could be further escalated by the load-induced stress range [23,35]. Once the pitting flaw
reaches
4. Model the critical size, the fatigue process becomes the major driving force in the crack
of Corrosion-Fatigue
propagation while the chemical effect could be ignored [11]. Generally, the range of SIF could be
4.1.
usedCorrosion-Fatigue
to determine the Progress
propagation rate of cracks [43]. Meanwhile, failure of members could be
assumed when the crack penetrated through the thickness of any plate in the member. Based on the
Since UWS bridges are exposed to the corrosion and fatigue action simultaneously, it is critical
above analysis, C-F life can be divided into two stages, the C-F crack initiation and the C-F crack
to incorporate the coupling effect of the two processes in solving the service life. At the early stage,
propagation, which is also suggested in [44]. Figure 4 illustrates the whole C-F process.
pitting flaws will be generated on the surface of components by the corrosion. The size of these flaws
According to the above discussion, the C-F model can be established. At the beginning of the
increases with the time, as suggested by the Faraday’s law [22,39]. Meanwhile, the pitting process
C-F process, the pitting flaw keeps growing under the corrosion only, as described by Faraday’s
could be further escalated by the load-induced stress range [23,35]. Once the pitting flaw reaches
law. The corrosion process could be further accelerated by the vehicle-induced cyclic stress [23,35].
the critical size, the fatigue process becomes the major driving force in the crack propagation while
Thus, modification has been made in Equation (4) to incorporate the influence of cyclic stress, as
the chemical effect could be ignored [11]. Generally, the range of SIF could be used to determine the
shown in Equation (7):
propagation rate of cracks [43]. Meanwhile, failure of members could be assumed when the crack
penetrated through the thickness of any 𝑎plate = 𝐵𝑚 in2/3
the1/3
𝑎𝑠𝑝 𝐼𝑝 𝑡
1/3 𝜎𝑎 Based on the above analysis, C-F life
𝐶𝑝 ,
member. (7)
can be divided into two stages, the C-F crack initiation and the C-F crack propagation, which is also
where 𝐶 in
suggested is [44].
the constant
Figure 4related to the
illustrates thematerial
whole C-F 𝜎 is the stress range.
andprocess.
As aforementioned, the pitting flaw could be
According to the above discussion, the C-F model can be regarded as an equivalentAt
established. crack. As suggested
the beginning by
of the
Newman
C-F et the
process, al. [40], theflaw
pitting stress intensity
keeps growingfactor (SIF)
under thecould be solved
corrosion only, for the equivalent
as described crack based
by Faraday’s law.
on the stress range, pitting flaw property and geometry of plates, as shown in Equation
The corrosion process could be further accelerated by the vehicle-induced cyclic stress [23,35]. Thus, (8):
modification has been made in Equation (4) to incorporate the influence of cyclic stress, as shown in
∆𝐾 = (𝑆 + 𝐻𝑆 ) 𝜋 𝐹( , , , ∅) , (8)
Equation (7):
1/3 1/3 σa
a = Bm2/3
asp Ip t Cp , (7)

where Cp is the constant related to the material and σa is the stress range.
 As proposed in [39], the competition criterion is introduced that the two effects, i.e., corrosion
and fatigue, will compete in terms of the crack growth rate. As a result, the C-F process will be
dominated by the driving force with the higher rate. It can be found from Equations (7)–(9) that,
with the time passing, the growth rate of pitting corrosion is decreasing while that of the fatigue is
increasing. As a result, the fatigue will gradually replace the corrosion as the major driving force in
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 8 of 24
the propagation as aforementioned.

Figure 4. Schematic stages of corrosion-fatigue (C-F).

Figure 4.

As aforementioned,
Based the pitting
on the above analysis, theflaw
timecould be before
period regarded
theas an equivalent
growth crack. surpasses
rate of fatigue As suggested
that by
of
Newman et al. [40],
pitting corrosion the stress
could intensity
be regarded asfactor (SIF)
the C-F could
crack be solved
initiation for the
stage, equivalent
in which crackgrowth
the crack based onis
the stress range, pitting flaw property and geometry of plates, as shown in Equation (8):
only determined by the corrosion process. After that, the influence of corrosion can be ignored, and
the corresponding stage can be regarded as therC-F crack propagation stage. At this stage, the
a a a c
fatigue process becomes the only ∆K driving
= (St +force
HSbin π Fpropagation,
) crack ( , , , ∅), in which the SIF can be used(8) to
Q t c b
calculate the propagation rate.
whereIt aisisworth noting
the pitting that, caccording
depth; to Equation
is the pitting width; t it(8),
thethe larger flaw
thickness size
of the leads
plate; b istothe
thewidth
higher
of SIF
the
under plate;
whole the same∅ isstress state.ofAs
the angle a result,
crack fatigue
boundary; St crack
and Sis are
more likely to initiate
uniform-tension from
stress andthebending
larger pitting
stress;
b
H is boundary-correction factor and Q and F are functions associated with a, c, t, b and ∅.
Due to the fatigue limit that exists in metals, the fatigue effect has little influence on the crack
propagation when the crack size is under a specific critical size. Once the pitting flaw grows to the critical
size, the fatigue effect will join as a parallel driving force in the crack propagation. The fatigue-induced
propagation could be solved according to the fracture mechanics. For instance, the well-known Paris
law [43] can be applied, as shown in Equation (9):

da
= C(∆K)m , (9)
dN
where a is the crack size; N is the numbers of loading cycles; C and m are the material-related constant
and power index, respectively and ∆K is the range of the SIF.
As proposed in [39], the competition criterion is introduced that the two effects, i.e., corrosion and
fatigue, will compete in terms of the crack growth rate. As a result, the C-F process will be dominated
by the driving force with the higher rate. It can be found from Equations (7)–(9) that, with the time
passing, the growth rate of pitting corrosion is decreasing while that of the fatigue is increasing. As a
result, the fatigue will gradually replace the corrosion as the major driving force in the propagation
as aforementioned.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 9 of 24

Based on the above analysis, the time period before the growth rate of fatigue surpasses that of
pitting corrosion could be regarded as the C-F crack initiation stage, in which the crack growth is only
determined by the corrosion process. After that, the influence of corrosion can be ignored, and the
corresponding stage can be regarded as the C-F crack propagation stage. At this stage, the fatigue
process becomes the only driving force in crack propagation, in which the SIF can be used to calculate
the propagation rate.
It is worth noting that, according to Equation (8), the larger flaw size leads to the higher SIF under
the same stress state. As a result, fatigue crack is more likely to initiate from the larger pitting flaw.
Since the maximal pitting current can represent the highest degree of pitting corrosion, it has been
employed in Equation (7) for conservativeness.

