Professional Documents
Culture Documents
• Associated with many medical conditions Stewart et al. 1998 - open-ended questionnaires
e.g. cancer, rheumatoid arthritis fatigue commonly cited symptom (27.5%)
• Social reasons – e.g. too much work or • Home/work 63.4 • Emotional probs 17.9
stress • sleep problems 38.2 • caring for others 13.8
• no time for self 34.1 • lack of support 9.8
• Psychological reasons – being bored,
• lack of exercise 32.5 • physical health 8.9
upset or overloaded with things to think
• financial probs 28.5 • child care 3.3
about
• relationships 22.0 • gender bias 2.4
1
How can you be ill if there is no
What is different about the fatigue in
underlying cause?
chronic fatigue syndrome?
• Distinction between disease and illness
• It has no medical or other explanation
• It is very severe, chronic, and doesn’t get better • People often have disease without illness (e.g. an
with normal management such as rest or ulcer with no symptoms)
getting out of the fatiguing situation • People with CFS are ill but have no obvious
• It is often accompanied by other symptoms underlying disease cause
such as muscle and joint aches and pains, sleep • There may be measurable changes which are
problems, concentration problems, headaches, thought to arise as a consequence of the illness
flu-like symptoms.
• Medically unexplained symptoms and syndromes
• It is very disabling
are actually very common
2
From Euba et al., 1996, Br J Psychiatry, Chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue
168:121-6
syndrome
People with a diagnosis of CFS • Fatigue is a very common reason for
Hospital GP consulting a GP
% women 82 68 • In one recent study, only a third of people
consulting their GPs with fatigue fulfilled
% social class 1 36 3
criteria for CFS (Darbishire et al., 2003)
Previous psychiatric 21 74 • CFS at the extreme end of the continuum
from fatigue to chronic fatigue to CFS?
Psychological 7 58
attribution
3
Precipitating & maintaining factors
Why do patients feel so ill?
• Symptoms are real not imaginary • Researchers and practitioners have found it
• Although underlying disease processes have useful to distinguish between the factors which
been ruled out, there are physiological precipitate CFS, e.g.
changes which come about as the result of – trauma,
disturbed rest-activity cycles, disturbed – infection,
sleep, somatic symptoms of anxiety – overwork,
• physiological and psychological factors – “stress”
interact • and those which maintain it.
4
What can be done about it?
Social and emotional factors
• Social • Pharmacological & immunological treatments
– antidepressants
– feeling disbelieved
– hydrocortisone
– illness behaviour reinforced by others (e.g.
– anti-viral/anti-histamine/immunoglobulin
some support groups
• Behavioural, cognitive-behavioural & counselling
– unhelpful advice (e.g. to rest excessively)
– graded exercise therapy
• Emotional – cognitive behaviour therapy
– demoralisation, depression, frustration – guided self help including elements of above (pragmatic
rehabilitation)
– counselling
5
• Many health professionals believe that CFS and
• Because there is no test for CFS and usually
ME are essentially the same condition
nothing visible (except behavioural
• Some (but not all) patients believe that ME is a changes) many people, doctors and public
different condition alike, “don’t believe in it.”
• Belief in the diagnosis of ME as opposed to CFS • What does “not believing in it” mean?
is often associated with a firm belief in an
underlying disease process (e.g. persistent viral
infection, neurological damage, immunological
impairment)
6
The consequences of these beliefs The role of diagnosis
• There is some evidence that patients who • Some (not all) doctors feel uncomfortable
have a firm conviction in a physical illness making a diagnosis which doesn’t provide a
do less well than those who are more open medical explanation for the symptoms, and
in their beliefs about the illness which may turn into a “self-fulfilling prophecy”
• However, a belief in a physical cause may • Patients, however, are usually very relieved to
make a patient feel less personally receive a diagnosis as this recognises and
responsible for the illness and therefore less legitimises their suffering
distressed (Woodward, Broom & Legge, 1995)
7
• We have seen that the fatigue of CFS is, by • We have also seen that this lack of a
definition, without medical explanation medical explanation poses problems for
• This means that there is no known underlying some patients
pathology or disease process, although there may • In our society, there is a tendency to see
be disturbances in functioning or regulation of illnesses as either physical or psychological,
various bodily systems either in the body or in the mind
• It is often difficult to know whether changes in • I want to suggest that this distinction is not
bodily functions (e.g. muscle weakness) are a always very helpful
cause or consequence of the condition
8
How do different levels of
Explanations and emotions
explanation map onto each other?
