8. Many suppose that the news came as a blow to him. he was delighted. 9. ——— America, Canada can sometimes be a dangerous place for tourists. 10. Highways are still toll-free in this country, Italy. (Italy has ighway-tolls,) 11. There are those who, my friend, beg to disagree. 12, This book is interesting; the other, —— is terribly boring. 13, ——— agricultural and technological revolutions have released the developed world from the Malthusian trap, billions in the developing world are caught in it, condemned to poverty. 14, Many consider him hard-working. ———, he is very lazy. 15, ——— other European countries Spain has its own unique traditions, 16, ——— the previous exercise, this one will also be devoted to the future tense. nL. 1. Deseribe and compare two teachers from your schooldays. 2. Compare and contrast two major cities known to you. 3, Compare and contrast two youth movements (e.g. the hippies and the yuppies). Cause and Effect ‘The passage about acid rain (p. 12) describes the process of cause and effect, ie. why things happen the way they do. ‘Any serious analysis of events or of processes will involve a discus- sion of causes and effects. It is important to remember that very often a cause may have more than one effect, while an effect may have more than one cause. When something causes something else, which in turn results in a third thing happening, we call this a chain reaction, ‘An ever-present temptation facing each writer is to regard two phenomena which are clearly related to each other in time as being causally related. To take one example, a number of studies into violent children have pointed out that the children in question regularly watch violent video-movies. From that it is easy to argue that the children are violent because they see such movies. In reality, however, it is just as possible to argue that both the children’s violent behaviour and their love of violent video-movies are the result of some other underlying factor — for example, an unhappy family life, poor living conditions ete. ‘Another example concerns the activities of certain mystical sects in the West: their adherents have been known to organise well-publicised meditation-gatherings to pray for “world-peace”. At the conclusion of the gathering, they often single out one event from the news — for example, the announcement of peace-talks in some trouble-spot — which they claim to be the result of their prayers for peace. Their dishonesty or self-delusion lies in the fact that at any moment in time it is always possible to point to a “positive” or “negative” development. In other words, finding correlations is a game at which one cannot lose. ‘Another danger is to confuse cause and effect. To take one more example, this time from medical science, cancer-sufferers are known 83to have very low vitamin-levels. From that some people might conclude that cancer is actually caused by low vitamin-levels. In reality, however, one could just as easily argue that the low vitamin- levels are themselves the effect of the illness. Causes are very difficult to identify with absolute certainty, and if you are not absolutely sure, then it is important to be honest and say that you are not sure. Here are some phrases which express the tentative, the provisional, the speculative: It would seem/appear that... It is quite possible that. Its likely that... It is said that. Presumably. There is evidence to suggest that... X may be responsible for Y. Recent findings suggest that. There is a tendency for X to (+ infiniti There appears to be a (statistical) correlation between X and Y. Many words and phrases are available which can express relation- ships of cause and effect, including the following, which here are organised into a number of groups for the sake of clarity: Group I: because as since for (uncommon) the reason being that the rationale being that for the simple reason that especially as/when . (all) the more so as/when the less s0 as/when not least because 10. now that (informal) 11. seeing that (informal) 12. considering that 13a. given that 13b. given the fact that 14, in view of the fact that Seer ageene 15. owing to the fact that 16a, insofar as 16b. inasmuch as NB. 1. Nos. 4-9 cannot begin a sentence. 2. Because tends to be used when the reason is the most important part of the sentence. The because-clause usually comes at the end: like New York Because itis the most exciting place in the world to live. “Why are you leaving?” “I'm leaving because I'm bored!” 3, As and since are used when the reason is already well known or is less important than the rest of the sentence. Since is slightly more formal than as: Asit’s my turn, I'm going to pay for everybody. ‘Since they're so horrible, we won't invite them again, 4. For is uncommon, even literary, and always comes at the end. It suggests an afterthought, and thus could almost be written in brackets: I decided to stay the night at the inn, for it was getting late and I was tired. I decided to stay the night at the inn (it was getting late and I was tired). 