4.2. Service Life of Corrosion-Fatigue Crack Initiation

In solving the service life of C-F crack initiation it is crucial to determine the critical flaw size,
beyond which the fatigue can become the major driving force. There are generally two approaches
proposed to determine the critical size: (1) The equal rate method, assuming that the critical size reaches
at the time when the growth rates of corrosion equals to the one of fatigue [16,45] and (2) the fatigue
limit method, which determines the critical size based on the fatigue limit in terms of SIFs [10,46]. In the
type (1) method, the growth rate of fatigue should be solved at the beginning of the C-F process when
the flaw is extremely small. However, the propagation behavior of small cracks is still a controversial
issue that can hardly be illustrated. Alternatively, the type (2) method only requires the solution on the
well-initiated flaws, which is more concise and practical but may compromise the accuracy to a small
extent. To determine the critical size with appreciable accuracy, the above two types of methods were
combined in determining the crack initiation life in the present study.
By setting the SIF same as the fatigue limit, the critical size could be solved using Equation (8).
It is worth stating that the fatigue limit here is not the threshold value for the long crack, which will be
discussed in detail later. Based on Equation (7), the service life of initiation could be solved, as shown
in Equation (10):
a3c
ti = + tc , (10)
B3 m2asp Ip C3σa C3σ
p
a

where ti is the service life of the C-F crack initiation; ac stands for the critical depth and tc is the service
life spent during the competition, which is calculated from the moment when critical depth is reached
to the moment when the growth rate of the fatigue effect exceeds that of pitting corrosion.
Verification has been carried out using two typical materials [35], including the 2024-T3 aluminum
alloy and the 12% Cr stainless steel. The material properties are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Parameters for the selected aluminum alloy and stainless steel.
√
Material B Cp Ip (C/s) masp ∆Kth (MPa m)
Aluminum alloy 2.55 × 10−4 1.001–1.02 1.83 × 10−9 1.0 2.32
Stainless steel 2.61 × 10−4 1.005–1.01 1.51 × 10−10 1.0 8.14

The prediction value is plotted against the test data [22,23] under various stress ranges, as shown
in Figure 5. In the prediction, the critical depth was solved by the fatigue limit listed in Table 2, while
the Paris’ law was employed to determine the crack growth rate induced by the fatigue effect. The result
shows that the prediction curve matched well with the test data, indicating the effectiveness of the
proposed method in solving the C-F crack initiation life. It is worth noting that a similar verification
was done by Mao et al. [47].
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 10 of 24
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 5. 5.
C-FC-F initiationlife
initiation lifeofofselected
selectedmaterials
materials under
under various
variousstress
stressranges:
ranges:(a)
(a)2014-T3
2014-T3aluminum
aluminum
alloy and (b) 12% Cr stainless
alloy and (b) 12% Cr stainless steel. steel.

4.3.4.3.
Service Life
Service LifeofofCorrosion-Fatigue
Corrosion-FatigueCrack
Crack Propagation
Propagation
AsAsaforementioned,
aforementioned, once thethe
once critical flawflaw
critical size size
is achieved, the fatigue
is achieved, effectseffects
the fatigue as wellasaswell
the corrosion
as the
corrosion
effects are theeffects are the
two major two major
driving forces driving
in crack forces in crackAccordingly,
propagation. propagation.the Accordingly,
fatigue processthe competes
fatigue
process
with competesprocess
the corrosion with theincorrosion process
terms of the crackingrowth
terms ofrate,
the and
crackthe
growth rate, and
propagation is the propagation
dominated by the
oneis with
dominated
a higherbygrowth
the onerate.
with Ita can
higher growth rate.
be inferred fromItEquations
can be inferred from
(7) and (9) Equations
that, with (7)theand (9) that,
development
of with the development
the crack, of the
the growth rate is crack, the growth
decreasing for therate is decreasing
corrosion processfor the corrosion
while increasingprocess
for thewhile
fatigue
process. Once the growth rate induced by the fatigue process exceeds that caused byexceeds
increasing for the fatigue process. Once the growth rate induced by the fatigue process that
the corrosion
caused by the corrosion process, the fatigue effect becomes the dominated driving
process, the fatigue effect becomes the dominated driving force and the influence of corrosion could force and the
influence of corrosion could be ignored. Therefore, it is crucial to determine the crack growth rate
be ignored. Therefore, it is crucial to determine the crack growth rate induced by the fatigue effect.
induced by the fatigue effect. Studies [48] show that the fatigue crack can be divided into small
Studies [48] show that the fatigue crack can be divided into small (short) cracks and long cracks during
(short) cracks and long cracks during the propagation. For small cracks, the fatigue limit is
the propagation. For small cracks, the fatigue limit is significantly lower than that of long cracks, while
significantly lower than that of long cracks, while the propagation rate is much faster [48].
the propagation rate is much faster [48]. Obviously, the behavior of small cracks cannot be reflected by
Obviously, the behavior of small cracks cannot be reflected by the crude Paris law since the
the crude Paris law since the difference is not considered.
difference is not considered.
Thus,
Thus,thethe
advanced
advancedNASGRONASGRO equation has been
equation applied,
has been in which
applied, in the
whichsmallthecrack is considered,
small crack is
as considered,
shown in Equation (11):
as shown in Equation (11):
da = 𝐷 h (∆𝐾 − ∆𝐾 )/p1 − 𝐾 /𝐴 im, (11)
= D (∆K − ∆Kthr )/ 1 − Kmax /A , (11)
dN
where ∆𝐾 is the decreased fatigue limit in terms of the SIF range, which will be discussed later;
𝐾 ∆Kisthrthe
where is the decreased
maximal SIF;fatigue
𝑅 is limit
the in termsratio;
stress of the𝐴SIF
is range, which will
the fracture be discussed
toughness 𝐷 is Kamax
and later;
is the maximal SIF; R is the
material-related constant. stress ratio; A is the fracture toughness and D is a material-related constant.
The maximal SIF can be calculated based
The maximal SIF can be calculated based on on the stress ratio, as shown in Equation (12):
stress ratio, as shown in Equation (12):
∆
𝐾
=∆K . (12)
Kmax = ( ). (12)
(1 − R)
Based on Equation (11), the service life of propagation could be solved, as shown in Equation
(13):
Based on Equation (11), the service life of propagation could be solved, as shown in Equation (13):
ℎ 𝑚
𝑡 Z= 𝑑𝑎/
 h𝐷 (∆𝐾 − ∆𝐾𝑡ℎ𝑟 )/ p1 − 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝐴 im
, (13)
1 h 𝑎𝑖
tp = da/ D (∆K − ∆Kthr )/ 1 − Kmax /A , (13)
where 𝑓 is the frequency of the
f applied
ai cyclic loads and 𝑎 is the crack initiation depth.

where f is the frequency

4.4. Corrosion-Fatigue of the applied cyclic loads and ai is the crack initiation depth.
Model
In the C-F crack
4.4. Corrosion-Fatigue Modelinitiation stage, Faraday’s law is more suitable for this process, which
considers many factors such as the material property, temperature, corrosion system and time. In
theInC-F
thecrack
C-F crack initiation
propagation stage,
stage, Faraday’s
Paris law is
law needs more suitable
different for this
propagation process, which
parameters considers
C, m and the
many factors such as the material property, temperature, corrosion system and time. In the C-F crack
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 11 of 24

propagation stage, Paris law needs different propagation parameters C, m and the threshold value
for a short crack and long crack respectively, which makes the evaluation rather complicated. Thus,
the NASGRO equation requiring only a few parameters is preferable for the evaluation on this process,
while it can describe both a short crack and long crack within the same pattern effectively.
Based on the above analysis, the whole C-F life of the structural steel for bridges could be solved
by combining the initiation life and propagation life, as shown in Equation (14):

h
a3c
Z
1 im 
 h p
tC−F = + tc + da/ D (∆K − ∆Kthr )/ 1 − Kmax /A , (14)
B3 m2asp Ip C3σ
p
a f ai

where tC−F is the C-F life of the material.