• Biological factors are seen as less within the • Often the answer to this question is not clear,
patient’s control, so patients feel less e.g. it is not easy or even possible to see how
responsible and that their illness is more psychological events map on to physical events
legitimate
• Do we need to be able to answer this question
• Psychological factors are seen as more
within a patients control and more to accept the “levels of explanation” approach
“blameworthy” as useful?
• Attribution theory in psychology • Sometimes we can see which level of
explanation has the most explanatory power
9
Do people become depressed or
distressed as a result of CFS?
Relative
• What are the possible reasons for the strong Control group CFS Controls risk
Wessely & Neuro-muscular 72 36 2.0
association between chronic fatigue and Powell 1989 D
psychiatric disorders, especially depression? Katon et al. Rheumatoid Arthritis 45 6 7.5
1991 P
Wood et al. Myopathy 41 12.5 3.3
1991 P
Pepper et al. MS 23 8 2.9
1993 P
Fischler et al. ENT & 77 50 3.4
1997 A Dermatology
Johnson et al. MS 45 16 2.8
1996 D
10
• So CFS and depression overlap
• On a psychological level they have many
Pragmatic rehabilitation training
features in common, but also some
differences session 1
• Some physiological changes commonly
seen in depression are not seen in CFS and
vice versa
• Antidepressant medication is not generally
regarded as very effective for CFS
11
Main features of the rehabilitation
Main aspects of the rationale
programme
• Muscle and cardiovascular deconditioning • Must be acceptable and feasible to patient –
• Sleep and circadian rhythm disturbance so collaborate with the patient to set goals
• Cortisol and activity levels
• Stress, anxiety and arousal • Huge emphasis on starting at a level
LOWER THAN CAN CURRENTLY BE
MANAGED and building up gradually
• Helping patients to understand that
experiencing symptoms does not mean
damage is being done
The patient presentation – giving the Starting to think about giving the
rationale for PR patient presentation
• Pauline Powell devised this to be given in a • What are your first impressions?
standard format. • How do you think it might be experienced
• During training, you will: by patients?
– See the presentation given
• Strengths of the presentation?
– Learn the presentation
– Practice giving the presentation • Any problems which are immediately
– Learn about the research supporting the apparent?
presentation
12
Results
Was improvement maintained?
• On measures of both fatigue and physical
functioning, one year after randomisation, all
• Powell et al 2004, followed patients up at 2
three intervention groups made significantly
years
greater improvements than the control group
• In the meantime, patients in the SMC group had
• Patients meeting criteria for clinically important
been offered treatment.
improvement:
Group 2+2 26/37 improved
• Original intervention patients maintained their
improvement
Group 2+9 27/39 improved
Group 9+2 26/38 improved • Original SMC patients who were now treated
Group SMC 2/34 improved
didn’t do as well as those treated immediately
13
Preparation for next week
• In preparation for observing the patient Pragmatic rehabilitation training
presentation thoroughly read chapter 2 of the PR
therapist manual,.
session 2:
• To prepare for the taught session read the abstracts Deconditioning: the Physiology
of the papers listed in the “deconditioning” section
of the reading list. If you have time, you can read
the full papers.
• When you read, always note any questions or
problems, and ASK about them at the next
session!