5. Especially as, all the more so as etc, and not least because (nos. 7-9) present additional reasons for something: We really ought to go to the party — especially as it will be a chance to socialise with the boss. He fell increasingly under the spell of his guest — the more so as she was obviously possessed of culture and refinement. (Also: especially as.) Frankly, I have litle interest in Old English — the ess so when I think of how much time I had to spend studying it. (Also: especially when.) Honesty is certainly the best policy in life — not least because lying and deception demand so much ingenuity. (Also: especially as.) 6. Insofar as and inasmuch as are used especially in the absence of other reasons: Inasmuch as he once helped us, I suppose we ought to help him (ie, there are no other reasons for helping him). 85Suggested Exercises (30): Supply the missing words for the following sentences: 1 10. u. 12. 13, 14, 16. 1, 18, 19, 86 5. He was offered the job, —— . Some students value our diplomas only 1. It will be a waste of time inviting him Jimmy Carter won the elections, he had the nicest smile. sanctions are leading to inflation of 200% per annum, it is not surprising that people are worried. His laziness makes me very angry, paid for his education. the doctor was tired when he made that mistake, it is wrong to judge him too harshly. I think of how much I've because his uncle was president of the ‘company. they guarantee good, secure jobs. the boss has gone, I suppose we can take a tea-break. you've tried hard you deserve a reward. he is sure to offend somebody. that writer deals with my home town, I find him interesting to read. Tve got very little sympathy for her, she’s caused others. he has lied before, his account is to be treated with great caution. Mr Chernomyrdin is a communist of the old school, his first press conference was unsurprisingly awful It is good to be polite to customs officials, to refuse entry. Gey ate so vonsticntious, it seems only fair to increase their realise how much distress they have the power salaries. It is good to dress up warm, worse. the weather may change for the you're all here, let's get down to business lend him money I know I will always get it back. hundreds of millions of dollars had gone into that project, it was undoubtedly a failure. ‘The king always gave the farmers a good price for their crops, hhe was a just man, 21, ——— their forces are overwhelmingly superior to ours, there is no point in carrying on. 22, Informed observers say the country's economy is heading for a catastrophic slump, the Government has been unable to attract the necessary foreign investment. Group 2: 17. owing to 18. due to 19. on account of 20. (not least) because of 21. thanks to 22. by reason of (formal) 23. by virtue of (formal) given 25. considering 26. in view of 27. resulting from 28. consequent upon 29. attributable to 30. out of 31. im the face of NB. 1. Due to needs to be used carefully. Many people feel that it is an adjective, not an adverb, and therefore must modify some noun, as in the following sentences: His absence was due to illness. ‘The mistake was due to negligence. ‘More questionable would be a sentence like: ‘Due to illness 1 have had to cancel the meeting. Better would be: Owing to (or Because of) illness 1 have had to cancel the meeting. | | 2. By reason of and By virtue of are rather formal, even literary. Their | ‘meaning is identical; typical collocations are ‘abilities’, ‘resources’, ‘merits’ | “years of service’ etc. She was awarded the post by virtue of her outstanding qualifications, 873. Out of usually refers to human motivations: to do something out of politeness, charity, jealousy ete. 4, Nos. 27-29 do not normally begin a sentence. Generally they are postmodifiers (¢.g. “damage resulting from negligence”). Attributable to can also come after the verb to be (¢g. “His death was attributable to alcoholism”). The phrase consequent upon has a peculiarly legal ring to it. 5. Nos. 24-26 are virtually synonymous. 6. In the face of means “faced with” (especially problems, dangers, criticism). In the face of universal condemnation he has decided to resign. Suggested Exercises (31): ‘Supply the missing words for the following sentences: . He stood up respect for the old man. How could Charles and Diana make their coronation-vows, their farce of a marriage? They were given the contract their good reputation |. Environmental pollution has much intensified industry, so many problems a coherent policy will be difficult to formulate . Indian women often stand out their grace and beauty. /. Many people go to church only habit, a sense of duty, or a desire to conform, the economic situation, an increase in wages cannot be expected. 9, ——— bad weather conditions the football-match has been put off tll next week. 10. Lloyds does not pay compensation for any damage ——— war. 11. They succeeded the excellent supporting staff. 12, California is a magnificent part of the world country to be found there 13, Mozart’s death is a variety of factors. 