As shown in Equation (14), the whole C-F life consists of three parts. In the first part, the pitting
corrosion is the only driving force since the condition is not met for the fatigue-induced propagation.
The material constant B is similar in different kinds of steel so that its influence on the C-F life of
different steel is not significant. Meanwhile, the constant Cp is highly dependent on the category of
steel that a small variation in the constant can lead to a great difference in the initiation life. Besides,
with the increase in the environment-related pitting current, the initiation life can be remarkably
decreased. It is also indicated by Equation (14) that, the higher stress range further accelerates the
pitting process described in the first part. In the last part, the fatigue effect outcompetes the corrosion
effect and becomes the major driving force in crack propagation. Fatigue limit and fracture toughness
are dependent on the fracture mechanical property of the material. Meanwhile, a higher frequency of
cyclic loads can reduce the propagation life directly. Within the integral operation, the parameters
∆K and Kmax related to the stress range and stress ratio can also influence the propagation. Besides,
the constants D and m are almost the same for structural steel, as given in [12]. For the geometric factor
ai , it depends on the stress range, stress ratio, plate thickness, the rate of pitting corrosion and the rate
of fatigue crack propagation. In the middle part, it is assumed that during the time period tc , both the
pitting corrosion and the fatigue effect serve as the driving force in crack propagation parallelly and
compete with each other. Thus, the time period tc at this part will be affected by the above factors in
both the corrosion and fatigue process. In sum, the C-F life of steel is a highly complicated process,
which is affected by many crucial factors.
Further verification has been carried out for the whole C-F life, through the experimental data of
a type of precipitation hardening steel [10]. The material properties of the steel are listed in Table 3,
with the fatigue limit recommended by Kondo [16]. The experiment data has been obtained under
three different temperatures, i.e., 25 ◦ C, 75 ◦ C and 150 ◦ C. Based on that, the pitting current can
be respectively calculated under the three testing temperature based on Equation (14). As a result,
the pitting currents are determined as, 1.8065 × 10−8 C/s, 1.8991 × 10−11 C/s and 8.7407 × 10−11 C/s
under 25 ◦ C, 75 ◦ C and 150 ◦ C, respectively.

Table 3. Parameters for the selected steel material.

√
B Cp masp ∆Kth (MPa m)
2.60 × 10−4 1.01 1.0 1.2

The prediction curve is plotted against the experimental data, as shown in Figure 6. In the
prediction, the specimens were in the round section. For this reason, the expression for the SIF range
can be written as follows:
2.2 √
∆K = ( )Kt ·∆σ π·a, (15)
π
where Kt is the stress concentration factor in the location, however, the Kt = 1 for the location with
regular geometry.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 24

the prediction curve under 25 °C. Further analysis suggests that this deviation could be attributed
to the relative large scatter in the data under 25 °C However, the trend was still highly similar
between the9,test
Appl. Sci. 2019, 3461 data and prediction curve under 25 °C Thus, it was proved that the proposed
12 of 24
model could predict the whole C-F life effectively.

Figure 6. C-F
C-F life
life of
of the
the selected
selected precipitation
precipitation hardening steel.

The result
5. Analysis exhibited that the experimental
on Corrosion-Fatigue of Structuraldata under
Steel 25 ◦ C and 75 ◦ C were similar, which shows
for Bridges
the minor influence of the pitting current on C-F life in relatively low temperatures. Generally, the
5.1. Materialcurves match well with the experimental data, especially under 75 ◦ C and 150 ◦ C. It is also
prediction
worth noting that a notable deviation existed between the experimental data and the prediction curve
Based on the proposed model, a case study was carried out to investigate the C-F process in
under 25 ◦ C. Further analysis suggests that this deviation could be attributed to the relative large
steel bridges. The typical weathering steel HPS 70W [49] was selected while the normal carbon steel
scatter in the data under 25 ◦ C However, the trend was still highly similar between the test data and
14MnNbq (named Q370q at◦ the same time) was also investigated for comparison. The HPS 70W is a
prediction curve under 25 C Thus, it was proved that the proposed model could predict the whole
kind of high performance steel widely used in bridge engineering, which has higher strength, better
C-F life effectively.
corrosion resistance and better weldability compared to traditional weathering steel. The yield
strength of on
5. Analysis theCorrosion-Fatigue
HPS 70W and theof14MnNbq
Structuralsteel
Steelare
for 485 MPa and 370 MPa, respectively. The
Bridges
chemical compositions and mechanical properties [49–52] are listed in Tables 4 and 5, respectively.
It is worth
5.1. stating that the fatigue limit ∆𝐾 in Table 5 was the value for the long crack.
Material
Based on the proposed model, a case study was carried out to investigate the C-F process in
Table 4. Chemical composition of the selected steel.
steel bridges. The typical weathering steel HPS 70W [49] was selected while the normal carbon steel
14MnNbq (named Q370q at the same Elementtime)HPS
was70W 14MnNbq for comparison. The HPS 70W
also investigated
C 0.11 max
is a kind of high performance steel widely used in bridge 0.11–0.17
engineering, which has higher strength,
Mn 1.10–1.50 1.20–1.60
better corrosion resistance and better weldability compared to traditional weathering steel. The yield
P 0.020 max 0.025 max
strength of the HPS 70W and the 14MnNbq steel are 485 MPa and 370 MPa, respectively. The chemical
S 0.006 max 0.015 max
compositions and mechanical properties Si
[49–52] are listed0.20–0.60
0.30–0.50
in Tables 4 and 5, respectively. It is worth
stating that the fatigue limit ∆Kth in Table
Cu 5 was the value
0.25–0.40 for -the long crack.
Ni 0.25–0.40 -
Table 4. Chemical
Cr composition
0.45–0.70 of the selected
- steel.
Mo 0.02–0.08 -
Element HPS 70W 14MnNbq
V 0.04–0.08 -
C Al 0.11 max
0.010–0.040 - 0.11–0.17
Mn N 1.10–1.50
0.015 max - 1.20–1.60
P 0.020 max 0.025 max
S 0.006 max 0.015 max
As suggested by the NASGRO Si equation, instead of the0.20–0.60
0.30–0.50 original fatigue limit, a decreased
fatigue value should be used in Cu accordance with fracture
0.25–0.40 toughness,
- to consider the behavior of
small cracks. Table 5 shows the two
Ni parameters of the selected steel- under different stress ratios.
0.25–0.40
Cr 0.45–0.70 -
Mo 0.02–0.08 -
V 0.04–0.08 -
Al 0.010–0.040 -
N 0.015 max -
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 13 of 24

Table 5. Fatigue limit for long cracks in the selected steel.

