24 ECOSYSTEMS 2.3 FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEMS: The functioning of an ecosystem refers to the ecosystem’s anal of followings: lysis inten, 1. Physical (Energy flow/Energy circuits) 2. Biological (Food chains, food web, ecological succession) 3. Biogeochemical (nutrient cycling) processes 2.3.1 Physical (Energy flow/Energy circuits) ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM Energy flows through ecosystems by means of food chains and food webs Solar energy is absorbed by plants and made into usable chemical energy through photosynthesis. This energy is consumed by other living organisms which in turn provide a food and energy source for other organisms. It was proposed by Lindemann in 1942 that the flow of energy occurs from one trophic level to the other at the rate of 10%, During this process, a major Portion (nearly 90%) of energy stored in food, is lost in the form of hea energy. This heat is radiated into the atmosphere and cannot be reused by plants and animals. This energy flow is always unidirectional as the energy released from the sun can never be returned to the sun. Though, each plant or animal can be linked to several other plants or an- imals through several different linkages, these inter-linked chains can be depicted as a complex food web. This is, therefore, called the ‘web of life that shows that there ate thousands of interrelationships in nature. The energy in the ecosystem can be depicted in the form of a food pyramid or energy pyramid or ecological pyramid, 2.3.2 Biological (Food chains, Food web, Ecological succession) Food Chains: The various sequences of transfer of food energy and matter from one organism to another (through a series of action of eating and being eaten) are known as food chains. Every organism needs to obtain energy in order tolive. Food chains in ecosystem help to maintain the biodiversity of nature, flow of energy and transfer of nutrients, For example, the grasshopper eats Brass, the frog eats the grasshopper, the snake eats the frog, and the eagle eats the snake. At each step, energy is lost to the extent of 90%. Types of food chains Generally, food chains are classified in two types: 1. Grazing food chait and 2. Decomposer food chain a .ECOSYSTEMS 25 1. Grazing food chain: Grazing food chain begins with green plants and algae, and from there the energy passes through various levels of consumers. Humans belong to a grazer chain as cither a primary or secondary consumer usually, Producer Nn consumer corner second ry consumer ‘. — oi Top consumer Figure 2.2 : Grazing Food Chain 2. Detritus or Decomposer food chain: Detritus food chains begin with dead organic matter called ‘detritus’, which mainly include fallen leaves, plant parts or dead animal bodies. These are consumed by insects, worms and bacteria etc. These organisms are responsible for decomposition of the waste and return of its nutrients to the environment for reuse by plants. wa ms S ae & ——e —— Dead leaves Woodlouse Blackbird Figure 2.3 : Decomposer Food Chain Food Web The interlocking pattern formed due to interaction of various food chains are known as food webs. It consists of all the food chains in a single eco- system. Each living thing in an ecosystem is part of multiple food chains. Each food chain is one possible path that energy and nutrients may take as they move from one organism to other through the ecosystem. All of the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem make up a food web.26 ECOSYSTEMS Figure 2.4 : Food Web Ecological Succession Ecological succession isa process through which ecosystems tend to change over a period of time. Succession can be related to seasonal environmental changes, which create changes in the community of plants and animals living in the ecosystem. Other succession events may take much longer periods of time extending to several decades. If a forest is cleared, it is ini- tially colonized by a certain group of species of plants and animals, which gradually change through an orderly process of community development. One can predict that an opened up area will gradually be converted into grassland, a shrub land and finally woodland and a forest, if permitted to do so without human interference. There is a tendency for succession to produce a more or less stable state at the end of the succession stages. Developmental stages in the ecosystem, thus, consist of a pioncer stage, a series of changes known as serel stages, and finally, a climax stage. The successive stages are related to the way in which energy flows through the biological system. The most frequent example of succession changes occur in a pond ecosystem where it fluctuates from a dry terrestrial habitat to the early colonisation stage by small aquatic species after the monsoon, which gradually passes through to a mature aquatic ecosystem, and thenECOSYSTEMS 27 reverts back to its dry stage in summer where its aquatic life