14, He was given a “golden handshake” his long years of service. 15, ——— her past failures she is unlikely to be the person to solve this problem. 16. She got to the top all the beautiful her remarkable talents. 88. 17, ——— all his objective difficulties, it is amazing how Shostakovitch composed anything at all, let alone works of such brilliance. 18, ——— power-shortages classes have been cancelled until further notice. 19, —— enormous pressure from the international community the government had no choice but to back down. 20. The delay was ——— a traffic jam in the centre of town. 21, ——— mounting problems, he has decided to call a referendum. 22. His driving license was endorsed drunken driving 23. It was really only ——— politeness that he bothered to attend the celebrations. 24, ——— the general snail’s pace of fraud proceedings in the UK, itis not surprising that Asil Nadir was not kept in custody. Group 3: 32. therefore 33a, this/that isjwas why 33b. which is/was why 34. for this/that reason 35a. this explains why 35b. this helps to explain why 36. (and) so (informal) 37. hence 38. thus 39. consequently 40. accordingly 41. not surprisingly 42. needless to say 43. understandably 44. presumably 45. because of this 46. as a result (of this) 47, in consequence (of this) 48. in view of this 49, with the situation (being) as itis 50. a consequence of this is/was (that) 51. the effect (result, outcome) of this is/was (that) 52. in turn 89NB. 1. The word therefore tends to be very much overused by foreign students of English. 2. Which is why simply means “and this is why”. 3. The phrase with the situation (being) as it is can only start a sentence. 4, Consequently, accordingly, and in consequence of this are somewhat formal 5. The phrase in turn is often used in contexts where we are talking about chains of causality, or else wish to convey some kind of reciprocation: X causes Y, which in turn causes Z. Z.is the result of Y, which is in earn the result of X, Napoleon never had a high opinion of women, and they in turn did not care much for him. Suggested Exercises (32): Supply the missing words for the following sentences 1. The company employs the disabled, which gives it the status of a protected labour institution, which involves certain tax exemptions for its contractors. 2. He is a very jolly and affable fellow, everybody likes him. 3. Lam sure the fire started inside the cult's compound, and the action which the FBI took was justified. 4, Prince Charles was not available for interviews concerning the tapes: he found the whole business embarrassing. (= one imagines that.) 5. In suspending the constitution the Guatemalan government has been alarmed by the rise of activism in the army, which has —— been alarmed by the increased activism of opposition partis. 6. Here is the bus station, the train station cannot be too far away. 7. Eating too much cholesterol clogs up the arteries, which ——— can lead to heart disease. 8. Her boyfriend has just left her. she is very upset. 9. The new school regulations prohibit any extravagant forms of dress or personal appearance; . as from now boys are forbidden to have long hair. 10, Several horses were also killed. ———— we left the bullfight feeling sick. 1. 1 think; ——— I am, 12, All the previous governments had been corrupt; were now distrustful of the new one. 13. The company’s competitive edge derives from its low production costs, efficiency and flexibility, which ——— result from its financial indepen- dence. 14, The director received many complaints about the secretary, and he sacked her. 15. During the national emergency the old man volunteered for military service, he was refused. 16, ——— there is no point in continuing the discussions, 17. There was a government clamp-down and many people were unjustly imprisoned 18. They always monopolise the conversation inviting them, 19. The standard of discipline here is terrible; to give a general warning many people I don't like Thave no choice but Group 4: 53. if this is so 4, if this is the case 55. by the same token (= for the same reason) 56. it follows that 51. ergo NB. 1. These words and phrases are all used in making logical deductions. The phrases if this is so and if this is the case are often followed by the word then: If this is s0, then we must express our disapproval. 2. Ergo is a rare word with a scholastic ring to it. Yet it is sometimes used, even by journalists, either to present a valid inference in a very striking way or to expose an inference that is fase: The professor went further and described Freudian psychoanalysis as 4 ‘science® where empirical evidence was subordinate to other elements: ergo not a science. (Making a valid inference.) ‘There is a very widespread fallacy, and it goes like this: ‘My enemy is ‘my enemy; ergo the enemy of my enemy is my friend’. (Pointing out an invalid inference.) 91Suggested Exercises (33): ‘Supply the missing words for the following sentences: 1. Many reporters from the 60s were more willing to spy for the FBI than to reveal its secrets ‘most people preferred to see their leaders as they wished to be seen. 2. Alll chauvinism is wrong. Jewish chauvinism is also wrong. 