√
Steel Stress Ratio ∆Kth (MPa m)
HPS 70W 0.10 7.22
0.05 6.67
14MnNbq 0.25 5.14
0.50 3.32

As suggested by the NASGRO equation, instead of the original fatigue limit, a decreased fatigue
value should be used in accordance with fracture toughness, to consider the behavior of small cracks.
Table 5 shows the two parameters of the selected steel under different stress ratios.
The parameters of the selected steel [12] are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Decreased fatigue limits and fracture toughness of the selected steel.
√ √
Steel Stress Ratio ∆Kthr (MPa m) A (MPa m)
0.0 5.5 120
HPS 70W
0.8 3.8 120
14MnNbq 0.05 5.5 100

5.2. Fatigue Limit

As fatigue cracks can be divided into long cracks and small cracks, Phillips et al. [53] claimed
that different fatigue limits should be applied for the large-crack and small-crack, respectively [53].
Meanwhile, Kondo [16] proposed that the threshold value for crack initiation is smaller than that of the
fatigue limit for long cracks. In another world, the crack can also initiate and propagate when the SIF
range is between the fatigue limit for a long crack and the threshold for crack initiation. On this end,
the decreased fatigue limit recommended in [12] was utilized as shown in Equation (11). Studies [54,55]
indicate that the fatigue limit of steel is affected by the stress ratio, as shown in Equation (16):

∆Kth = ∆Kth,0 (1 − αR), (16)

where ∆Kth is the decreased fatigue limit; R stands for the stress ratio; ∆Kth,0 is the fatigue limit when
R = 0 and α is a material-related parameter.
According to Equation (16), the threshold value of the two selected materials can be obtained
under different stress ratios, as shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Stress intensity factor (SIF) threshold for fatigue crack propagation and initiation and their
material parameter α.
√
Material Stage ∆Kth,0 (MPa m) α
Propagation 7.51 0.386
HPS 70W
Initiation 5.50 0.386
Propagation 7.03 1.060
14MnNbq
Initiation 5.80 1.060

5.3. Critical Pitting Depth of Steels

As aforementioned, the pitting flaw can be treated as an equivalent crack. As suggested by
Newman [40,56], the range of SIFs at the pitting flaw can be calculated as shown in Equations (17)
and (18): 
a 2 a 4 2
 √
∆Kb = 1.04 + 0.201( ) − 0.106( ) ∆σ πa, (17)
h h π
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 14 of 24


a 2 a 4

a 2 2
 √
∆Ks = 1.04 + 0.201( ) − 0.106( ) 1.1 + 0.35( ) ∆σ πa, (18)
h h h π
where ∆Kb and ∆Ks are the ranges of SIFs at the crack tip and the crack edge, respectively; a is the
pitting 2019, 9, hx is
Appl. Sci.depth; FOR the plate
PEER thickness and ∆σ is the remote stress range.
REVIEW 14 of 24
As aforementioned, the critical size of pitting flaws is achieved when any of the SIFs reaches the
fatigue
the remotelimit.stress
It canrange,be found
stressfrom Equations
ratio (17) and
and the plate (18) thatThus,
thickness. the critical size issize
the critical determined
in the HPS by70W
the
remote stress range,
and 14MnNbq stress ratio and
was investigated underthedifferent
plate thickness.
combinationsThus, of theparameters,
critical sizeas inshown
the HPS in 70W and7
Figures
14MnNbq
and 8. Thewas resultinvestigated
indicates under different
that critical combinations
pitting depth of theseof parameters,
two typesasofshown in Figureswith
steel decreased 7 andthe 8.
The resultinindicates
increase stress range that critical pitting
and stress depth
ratio. For of these two
instance, whentypestheofstress
steel decreased
range increasedwith the increase
from 50 MPa in
stress
to 200range
MPa,and thestress
critical ratio. For depth
pitting instance, when the
reduced stressby
roughly range
93%increased from 50
in both types of MPa
steel.toMeanwhile,
200 MPa, the as
critical pitting
the stress ratiodepth
rose reduced
from 0.01 roughly
to 0.5, by
the93% in both
critical depthtypes of steel.
reduced byMeanwhile,
33% in the as HPS the70W
stressand
ratio
77%rosein
from 0.01 to 0.5, the
the 14MnNbq. critical depth
Moreover, reduced
critical pittingbydepth
33% inwas the HPS
much 70Wmoreandsensitive
77% in theto14MnNbq.
stress range Moreover,
in low
critical pittingstate.
stress range depthItwas couldmuchalsomore sensitive
be found thattothestress
platerange in lowhad
thickness stress range
little state.
impact onItcritical
could also be
pitting
found
depth,that the plate
which was lessthickness
than 3% hadchange
little impact
in the on critical
depth whenpitting depth, which
the thickness was less
increased than203%
from mm change
to 50
in
mm.the Besides,
depth when the thickness
the result increased
also suggests thatfrom 20 mm depth
the critical to 50 mm.in theBesides,
HPS 70W the result
was not also suggeststothat
sensitive the
change
the in depth
critical the stress in theratio
HPSwhen70W compared with the
was not sensitive to 14MnNbq.
the change As a result,
in the a considerable
stress ratio when compared higher
critical
with thedepth
14MnNbq. couldAs beaexpected in the HPS 70W
result, a considerable higher under a high
critical depth stress
couldratio, which in
be expected inturn indicates
the HPS 70W
its better
under robustness
a high stress ratio,in fatigue
whichperformance.
in turn indicates its better robustness in fatigue performance.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure Critical pitting

Figure 7.7. Critical pitting depth
depthofofthe
thesteel
steel14MnNbq
14MnNbqwith
withdifferent
differentplate
plate thicknesses:
thicknesses: (a) (a) 20 mm;
20 mm; (b)
(b)
30 30
mm;mm; (c) (c)
40 40
mmmmandand
(d)(d)
50 50
mm.mm.

(a) (b)
 (c) (d)

Figure
Appl. Sci. 2019, 7. Critical pitting depth of the steel 14MnNbq with different plate thicknesses: (a) 20 mm; (b)
9, 3461 15 of 24
30 mm; (c) 40 mm and (d) 50 mm.

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure Critical pitting

Figure 8.8. Critical pitting depth
depthofofthe
thesteel
steelHPS
HPS70W
70Wwith
withdifferent
differentplate
plate thicknesses:
thicknesses: (a) (a) 20 mm;
20 mm; (b)
(b)
30 30
mm;mm; (c) (c)
40 40
mm mm
andand
(d)(d)
50 50
mm.mm.