remains dormant. Theretore, ecological succession describes the process by which a sequence of increasingly complex communities develops over time. The climax Community is reached when succession has ended and the com- munity has all of its characteristics. There are two main types of succession, 1. Primary, and 2. Secondary. |. Primary Succession @ Occurs when succession starts on entirely new land without any established soil - this may occur at river deltas, sand dunes or on exposed rock. @ As the organisms which first colonise a region (pioneer community) die and decompose, they establish a layer of soil for future organisms to utilise. @ Onexposed rock, lichen and moss may initially colonise the area and provide a layer of soil for seeds to germinate, increasing species diversity. 2. Secondary Succession @ Occurs when succession starts on existing soil following a natural or artificial upheaval of the primary succession. @ Secondary succession occurs when the existing biota is removed from soil that is already formed - such as following a bushfire or earthquake. @ During secondary succession, dominance is usually achieved by the fastest growing plants. 2.3.3 Biogeochemical (Nutrient Cycling) Processes: The cycling of matter (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, water, calcium, iron etc.) through an ecosystem is known as biogeochemical cycle. Some important cycles are discussed in this chapter. Water Cycle The cycle that involves change of water into water vapour and then back to water is called water cycle. The water cycle helps to maintain the supply of fresh water on earth. This cycle describes the continuous movement of water between the earth and the atmosphere. The process of water cycle first starts by evaporation or transpiration. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats up water in oceans and seas. Wa- ter evaporates as water vapours into the air. This process of changing of water into water vapour is called evaporation. During transpiration plantsECOSYSTEMS : and as the water reaches the leaves, some absorb water es into the air. In the atmosphere, the water Vapoy, it evaporates and gos Int® ' iny droplets. These droplets come togethe 00k: an rocess is called condensation. On further Coolin, 2 or hich is called precipitation. Thy ir We i now, W! their water as rain Or Ss) : cee a water and ice transports minerals across ths elabe-A par a emesis percolates into the ground. This water Is ground i ings i id surface and com, vi nings in the lan is ater, Some groundwater finds ope! oe frashivater springs. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, tg out continue the water cycle. om the soil nse Concensation 2 - t. Ts hese Tkensfiption Sf! SS fron Plants ws Figure 2.5 : Water Cycle Human impact on water cycle Excessive use of pesticides and fertilisers and other pollutants in agricul ture and industries lead to increase in their concentration in water whic! results into change of ecological balance that purifies water. Large scal urbanisation covers the land with buildings, concrete etc. This reduce infiltration of water to the ground and increases the runoff resulting int flood risks, soil erosions and landslides. Misuse of fresh water and lack ¢ water harvesting may result in acute shortage of fresh water. Carbon cycle sphere, carbon exists in the form of carbon dioxi i a oxide (CO,). D ht tosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide and form ae Process, plants release oxygen into thbon dioxide, Through food chain it moves to the animals and finally all organic carbon present in dead matter is converted into carbon dioxide by micro-organism. Some of the dead plants and animals are converted into coal, oil and natural gas being buried for millions of years into the earth, The fos il fuel produces carbon dioxide on burning. Nowadays, levels of carbon dio: ide in atmosphere have increased due to excessive burning of these fossil fuels and tree leaves ete, This has ¢ s problem of global warming in the world. Carbon is also stored in Ocean as carbonates and bicarbonates. These oceans exchange carbon dioxide with atmospher maintaining atmospheric CO, level of 0.032 per cent, The ocean contains almost 50% more CO, in dissolved state than the atmosphere. Auto and oy reas ot Figure 2.6 : CO, Cycle Human impact on carbon cycle Cutting of trees and plants that absorb CO, and burning of fossil fuels like, coal and wood increase the average temperature of the earth due to release of CO, to the atmosphere. This increase of temperature may result into global warming which can affect food production, wildlife habitats and rain pattern ete. Oxygen cycle Oxygen, like carbon and hydrogen, is a basic element of life. In addition, in the form of O, ozone, it provides protection of life by filtering out the sun’s UV rays as they enter the stratosphere. In addition to constituting about 21% of the atmosphere, oxygen is present in