3. Young offenders cannot be considered fully responsible for their actions. they would benefit especially from rehabilitation-programmes, 4, The British government has spent nearly fifty million pounds on the containment of AIDS through health education, and it appears that AIDS has been more or less contained; (ome will say) the money was well spent, 5. If you invite the average Chinese person to some French cheese, he or she will run away, saying that it stinks. if you treat a Westerner to bird's nest soup, he will find it unsavoury. Group 5: 58. after all 59. the reason is that (60. the reason lies in the fact that 61. the explanation is that 62. so that 63. in order that 64. in order to 65. 80 as to, 30 as not to 66. the aim being to (cf. p. 59) 67. the idea being to; the idea being that... should (cf. p. 59) 68. in case 69. lest (formal) 70. for fear of (uncommon) 1. After all means “We must bear in mind that”, “We mustn't forget that”. 2. So that is more common and less formal than in order that. In case can be with or without the modal should: Tam taking an umbrella in case it rains. Tam taking an umbrella in case it should rain ‘The second sentence implies that itis less likely to rain, 92 3b. In case is followed by should especially when the main verb is in the past tense: She left a message in ease John should drop by. It is considered more formal than writing the simple past: She left a message in case John dropped by. 4, In order that and so that generally use the modals could or should when the main verb is in the past tense, The modal might is a rarer and more literary alternative to could and should. ‘They worked hard all their lives in order that their children might receive a good education, 5. Lest has a literary, even old-fashioned ring about it; nonetheless, it is often found in contemporary journalism. Lest occurs with the modal verb should or (rarely) with the subjunctive: ‘We must go this very moment, lest we be caught. 6. The phrase for fear of takes the gerund: We always returned by nine, for fear of annoying the landlady, ‘Suggested Exercises (34): ‘Supply the missing words for the following sentences: 1. We can resolve our differences without recourse to violence. we are civilised people. . It is best to leave a note on the door anyone comes. 3. The CIA disseminated a huge amount of disinformation about Castro, destabilise his regime. 4, He must not be punished too severely. provocation. 5. UN military intervention in Yugoslavia is imperative, ——— the turmoil should spread to the rest of the Balkans. 6. [don’t know what young people are complaining about all the time. their parents simply know what is best for them. 7. In 1988 an act of Parliament deprived those between 16 and 18 of their right to claim Social Security benefits, they should be living at home and attending school or a training scheme. - he acted under extreme 938. You must not be too angry about his winning the election: he is the best man for the job. (= you must remember that) 9, The UN-negotiators have always tried to avoid blaming the Serbs, —— preserve an appearance of impartiality. 10a. We must be nice to him; ‘we may need him some day. 10b. We must be nice to him, we need him some day. Verbs: give rise to lead to result in occasion (anxiety, price rises, a remark) provoke (anger, laughter, a smile, a crisis, a riot etc.) trigger off (a crisis, violence, a chain reaction etc.) precipitate (a crisis, disaster etc.) entail (doing sth — especially sth difficult) involve (doing sth — especially sth difficult) Suggested Exercise (35): Find the missing words or phrases in the following passage; not all of them have to do with relations of cause and effect: In all Western countries marriage is on the —1—. In America one ‘marriage —-2— every two can be expected to end in divorce, and the figure is not much better in Britain, Denmark and Sweden. —3—, people marry later, divorce earlier, have more children out of wedlock, and cohabit more frequently. The ——4— for this general trend are controversial, and it is unclear 5 — any one factor lies behind it. The rise may be —-6— a pervasive cultural change, an erosion of morality —7— with the decline of religious belief and the rise of materialism. Some —-8— these trends to changes in the law that have made divorces easier to obtain, while others —9— them with the rise in women’s employment. The most cogent —-10— for the general trend does seem, however, to ——11— in improved job-chances for women: in Western countries almost ‘two-thirds of women have paid work, which —12— in their being largely independent of their spouses. —13— the more time women spend in paid work, the more likely their marriage is to end in divorce. The days have long since passed when women would stay in an unhappy marriage —I4— ‘one day finding themselves without a roof over their heads, 94 ‘The arrival of children often places marriages under a new strain, since ——15— them couples generally