5.4. Evaluation on the Corrosion-Fatigue Process

5.4. Evaluation on the Corrosion-Fatigue Process
The C-F crack development in UWS bridges mainly depends on the category of environment,
The C-F crack development in UWS bridges mainly depends on the category of environment,
the fracture mechanics-related properties and the stress state under live loads. Meanwhile, there are
the fracture mechanics-related properties and the stress state under live loads. Meanwhile, there are
also some other conditions that lead to an accelerated C-F process under same corrosion environment
also some other conditions that lead to an accelerated C-F process under same corrosion
and material, e.g., the relatively huge pitting flaw size due to the uncertainty in pitting corrosion.
environment and material, e.g., the relatively huge pitting flaw size due to the uncertainty in pitting
As suggested by Albrecht [15,57], the fatigue strength will be reduced due to the corrosion
corrosion.
effect, and the degree of reduction increases with original fatigue strength. Since the base metal is
As suggested by Albrecht [15,57], the fatigue strength will be reduced due to the corrosion
believed with the highest fatigue strength, the reduction in the fatigue strength of the base metal is
effect, and the degree of reduction increases with original fatigue strength. Since the base metal is
correspondingly the most serious. Thus, investigations were made on the C-F performance of base
believed with the highest fatigue strength, the reduction in the fatigue strength of the base metal is
metal. The stress range used in the analysis was determined after the design fatigue strength at
correspondingly the most serious. Thus, investigations were made on the C-F performance of base
2 million cycles in the Chinese code JTG D64 [58]. The ADTT was selected according to the number of
metal. The stress range used in the analysis was determined after the design fatigue strength at 2
heavy vehicles in traffic category 2 stipulated in the Eurocode 1 [59]. In addition, the pitting current
million cycles in the Chinese code JTG D64 [58]. The ADTT was selected according to the number of
was used the same as the value from the corrosion test in Qingdao [42]. The main parameters were
heavy vehicles in traffic category 2 stipulated in the Eurocode 1 [59]. In addition, the pitting current
listed as the following: ∆σ = 140 MPa, R = 0.4, ADTT = 1370, Ip = 1.05 × 10−8 C/s, Cp = 1 and masp = 1.
was used the same as the value from the corrosion test in Qingdao [42]. The main parameters were
Besides, it was assumed that each passing truck generated only one stress range.−8The results are shown
listed as the following: 𝛥𝜎 = 140 MPa, 𝑅 = 0.4, ADTT = 1370, 𝐼 = 1.05 × 10 C/s, 𝐶 = 1 and 𝑚
in Figure 9.
= 1. Besides, it was assumed that each passing truck generated only one stress range. The results are
The result indicates that crack development at the crack initiation stage was notably different
shown in Figure 9.
from that at the crack propagation stage. For instance, the crack growth rate was remarkably lower
The result indicates that crack development at the crack initiation stage was notably different
at the initiation stage than at the propagation stage. In addition, it could also be found that the
from that at the crack propagation stage. For instance, the crack growth rate was remarkably lower
initiation life accounted for the largest part of the whole C-F life in both types of steel, i.e., 80.3% in
at the initiation stage than at the propagation stage. In addition, it could also be found that the
the HPS 70W and 61.6% in the 14MnNbq. Similar conclusions can also be found in many relevant
initiation life accounted for the largest part of the whole C-F life in both types of steel, i.e., 80.3% in
studies [22,60]. At the same time, the crack initiation life in HPS 70W was much longer than in the
the HPS 70W and 61.6% in the 14MnNbq. Similar conclusions can also be found in many relevant
14MnNbq, i.e., almost 5.3 times longer. On this end, the weathering steel HPS 70W steel exhibited
studies [22,60]. At the same time, the crack initiation life in HPS 70W was much longer than in the
much better C-F performance than the normal carbon steel 14MnNbq, even under the same pitting
14MnNbq, i.e., almost 5.3 times longer. On this end, the weathering steel HPS 70W steel exhibited
current. This advantage of the HPS 70W could be attributed to the higher fatigue resistance and lower
much better C-F performance than the normal carbon steel 14MnNbq, even under the same pitting
decrease in fatigue limit with the increase in stress ratio. Besides, the corrosion resistance of HPS 70W
current. This advantage of the HPS 70W could be attributed to the higher fatigue resistance and
lower decrease in fatigue limit with the increase in stress ratio. Besides, the corrosion resistance of
HPS 70W was far better than the normal carbon steel 14MnNbq, which led to a further
enhancement in the C-F performance of the HPS 70W.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 16 of 24

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24

was far better than the normal carbon steel 14MnNbq, which led to a further enhancement in the C-F
performance
Appl. Sci. 2019,of
9, xthe
FORHPS
PEER70W.
REVIEW 16 of 24

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Crack development in the C-F process: (a) 20 mm and (b) 50 mm.
Figure9.9.Crack
Figure Crackdevelopment
development in the C-F
C-F process:
process:(a)
(a)2020mm
mmand
and(b)(b)
5050 mm.
mm.
6. Sensitivity Analysis on Parameters
6. 6.
Sensitivity
SensitivityAnalysis
Analysison onParameters
Parameters
In this section, a sensitivity analysis was performed to investigate the influence of the C-F
InInthis
thissection,
section,aasensitivity
sensitivity analysis
analysis was performed totoinvestigate
was performed investigatethe
theinfluence
influence
of of
thethe
C-FC-F
life-critical factors, including the stress range, stress ratio, corrosive environment and ADTT on the
life-critical
life-critical factors, including the stress range, stress ratio, corrosive environment and ADTT on theC-F
factors, including the stress range, stress ratio, corrosive environment and ADTT on the
C-F life of both two types of steel. For comparison purpose, the original sets of parameters were
lifeC-F
of both
life oftwo types
both twoof steel.ofFor
types comparison
steel. purpose,
For comparison the original
purpose, sets ofsets
the original parameters were kept
of parameters werethe
kept the same as in Section 5.4.
samekeptasthein same
Section 5.4.Section 5.4.
as in

6.1.
6.1. Influence
Influenceof
Influence
6.1. ofofthe
thetheStress
Stress Range
StressRange
Range
The
TheThe stress
stress range
stressrange varied
rangevaried from
variedfrom 120
from120 MPa
120 MPa
MPa toto 200
200 MPa
MPain
MPa inthe
in theanalysis.
the analysis.The
analysis. Thecrack
The crack
crack depth
depth
depth waswas
was plotted
plotted
plotted
against
against
against time,
time, as shown
time,asasshown in Figure
shownininFigure 10.
Figure10. According
10. According
According to to the
to the result,
theresult, when
result,when
whenthethe stress
thestress range
stressrange
range increased
increased
increased fromfrom
from
120
120 MPa
120
MPaMPa toto200
to 200 MPa,
200MPa,
MPa,thethe whole
thewhole C-F
wholeC-F life
C-F life in the
life in the two
two types
two typesof
types ofsteel
of steelwas
steel wasreduced
was reduced
reduced by
byby similar
similar
similar rates,
rates, i.e.,i.e.,
rates, i.e.,
92.4%
92.4% in the
in HPS
the HPS 70W
70W and
and 88.7%
88.7% in
in the
the 14MnNbq.
14MnNbq. However,
However, itit should
should
92.4% in the HPS 70W and 88.7% in the 14MnNbq. However, it should be noted that the C-F life ofbebe noted
noted that
that thethe C-F
C-F lifelife
of of
HPS
HPSHPS70W
70W 70W was
was far
wasfar longer
farlonger than
longerthan that
thanthat of
thatof 14MnNbq
of14MnNbq
14MnNbq steelsteel due
steel due to
due to postponing
topostponing in
postponingininthe the crack
thecrack initiation.
crackinitiation.
initiation.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure 10. Crack development under various stress ranges: (a) HPS 70W and (b) 14MnNbq.
Figure
Figure 10. Crack development
10. Crack development under
under various
various stress
stress ranges: (a) HPS
ranges: (a) HPS 70W
70W and
and (b)
(b) 14MnNbq.
14MnNbq.
For further comparison, the influence of the stress range on the initiation life and the
propagation
For furtherlife comparison,
are shown in Figure 11a,b, respectively.
the influence It canrange
of the stress be found
on that,
the due to the increase
initiation life andinthe
the stress range,
propagation life arethe propagation
shown in Figure life was respectively.
11a,b, reduced by 83.9%
It can in
bethe HPSthat,
found 70Wdueandto81.2% in the in
the increase
the stress range, the propagation life was reduced by 83.9% in the HPS 70W and 81.2% ininthe
14MnNbq. Meanwhile, the initiation life in the HPS 70W steel was reduced by 94.0% while that
14MnNbq. Meanwhile, the initiation life in the HPS 70W steel was reduced by 94.0% while that in
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 17 of 24