water and rocks. It also occurs in combination as oxides in the Earth’s crust and mantle (about 30%), and as water in the oceans.ECOSYSTEMS 30 The oxygen cycle is main regions of the osphere. The majority of oxyge the cycle that helps move oxygen through the thre Earth, the Atmosphere, the Biosphere, and the Lit nin the atmosphere is created by Plany during photosynthesis. It is cycled from plants to animals and then bag to plants. Plants and animals use oxygen to respire and return it to the air and water as carbon dioxide (CO,). The CO, is then taken up by Bree, plants and converted into carbohydrate during photosynthesis, Producin, oxygen as a by-product. Oxygen is involved to some degree in all the othe, biogeochemical cycles. When humans and other animals inhale oxygen it combines with carbon from the food we eat and is exhaled as carbo, dioxide. Despite the burning of fossil fuel and the reduction of natural veg, etation (on land and in the sea), the level of atmospheric oxygen appears to be relatively stable because of the increase in plant productivity resulting from agricultural advances worldwide. Oxygen cycle (aa [ Metal oxides | La ion Figure 2.7 : Oxygen Cycle Human impact on oxygen cycle Human activities affect the levels of carbon and i c oxygen in the atmosphere. When fuasaans burn oil and other fuels, carbon dioxide is released into the amceel ese, en we clear forests for lumber, fuel, and farmland, car- bon dior te gels also rise. As we know, producers take in carbon dioxide oo ing mI : syn esis. When trees are removed from the ecosystem, there peau mr ro — to absorb carbon dioxide. There is a greater effect if srarchouuen wn to. clear a forest. If trees are burned down to clear a ional carbon dioxide is released in the burnii aise ye rning process. The nitrogen Ft its reais Stel eee by which nitrogen is converted betwee! both biological and phyelcal transformation can be carried out through Processes. Nitrogen gas is converted to nitraté c al vi tc S¢ a is tc ° s« re di af te ce ag Pl PI th yewo ECOSYSTEMS 31 compounds by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil or root nodules. Lightning also converts nitrogen gas to nitrate compounds. The Haber process con- verts nitrogen gas into ammonia used in fertilizers. Ammonia is converted to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria in the soil. Plants absorb nitrates from the soil and use these to build up proteins. The plant may be eaten by an animal, and its biomass used to produce animal protein. Urea and egested material is broken down by decomposers. This results in nitrogen being returned to the soil as ammonia. Decomposers also break down the bodies of dead organisms resulting in nitrogen being returned to the soil as ammonia. In some conditions, denitrifying bacteria in the soil break down nitrates and return nitrogen to the air. This is usually in waterlogged soil. Improving drainage reduces this effect, making the soil more fertile. Gaseous ‘Atmospheric, yacaes. Som Bacteria Fixation ‘Matter Fontes Leaching , Eutrophication | a Figure 2.8 : Nitrogen Cycle Human impact on nitrogen cycle Excessive use of fertilisers contaminates ground water with nitrates and affects the health of users. Heat evolved by burning of any fuel at high temperature combines N, and O, to form NO and NO,, which further gets converted into HNO, resulting into acid rain, Addition of nitrates from sew- age-discharge and agriculture runoff into fresh water disrupts aquatic life. Phosphorous Cycle Phosphorus is present in form of phosphate in rocks. Phosphorus enters the environment from rocks or deposits laid down on the earth many years ago. The phosphate rock is commercially available in form called asees | SLAPS EAM “ — amy -) “The Satis Cycte wwe Figure 2.10: The Sulphur Cycle : Human impact on sulphur cycle Alar industric snount of sulphur dioxide isy where sulphur cont like copper, tine and lead etc Aectric perwer well Dy, may leaned into the environment by meta aining ores are converted into free metab Hurning of sulphur containing coal and of > refining of sulphur containing petroleun Cause acid rain and further damages on the ations leads ty increase in SL earth surlace, 2.4 CONCEPTS OF PRODUCTIVITY Productivity refers ty the rate of Production of biomass in the ecosysten ie, the amount of NeAwiC Nvatler accumulated per unit time. It can als be referred to a the energy accumulated in the plants by photosynthesis There are two ty (pes of productivity, name! ly: 1. Prittary Produc tivity 2. Secombary Productivity Primary Productivity: Green On ¢awie Sones 48 erica Plants fix solar energy and accumulate it® | Energy. As this is the first and basic form 4energy Storage, the rate at which the energy accumulates in the green plants or producers is known as primary productivity. Primary productivity can be divided into two aspects: @ Gross primary productivity @ Net primary productivity Gross primary productivity (GPP) The solar energy trapped by the photosynthetic organism is called gross primary productivity. It is the total rate of photosynthesis including the organic matter used up in respiration during the measurement period. All the organic matters produced falls under gross primary productivity. This depends upon the photosynthetic a tivity and environmental factors. Net primary productivity (NPP): This is estimated by the gross productivity minus energy lost in respiration, It is the rate of storage of organic matter in the plants in an ecosystem NPP = GPP - Energy lost by respiration Itis also known as ‘the net energy stored’ in the plants. This energy serves as food for the animals that feed on plants. It is measured as the amount of organic matter produced in a community per unit time. Secondary Productivity Heterotrophs such as animals influence Secondary Productivity. Second- ary productivity is the rate of energy storage at the consumer’s level. It remains mobile ie,, it keeps moving from one organism to another, unlike primary productivity. This process occurs as a result of organic materials being transferred between various trophic levels. It is also referred to as the rate of increase in the biomass of heterotrophs. Organisms such as animals, fungi, bacteria and numerous protists influence Secondary Production. Unit of Productivity Productivity is expressed in units of mass per unit area per unit time. 2.5 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS Each successive step in a food chain is called a trophic level. The plants make up the first trophic level, the herbivores are primary consumers and make second trophic level, the small carnivores are secondary consumers and make third trophic level and the top carnivores make fourth trophic level. The magnitude of trophic levels in a food chain reduces in size at each successive level from the base to the apex. This gives it a shape ofSOSYSTEMS 36 ECOSYSTEM: ic id, These are of three types, eknownas ecological, pyramid. J i mid of Biomass, and 3. Pyramid of energy, id of number shows the numbers of hic level in an ecosystem. There uals from the lower to the pyramidal structu’ 1. Pyramid of number, 2. Pyral 1, Pyramid of number: A pyrami individual organisms at each trop! is a decrease in the number of individ 2 i (i higher trophic levels. The number pyramid varies from ecosystem to ecosystem. There are three types of pyramid of numbers: (i) Upright Pyramid of Number : This type of pyramid number is observed in the grassland and aquatic eco-system. These roducers which support lesser ecosystems have numerous p! herbivores which in turn support smaller number of carnivores and hence this pyramid is upright. (ii) Partly Upright or Spindle Shape Pyramid of Number : It is found in the forest ecosystem. When a large tree support larger number of herbivorous birds which in turn are eaten by carnivorous birds like falcon and eagle, which are smaller in number, it forms a spindle shaped pyramid. (iii) Inverted Pyramid of Number : This type of ecological pyramid is seen in parasitic food chain where one primary producer supports numerous parasites which support more hyperparasites, e.g., an oak tree, the large tree provides food to several herbivorous birds. The birds support still larger population of ectoparasites leading to the formation of an inverted pyramid. quaternary consumer tertiary ‘consumer primary consumer producers Figure 2.11(a) : Upright Pyramidcn HOON YN TEMS Canivore Morbivores Producers: Inverted Spindle-shaped Pyramid of Numbers Ina pyramid of numbers, each level represents the number of organisms consumed by the level above it Figure 2.11(b) : Pyramid of Numbers 2. Pyramid of Blomas: present in a trophic level in an ecosysten at und s It represents the total mass of living organisms ny time, It decreases e gradually, In at each successive level resulting into py this pyramid, the mass of primary producers forms the base t Light eneeny Figure 2.12 : Pyramid of Biomass 3. Pyramid of Energy : The energy pyramid represents gr the amount of energy of each trophic level in a food chain. They vmECOSYSTEMS 38 we expressed int units of energy per unit area per unit time (¢, wt ar 1) The energy contained at ea¢ h trophic level decreas, ' Le cose step bean he energy acquired by ay, ne Hie higher trophic level. Ty, nism cannot be fully t ansferred aw of thermos oF i i dynamics. This make ie an application of the second Ia a pyramid whose base is broad. Levels Figure 2.13 : Pyramid of Energy 2.5.1 Ecosystem Homeostasis Ecosystems are huge and complex. The’ i Fo Lae 'y contain networks of anima nee Sai smallest insects, along = alee ia vena ae ae All of these life forms interact and affect a eee eat the fish, shrews eat insects affect ont like technical fas: 1 eR works in a delicate Pad ee s, So this bala aan na nce o} re commonly referred to as contre fagetvoatlll il meostasis, ce, But scientis! an ecosystem |