have less time for romantic dinners over candlelight and meaningful conversations. —16— often that the parents become strangers to each other. Divorce frequently ——17— problems of its own, —18— for the man, the woman or the children. ——19— divorced men and women are much more likely to die prematurely than their married counterparts. —20—,, divorced people are much more likely than married people to be admitted to mental hospitals. ——21— divorce tends to have more serious financial ——22— for women than for men, —23— a very large proportion of divorced women receive no alimony from their husbands, But divorce is also very bad for children, —24— it has been proved that they are much more likely to grow up maladjusted and educationally backward, if their parents split up: —2S— the chances of a child going to university are halved, Suggested Exercise (36): Imagine that you are preparing an article entitled “The Cold War” for the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Write the final paragraphs dealing with events in Central and Eastern Europe in the year 1989. Here are some notes which may prove useful: ‘Autumn 1988 — General liberalisation in Hungary's political and cultural life. New freedom in the media. Late 1988 — Polish government begins negotiations with Solidarity (Round Table Talks’ 1989 — The Iron Curtain along Hungary's Austrian border is dismantled. Thousands of East Germans are allowed to escape to Austria April—June 1989 — Solidarity restored to legal status in Poland. Partially free elections held. Tadeusz Mazowiecki forms Po- land’s first non-Communist government in 50 years. July 1989 — Ata Warsaw Pact summit Gorbatchev stresses the ‘ced for “independent solutions to national problems”. ‘Autumn 1989 — Massive peaceful demonstrations organised by the so-called New Forum in various cities of the GDR. October 1989 — Honecker resigns as head of the GDR. October 1989 — Hungary's constitution ceases to recognise the “leading role of the Party”. 9.111989 — The opening of the Berlin Wall. 10.11.1989 — President Zhivkov of Bulgaria forced to resign. Soon 95after, Article 1 of the constitution, guaranteeing the Party a monopoly of power, is repealed. 17.11.1989 — Protests and strikes begin to spread around Czecho- slovakia, led by Vaclav Havel’s Civic Forum move- ‘ment. 15.12.1989 — Uprising and civil war in Romania, leading to the execution of Ceausescu (25.12.89). End of 1989 — The Communist government of Czechoslovakia re- signs. Vaclav Havel is elected president. Suggested Exercise (37): Study the following data concerning the lives of famous writers: Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1792-1822, English poet, First wife drowns herself after being deserted. Joseph Roth, 1894-1939, Austrian novelist Wite develops schizophrenia and is sent to an asylum for the insane, Stanislaw Ignacy Witkiewiez, 1885-1939, Polish painter and novelist. Fiancée commits suicide. Luigi Pirandello, 1867-1936, Italian novelist and dramatist. Wife develops paranoia and is sent to an asylum for the insane. Francis Scott Fitzgerald, 1896-1940, American novelist. Wife never recovers from a mental breakdown in 1930, James Joyce, 1882-1941, Irish novelist. Daughter develops a violent mental disorder and is sent to an asylum. Heinrich Mann, 1871-1950, German novelist. Wife commits suicide. ‘Thomas Mann, 1875-1955, German novelist and brother of the preceding. Two of his children commit suicide. ‘Ted Hughes, 1930-, English poet. Wife, Sylvia Plath, American poet, commits suicide. Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1889-1951, Austrian philosopher. ‘Two brothers commit suicide. Arthur Miller, 1915-1980, American dramatist, His wife, Marilyn Monroe, commits suicide a year after their divorce. What can these facts suggest? Are any of them misleading? What conclusions may be drawn from them? Write a carefully argued essay, using some of the above data. Perhaps you will be able to provide further examples illustrating your argument. 96 Qualification and Concession Any mature thinker is wary of making sweeping generalisations. Very often when we make statements, we like to qualify them, so that they appear more fair, balanced, and judicious. The following are some words and phrases by which qualifications can be expressed (brackets indicate that the word is optional): 1. arguably Ingmar Bergman is arguably one of the world’s greatest living film- directors (= this, at least, is my opinion, and I can give arguments for it). if not. Ingmar Bergman is one of the greatest, if not the greatest living film-director (= or perhaps even), 3. if not.., (then) certainly... if not... (then...) to say the least. ‘The Royal Family's image has been, if not ruined, then certainly tamished, ‘The Royal Family's image has been, if not ruined, then tarnished to say the least. 4. not so much... a... For many Mrs Thatcher is not so much a respected public figure as a symbol of British life. 5. but then (again) but there again He may come, but then again he may not (= but on the other hand), 7 — eng 7