For further comparison, the influence of the stress range on the initiation life and the propagation
life are shown in Figure 11a,b, respectively. It can be found that, due to the increase in the stress range,
Appl.propagation
the Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR
lifePEER
was REVIEW
reduced by 83.9% in the HPS 70W and 81.2% in the 14MnNbq. Meanwhile, 17 of 24
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24
the initiation life in the HPS 70W steel was reduced by 94.0% while that in the 14MnNbq steel was
the 14MnNbq steel was decreased by 92.2%. The result suggests that the stress range had a great
decreased
the 14MnNbq by 92.2%.
steel The result suggests92.2%.
that theThe
stress range had a great effect on the C-F had
life of both
effect on the C-F life was decreased
of both types ofbysteel at both result
the two suggests that the
stages. Meanwhile, stress range
it also could beafound
great
types
effect of steel
oneffect at both
the C-F theboth
lifestress
of twotypes
stages. steel
Meanwhile, it
thealso could be Meanwhile,
found that the effect of the
be stress
that the of the range onofthe C-Fatlife
both
of both two
twostages. it also
types of steel was highly could
similar. found
range on the C-F life of both two types of steel was highly similar.
that the effect of the stress range on the C-F life of both two types of steel was highly similar.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Impact of stress range on the C-F life: (a) Initiation life and (b) propagation life.
Figure 11. Impact
Figure11. Impact of
of stress
stress range
range on
onthe
theC-F
C-Flife:
life: (a)
(a) Initiation
Initiation life
life and
and (b)
(b) propagation
propagationlife.
life.
6.2. Influence
6.2. Influence of of the
the Stress
Stress Ratio
Ratio
6.2. Influence of the Stress Ratio
The stress
The stress ratio
ratio (R)
(R) varied
varied from
from 0.01
0.01 to
to 0.5
0.5 in
in the
the analysis.
analysis. The
The crack
crack depth
depth waswas plotted
plotted against
against
time, The
time, as
stress ratio
as shown
shown (R) varied
ininFigure
Figure 12.
from 0.01to
12.According
According to 0.5 result,
to thethe
in the analysis.
result, whenwhen thethe
The crack
stress
stress
depth
ratioratio
wasincreased
ranges
ranges
plotted against
increased fromfrom
0.01
time,toas
0.01 shown
0.5, the in Figure
whole C-F 12. was
life According
reduced tobythe64.9%
result,
in when
the HPSthe70W
stress
and ratio
95.6%ranges
in theincreased
14MnNbq.fromIt
to 0.5, the whole C-F life was reduced by 64.9% in the HPS 70W and 95.6% in the 14MnNbq. It is also
0.01 to 0.5,
is alsonoting the
worththat whole
noting C-F life
thatlife was
theinC-F reduced by 64.9%
life in thebecame
14MnNbq in the HPS
became 70W
longerand 95.6%
than thatin the
inwhen14MnNbq.
the HPS 70WIt
worth the C-F the 14MnNbq longer than that in the HPS 70W the stress
is also
whenwas worth
the below noting
stress ratio that the C-F life in the 14MnNbq became longer than that in the HPS 70W
ratio 0.05, was
which below
would 0.05,
bewhich
discussedwould be discussed
in the following.in the following.
when the stress ratio was below 0.05, which would be discussed in the following.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 12. Crack development
12. Crack development under
under various
various stress
stress ratios: (a) HPS
ratios: (a) HPS 70W
70W and
and (b)
(b) 14MnNbq.
14MnNbq.
Figure 12. Crack development under various stress ratios: (a) HPS 70W and (b) 14MnNbq.
The
The influence
influence of of the
the stress
stress range
range onon the
the initiation
initiation life
life and
and the
the propagation
propagation life
life are
are also
also shown
shown in in
Figure
Figure The influence
13a,b,
13a,b, of the stress
respectively.
respectively. It could range
It could on
be the
be found initiation
that
found with
thatthelife and
increases
with thetheincreases
propagation
in the stress life are
in ratio,
the thealso
stress shownthe
propagation
ratio, in
Figure 13a,b, respectively. It could be found that with the increases
propagation life steel was decreased by 42.7% in the HPS and 81.2% in the 14MnNbq. Meanwhile, in the stress ratio, the
propagation
the initiation life
life steel
was was decreased
reduced by 42.7%
by 68.3% in theinHPS the 70W
HPS and and 81.2%
97.6% inin the
the14MnNbq.
14MnNbq.Meanwhile,
The result
suggests that the C-F life in the HPS 70W was less sensitive to the variation 14MnNbq.
the initiation life was reduced by 68.3% in the HPS 70W and 97.6% in the in the stressThe result
ratio. In
suggests that the C-F life in the HPS 70W was less sensitive to the variation
another word, the HPS 70W had better robustness under the change in the stress ratio as previously in the stress ratio. In
another word,
illustrated by thetheanalysis
HPS 70W on had better robustness
the critical depth. It isunder the change
also worth notinginthat
thewhen
stressthe
ratio as previously
stress ratio was
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 18 of 24

life steel was decreased by 42.7% in the HPS and 81.2% in the 14MnNbq. Meanwhile, the initiation life
was reduced by 68.3% in the HPS 70W and 97.6% in the 14MnNbq. The result suggests that the C-F life
in the HPS 70W was less sensitive to the variation in the stress ratio. In another word, the HPS 70W
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
had
18 of 24
better robustness under
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEWthe change in the stress ratio as previously illustrated by the analysis on the
18 of 24
critical depth. It is also worth noting that when the stress ratio was less than
less than 0.05, both the initiation life and the propagation life in the HPS 70W were shorter than that0.05, both the initiation life
and
less
in the
thethan propagation
0.05, bothOn
14MnNbq. lifethe
the in contrary,
the HPSlife
initiation 70W andwere
once the shorter
the than that
propagation
stress ratio life in the 14MnNbq.
increased HPS
beyond70W0.05,Onathe
were contrary,
shorter
totally thanonce
that
opposite
the
trendstress
in thecould ratio
14MnNbq. increased
On theThis
be observed. beyond
contrary,0.05,
phenomenon a totally
once thecouldopposite
stress trend could
ratio increased
explain the fact why be observed.
beyond
the C-F 0.05, This phenomenon
lifeaintotally opposite
the 14MnNbq
could
was explain
trendhigher bethe
couldunder fact
observed.
a stresswhy thephenomenon
This
ratio C-F life in
of 0.05, asthe 14MnNbq
could
shown explain
in Figurewas higher
the12.
fact whyunder
However, a only
stress
the itC-F ratio
the of
lifehappened
in 0.05,
14MnNbq
under as
shown
was in
higherFigure
under 12. a However,
stress it
ratio only
of happened
0.05, as shown underin some
Figure extremely
12. rare
However,
some extremely rare situations that the stress ratio was under 0.05 in steel bridges. Thus, the HPS situations
it only that
happened the stress
under
ratio
70W was
somecould under
extremely
be said 0.05
rare in steel
situations
to have bridges.
a much that Thus,
the
better C-F the
stress HPSwas
ratio
performance 70Wunder
could0.05
under be said tostress
in steel
different have a much
bridges.
ratios.Thus,better C-F
the HPS
performance
70W could beunder said to different
have a stress
much ratios.
better C-F performance under different stress ratios.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 13. Impact of the stress ratio on the C-F life: (a) Initiation life and (b) propagation life.
Figure 13. Impact of the stress ratio on the C-F life: (a) Initiation life and (b) propagation life.
Figure 13. Impact of the stress ratio on the C-F life: (a) Initiation life and (b) propagation life.
6.3.
6.3. Influence
Influence of
of the
the Corrosive
Corrosive Environment
Environment
6.3. Influence of the Corrosive Environment
For
For better illustration, Ip𝐼 can
better illustration, can
bebe written
written in in
thethe form
form of Iof
p =𝐼 k=
× I𝑘 × 𝐼 where 𝐼 stands for the
pi where Ipi stands for the original
For
original
pitting better that
pitting
current illustration,
current ×𝐼10
that
is 1.05 iscan be×written
−81.05
C/s, isin
10−8k C/s,
and thethe
and 𝑘 isof
form
pitting the𝐼 pitting
current= magnify
𝑘 × current
𝐼 coefficient
where 𝐼 ranging
magnifystands for the
coefficient
from
original
ranging pitting
from 0.7 current
to 3.4. that
The is
crack 1.05
depth× 10
was C/s,
−8 plotted and 𝑘 is
against
0.7 to 3.4. The crack depth was plotted against time, as shown in Figure 14. the pitting
time, as current
shown in magnify
Figure 14. coefficient
ranging from 0.7 to 3.4. The crack depth was plotted against time, as shown in Figure 14.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure 14.
Figure Crack development
14. Crack development under
under various
various pitting
pitting currents:
currents: (a)
(a) HPS
HPS 70W
70W and
and (b)
(b) 14MnNbq.
14MnNbq.
Figure 14. Crack development under various pitting currents: (a) HPS 70W and (b) 14MnNbq.
According to the result, when the pitting current magnify coefficient increased from 0.7 to 3.4,
According
the whole to the
C-F life wasresult, when
reduced by the pitting
70.2% current
in the magnify
HPS 70W steelcoefficient
and 59.6% increased from 0.7 to
in the 14MnNbq 3.4,
steel.
the wholeeven
However, C-F under
life wasthereduced by 70.2% rate,
higher reduction in thethe
HPS
C-F70W
life insteel and 59.6%
the HPS 70W wasin the
still14MnNbq
far longer steel.
than
However,
that even underunder
in the 14MnNbq the higher reduction
various rate, the C-F life in the HPS 70W was still far longer than
pitting currents.
that in the 14MnNbq under various pitting currents.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 19 of 24