14
Effects of inactivity in CFS Delayed muscle soreness
• Normal muscle force and physiology - • Unaccustomed exercise can lead to
which papers show this? eccentric muscle tension - each muscle fibre
• Muscle histopathology - all can be lengthens and produces higher tension than
explained by disuse and change from normal contraction (muscle shortens).
aerobic to anaerobic muscle metabolism • Uneven contraction leads to microtrauma at
(decreased mitochondria). Which papers muscle attachment to tendon with oedema
show this? & tenderness, peak 48 hours later.
• Athletes with greater type 1 muscle more • How might physiology be related to CFS
quickly prone to deconditioning. symptoms?
• No muscle dysfunction, disuse leads to • Which exercise is likely to do this and what
reversible muscle changes. are implications for treatment?
15
Other consequences of
cardiovascular deconditioning Therefore
• In young healthy people, cardio decond.
starts after 4 days & 3 weeks of bedrest, • Inactivity due to bed rest/chair rest produces
real physical changes in the body in people
20% reduction in aerobic exercise capacity
with CFS and in healthy people.
takes 5-10 weeks of conditioning to recover.
• None of the changes in the body produced
• 3-4 weeks bedrest reduced diameter of heart by inactivity in CFS are permanent or
but heart still healthy in CFS so can recover. indicate damage.
• Reduced responsiveness of autonomic • Even after many years, the changes in the
nervous system in CFS, not permanent. body due to inactivity can be reversed
• Fit people lose aerobic work capacity with through gradual conditioning but they take
inactivity more quickly time.
16
Summary of Inactivity continued
• Are there any CFS symptoms not Consolidating this week’s work
explainable by inactivity? What are they? 1. Re-read pages 30-41 of the therapist’s manual.
Write out all the mechanisms that are covered and
how you would explain each one to a patient with
• Do you find these explanations plausible?
CFS. Identify the relevant sections of the patient
manual and check that your understanding fits with
• Imagine how the message that CFS is partly the explanation in the manual.
caused by inactivity leading to real physical 2. Write down any questions you may have about the
and emotional changes but with effort these mechanisms, which you might want to raise at
subsequent training sessions.
can be reversed might sound to a CFS
patient. Is this helpful or are there unhelpful 3. Learn your explanations in time for your first
practice patients
aspects to this message?
Contents of session
• Identifying activities of the CFS patients
• Fears of CFS Patients about Exercise
• Giving the treatment rationale for graded
Pragmatic rehabilitation training
exercise
session 3 • Designing the graded exercise programme
Designing and carrying out • Goal Setting
Conditioning/Graded Exercise • Overcoming Fears of Exercise
• Reviewing Progress
• Trouble shooting problems
• Bed/wheelchair bound & other difficulties
17
Fears about exercise in CFS Overcoming fears about exercise
• Many CFS patients are fearful about • How might you go about this in someone
exercise through their own experience of who is ambulatory with CFS?
symptoms following exercise.
• It is no use denying their experience of • Think about the explanation you give.
symptoms after exercise.
• Many patients believe that post-exertional • Think about the level and type of exercise
symptoms indicate they are harming their you give
body so they worry & limit their activity.