According to the result, when the pitting current magnify coefficient increased from 0.7 to 3.4,
the whole C-F life was reduced by 70.2% in the HPS 70W steel and 59.6% in the 14MnNbq steel.
However, even
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, xunder theREVIEW
FOR PEER higher reduction rate, the C-F life in the HPS 70W was still far longer19than of 24
that in the 14MnNbq under various pitting currents.
Forfurther
For furtheranalysis,
analysis,the
theinfluence
influence
of of pitting
pitting current
current on on
the the initiation
initiation life and
life and the propagation
the propagation life
lifeshown
are are shown in Figure
in Figure 15a,b,15a,b, respectively.
respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 15.Impact
Figure15. Impactof
ofpitting
pittingcurrent
currenton
onthe
theC-F
C-Flife:
life:(a)
(a)Initiation
Initiationlife
lifeand
and(b)
(b)propagation
propagationlife.
life.

ItItcould
couldbebefound
foundthatthatwith
withthe increases
the increases in in
thethe
pitting current,
pitting current,thethe
initiation life life
initiation waswas reduced by
reduced
74.9%
by 74.9%in the
inHPS 70W 70W
the HPS and 69.2% in the in
and 69.2% 14MnNbq
the 14MnNbq steel. Meanwhile, with the
steel. Meanwhile, same
with thechange in the pitting
same change in the
current, the propagation life was reduced by 47.7% in the HPS 70W
pitting current, the propagation life was reduced by 47.7% in the HPS 70W and 41.5% in and 41.5% in the 14MnNbq steel.
the
It14MnNbq
could alsosteel.
be found that the difference in the initiation life between two types of
It could also be found that the difference in the initiation life between two types of steel was extremely
high
steelunder the low pitting
was extremely current.the
high under Aslow
the pitting
currentcurrent.
increased, Asthethedifference graduallythe
current increased, reduced to a
difference
relative stable value after the magnify coefficient reached 3.0. A similar trend
gradually reduced to a relative stable value after the magnify coefficient reached 3.0. A similar could also be observed in
terms
trendofcould
the propagation life. Meanwhile,
also be observed in terms of it is
theworth noting that
propagation life.pitting corrosion
Meanwhile, could
it is worthstillnoting
dominate
that
the C-F process for a while after the pitting depth reached the critical size,
pitting corrosion could still dominate the C-F process for a while after the pitting depth reached especially under the high
the
pitting
criticalcurrent. Therefore,
size, especially underit indicates
the highthat the high
pitting pitting
current. current it
Therefore, could lead to
indicates thatthethe
result
highthat the
pitting
corrosion-induced
current could lead growth
to the rate was higher
result that the than the fatigue-induced
corrosion-induced rate when
growth rate crack
was size
higher wasthan
small.
the
fatigue-induced rate when crack size was small.
6.4. Influence of ADTT

6.4. The average

Influence daily truck traffic (ADTT) varied from 500 to 5000 in the analysis. The crack development
of ADTT
was plotted against time, as shown in Figure 16. According to the result, when the ADTT increased
The average daily truck traffic (ADTT) varied from 500 to 5000 in the analysis. The crack
from 500 to 5000, the whole C-F life was reduced by 35.5% in the HPS 70W and 57.3% in the 14MnNbq.
development was plotted against time, as shown in Figure 16. According to the result, when the
However, even under the extremely high ADTT (i.e., 5000), the whole C-F life in the HPS 70W was still
ADTT increased from 500 to 5000, the whole C-F life was reduced by 35.5% in the HPS 70W and
significantly higher than that in the 14MnNbq.
57.3% in the 14MnNbq. However, even under the extremely high ADTT (i.e., 5000), the whole C-F
For further analysis, the influence of ADTT on the initiation life and the propagation life are
life in the HPS 70W was still significantly higher than that in the 14MnNbq.
shown in Figure 17a,b, respectively.
It could be found that with the increases in the ADTT, the propagation life was reduced by 73.4%
in the HPS 70W and 77.1% in the 14MnMbq steel. Meanwhile, the initiation life was reduced by 20.7%
in the HPS 70W and 38.7% in the 14MnMbq steel. Consequently, in addition to the notable impact on
the propagation life, the ADTT also had a secondary effect on the initiation life in both types of steel.
In this case, with the increase in the ADTT, the fatigue-related crack growth rate was increased. As a
result, the competition time period tc was reduced, which in turn affected the initiation life.

(a)
 The average daily truck traffic (ADTT) varied from 500 to 5000 in the analysis. The crack
development was plotted against time, as shown in Figure 16. According to the result, when the
ADTT increased from 500 to 5000, the whole C-F life was reduced by 35.5% in the HPS 70W and
57.3% in the 14MnNbq. However, even under the extremely high ADTT (i.e., 5000), the whole C-F
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 20 of 24
life in the HPS 70W was still significantly higher than that in the 14MnNbq.

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24

(a)

(b)

Figure 16. Crack development under different average daily truck traffic (ADTT): (a) HPS 70W and
(b) 14MnNbq.
(b)
For further analysis, the influence of ADTT on the initiation life and the propagation life are
Figure 16. Crack
Figure 16. Crack development
development under
under different
different average
average daily
daily truck
truck traffic
traffic (ADTT):
(ADTT): (a)
(a) HPS
HPS 70W
70W and
and
shown in Figure
(b) 14MnNbq.
17a,b, respectively.
(b) 14MnNbq.

For further analysis, the influence of ADTT on the initiation life and the propagation life are
shown in Figure 17a,b, respectively.

(a) (b)

Figure 17.Impact
Figure17. Impactof
ofstress
stressADTT
ADTTon
onC-F
C-Flife:
life:(a)
(a)Initiation
Initiationlife
lifeand
and(b)
(b)propagation
propagationlife.
life.

7. Conclusions
It could be found(a) that with the increases in the ADTT, the propagation (b) life was reduced by 73.4%
in theTheHPS 70W and
uncoated 77.1% insteel
weathering the 14MnMbq
(UWS) bridges steel.become
Meanwhile, the initiation
increasingly popularlife
duewas reduced
to their by 20.7%
advantages
Figure 17. Impact of stress ADTT on C-F life: (a) Initiation life and (b) propagation life.
inboth
in the HPS 70W and
the lifetime 38.7%
cost in the 14MnMbq
and environment steel. Consequently,
protection. However, the C-F in addition
issue is ofto particular
the notableconcern
impact
onUWS
in the propagation
bridges, which life,isthe ADTT
further also had
escalated byathe
secondary effect
designated on the initiation
corrosion process. On life this
in both
end,types of
a solid
It could be found that with the increases in the ADTT, the propagation life was reduced by 73.4%
steel. In this
evaluation case,iswith
method urgentlythe increase
required in forthe
the ADTT, the fatigue-related
C-F process in UWS bridgescrack growth
to ensure the rate was
lifetime
in the HPS 70W and 77.1% in the 14MnMbq steel. Meanwhile, the initiation life was reduced by 20.7%
increased. Asand,
serviceability a result, the competition
more important, time
safety. In thisperiod
paper, an𝑡 innovative
was reduced, which
model was in turn affected
established throughthe
in the HPS 70W and 38.7% in the 14MnMbq steel. Consequently, in addition to the notable impact
initiation life.
combining the electrochemistry theory and fracture mechanics. The proposed model for C-F crack
on the propagation life, the ADTT also had a secondary effect on the initiation life in both types of
initiation was then validated using the experimental data in existing literatures. Based on the verified
steel. In this case, with the increase in the ADTT, the fatigue-related crack growth rate was
7. Conclusions
model, the case study was carried out on two typical types of structural steel, i.e., HPS 70W and
increased. As a result, the competition time period 𝑡 was reduced, which in turn affected the
14MnNbq steel. Besides,
The life.
uncoated investigations
weathering were bridges
steel (UWS) also made on theincreasingly
become effect of crucial
popular C-F due
parameters,
to their
initiation
including
advantages theinstress
bothrange, stress ratio,
the lifetime costcorrosive environment
and environment and average
protection. daily truck
However, the C-Ftraffic (ADTT).
issue is of
Based on
7.particular
Conclusions the above
concern in UWS analysis, the which
bridges, following conclusions
is further could
escalated bybe drawn:
the designated corrosion process.
(1) Analysis
On this was evaluation
end, a solid made to find out a suitable
method index
is urgently to reflectfor
required the degree
the of corrosion,
C-F process in UWS based on the
bridges to
The uncoated
experiment data weathering
collected at steel
various (UWS)
places with bridges
differentbecome
corrosion increasingly
categories popular
in China. due
As a to their
result, a
ensure the lifetime serviceability and, more important, safety. In this paper, an innovative model
advantages
clear relation incould
bothbethe lifetimebetween
observed cost and theenvironment
degree of protection.
corrosion and However,
the pitting the C-Fwhich
current, issue were
is of
was established through combining the electrochemistry theory and fracture mechanics. The
particular concern in UWS bridges, which is further escalated by the designated corrosion process.
proposed model for C-F crack initiation was then validated using the experimental data in existing
On this end, a solid evaluation method is urgently required for the C-F process in UWS bridges to
literatures. Based on the verified model, the case study was carried out on two typical types of
ensure the lifetime serviceability and, more important, safety. In this paper, an innovative model
structural steel, i.e., HPS 70W and 14MnNbq steel. Besides, investigations were also made on the
was established through combining the electrochemistry theory and fracture mechanics. The
effect of crucial C-F parameters, including the stress range, stress ratio, corrosive environment and
proposed model for C-F crack initiation was then validated using the experimental data in existing
average daily truck traffic (ADTT).
literatures. Based on the verified model, the case study was carried out on two typical types of
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3461 21 of 24

only related to the corrosion environment. Thus, the pitting current was utilized to reflect the degree
of pitting corrosion in this study.
(2) An innovative model was established to simulate the C-F process in UWS bridges. The two
stages in the C-F process were independently treated in series, i.e., the C-F crack initiation stage and
the C-F crack propagation stage. Meanwhile, the critical pitting depth could serve as an indicator
of the fatigue effect, which competed against the corrosion effect. At the C-F crack initiation stage,
the pit could be regarded as an equivalent initial flaw that only grew under the corrosion. Once the
flaw reached the critical size, the fatigue effect joined as a parallel driving force in crack propagation.
The two effects then competed with each other, and the C-F process was dominated by the one with the
higher growth rate. As a result, the fatigue effect gradually replaced the corrosion as the major driving
force, which was the symbol of the C-F crack propagation stage, and the crack then grew under the
cyclic stress until the final failure. In the study, the pitting corrosion process was considered through
Faraday’s law, while fracture mechanics was employed to describe the propagation of fatigue cracks.
(3) The model proposed for the initiation stage and the whole C-F process was validated using the
experimental data in the existing literatures. The result shows that the prediction curve matched well
with the test data, indicating the effectiveness of the proposed method in predicting the C-F life.
(4) A case study was carried out on the bridge respectively constructed of two brands of steel, i.e.,
the normal steel 14MnNbq and the high-performance weathering steel HPS 70W. The result shows
that when considering the coupled C-F process, the bridge with the HPS 70W had a remarkably higher
service life than the one with the 14MnNbq. Besides, it also suggests that the C-F crack initiation stage
accounted for the largest part in the whole C-F life, i.e., around 61.6%–80.3%.
(5) A sensitive analysis was conducted on various C-F parameters, including the stress range,
stress ratio, corrosive environment and ADTT, on the C-F life of normal steel 14MnNbq and HPS
70W. The investigation was performed with respect to the influence on both the initiation life and
propagation life. The result shows that stress range and stress ratio both had dramatic impacts on C-F
life. Moreover, the C-F life decreased with the increase in the stress range and stress ratio. As an index
of the corrosive environment, the pitting current only affected the C-F crack initiation life. Besides,
the ADTT had a significant impact on the propagation life while its effect on the initiation life was
just limited.

Author Contributions: Data collection, simulation, methodology, and writing—Original draft preparation,
Y.Z.; supervision, project administration and funding acquisition, K.Z.; conceptualization, methodology and
writing—Review and editing, J.H; writing—Review and editing, J.Z.
Funding: The research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number:
51778536, 51908472), Doctoral Innovation Fund Program of Southwest Jiaotong University (grant number:
D-CX201701), the Zhejiang Department of Transportation (grant number: 10115066), China postdoctoral science
foundation (2019TQ0271).
Acknowledgments: The corresponding author gratefully acknowledges financial support from China Scholarship
Council and British Council during studying in the UK. Special thanks to Sakdirat at the University of Birmingham,
and European Commission for H2020-MSCA-RISE Project No. 691135 “RISEN: Rail Infrastructure Systems
Engineering Net-work” (www.risen2rail.eu).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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