• Many delay exercise until post-exertional
symptoms wear off (“Boom-Bust”). • Think about the support they might need
18
Which exercise? Exercise Bike
• Most popular method- in control, at home,
• Realistic and enjoyable all weathers
• Performed several times per day • 5 pedals am and pm
• Performed every day • Next day 10 pedals am and pm
• Aerobic exercise to increase breathing & • Next day 15 pedals am and pm
heart rate: standing sessions, walking, stair • Increase 5 pedals am & pm per day, 1st wk
exercises, exercise bike, dancing, jogging, • When 60 pedals am and pm, time & add 5
• Depends on deconditioning & daily living sec each session (+ 5 sec am, + 10 sec pm)
commitments • 3rd week add 7 sec each session
• Increase timing of activities in controlled • 4th week add 10 sec each session
way • 5th week add 15 sec each session
• CFS patients overestimate their fitness • Add 5 sec per session - increase steadily
19
How much aerobic exercise? What to do on a bad day
• Number of aerobic exercise sessions • Bad days with increased physical activity,
depends on each patient’s circumstances mental stress & infection
• Aim 4 x 15 min aerobic sessions over day • Increase in physical or mental exertion will
• Then 2 x 30 sessions of differing exercises increase autonomic nervous system/
adrenaline activity - overwhelming sx
• Swimming and aerobics can be added
• If possible on bad day do same amount as
• After symptomatic recovery 30 min of
day before but no more. No harm will occur
enjoyable physical activity of moderate
intensity. Minimum of 3 times a week. • After bad day, increase on next good day
• Record progress in activity diary - focus on • With time, break up activities with rest over
achievement and symptoms will subside day so decrease in frequency of bad days
Standing
• Not used to standing, muscle pumps in legs Name benefits of exercise
idle - less blood returns to heart & brain • Effects on deconditioning symptoms
• What symptoms occur? • Effects on accurate sensory information
• Need to build up standing in those who are • Effects on sleep
non-ambulatory. • Effects on hormones
• Severely affected, hold onto chair for 5 sec • Effects on mood, anxiety, mental stress
• Increase by 5 sec each day or am/pm • Effects on withstanding physical stress
depending on deconditioning
• Effects on intellectual functioning
• Use household activities involving standing
& increase duration in controlled manner
• Exercise once no symptoms with standing
20
Summary of Activity Plan Summary of Activity Plan cont.
• Symptoms do not mean harm
• Plan day balancing activity, rest, essential tasks,
relaxation - “do something little and often” • Tackle anxiety about exercise - anxiety increases
autonomic/adrenaline release increasing
• Keep activity diary to keep to target activities
symptoms
• Choose aerobic activity 2 x/day or more often
• If necessary start at lower level of activity
• Start level well below level of physical ability
• Aim for 1 hour different aerobic exercise per
• Increase activity in controlled gradual way day, at first in divided activities, then 2 x 30 min
• On good days, do not do too much • Very severe, lie propped up for increasing time
• On bad days, try to do same as day before with exercise in bed, then sit over side of bed,
• Symptoms may at first increase, keep to target then standing- at each stage dizziness, nausea,
and symptoms will get less. palpitations
Contents of session
• Understanding biological rhythms and the
body clock
• Sleep-wake cycle
Pragmatic rehabilitation training
• Desynchronisation of body clock
session 4 • Evidence of desynchronisation of body
clock and sleep-wake cycle in CFS
Sleep, body clock and cortisol
• Cortisol and HPA axis
• Serotonin and noradrenaline
• Neuroendocrine abnormalities in CFS
• Immune system and CFS
21
What you may get out of the session Biological rhythms & body clock
• You should understand the body clock and
biological rhythms such as sleep-wake cycle • Biological rhythms occur in everyone, over
24 hours (circadian) and over other time
• You should understand the concept of
periods e.g. 28 days in women.
circadian desynchronisation
• Daily rhythm such as sleep-wake cycle is
• You should know the evidence for circadian internally driven. What is evidence?
desynchronisation in CFS
• However external factors e.g. light and dark
• You should understand how the HPA axis can also influence daily rhythms such as
works & HPA dysfunction in CFS
sleep-wake cycle. Why?
• You should know about serotonin and • Body clock driving sleep-wake cycle
noradrenaline function in CFS located in hypothalamus (SCN)
• You should know about the immune system
in relation to CFS
22
Bed rest and body clock Desynchronisation and CFS
• Both disrupted & excessive sleep for 2 • Many cardinal symptoms of CFS overlap
hours or more/day for 7 days in sedentary with those of desynchronisation e.g. fatigue,
subjects - symptoms of desynchronisation impaired alertness & concentration, muscle
• Sleep disrupted in 60% subjects on bed rest aches, headaches, bowel disturbance
for 2-3 days or more. • Desynchronisation also causes increased
• >90% subjects sleep disturbance, fatigue & subjective effort with workload & disturbed
desynchronisation after 3 weeks bed rest HPA axis in night shift workers
• Bed rest leads to desynchronisation by: • Not all circadian rhythms desynchronise
a) reduced external cues (light, activity etc) and resynchronise at exactly the same time
b) inactivity and lack of gravity • In CFS, disrupted sleep patterns (Morriss et
al, 1993), disrupted circadian disturbance &
c) emotional (dysphoria, anxiety etc)
disturbed HPA axis like shift workers
23
Internal & external cues to HPA
HPA AXIS
• 75% cortisol released between 4-10 am, tied
to sleep-wake cycle + bursts at meal times
CORTEX-5-HT, NA • Cortisol switches on alertness, metabolic
processes, & response to stress to begin day
HYPOTHALAMUS-CRH • Cortisol is released in response to stress
• Evening cortisol increases and morning
PITUITARY-ACTH cortisol decreases in response to perceived
stress, anxiety and depression in healthy
ADRENAL CORTEX-CORTISOL • Stress, anxiety and depression - weaker
switch on alertness,metabolism and energy
release and response to additional stress
24
Noradrenaline and CFS
• Noradrenaline is another brain Immunology and CFS
neurotransmitter like 5-HT • Central nervous system, endocrine system
(HPA axis) and immune system interact to
• Normal amounts of noradrenaline in CFS at keep body in order (homeostasis)
rest
• Life stress, dissatisfaction with relationships
• Under mental stress, increased can lead to increased risk of infections,
noradrenaline release in CFS versus reactivation of activities of herpes viruses
controls
• However, no evidence of increased
infections or any specific abnormal immune
response in CFS
Summary 1 Summary 2
1. Body clock (located in SCN, hypothalamus) • Disrupted and increased sleep for > 2hrs/night for 7
controls biological rhythms days in sedentary produces desynchronisation sx
2. Circadian rhythms normally run for 25 hours (some • Disruption of sleep affects people who normally
less than 24 hours, most more) so people will go to function best in morning worse
bed later and later if nothing to get up for • Bed rest disrupts sleep after 2-3 days
3. External cues (day light, social, work, meals) • After 3 weeks >90% experience desynchronisation
synchronise circadian rhytms to 24 hour clock sx - reduced external cues, inactivity & emotional
4. Examples of circadian rhythms - sleep-wake cycle, effects
alertness and tiredness, concentration, eating, • People decrease alertness in early afternoon but
temperature control, HPA axis sleep then is non-restorative for alertness/fatigue
5. Symptoms of desynchronisation are like jet lag:
malaise, muscle aches, headaches, daytime loss of
alertness, poor sleep & appetite, bowels disturbed
Summary 3 Summary 4
• Most sleep disturbance in CFS does not require • 50% CFS have low or sluggish cortisol responses -
specific treatment not specific to CFS, weaker reponse to stress,
slower metabolism, increase inactivity sx
• Sleep disturbance stops graded exercise working: • No benefit from replacing cortisol - corrects itself
Sx of desynchronisation + with graded exercise and synchronising body
a) Impaired alertness/napping in day rhythms
b) Sleep disrupted by muscle jerks • No consistent evidence of serotonin, noradrenaline
or immune systems and fatigue in CFS
c) No regular or late bed & waking times
• Antidepressants only help mood and muscle pain.
Otherwise no use in CFS
25
Contents of session
• Explaining the body clock & biological
rhythms
Pragmatic rehabilitation training • Assessment -body clock desynchronisation
session 5 • Resetting the biological clock
• Explaining about cortisol
Sleep, cortisol, circadian rhythms; • Practice assessment - effects of inactivity
the rationale for treatment & goal and body clock desynchronisation
setting • Deciding on priorities - inactivity, body
clock desynchronisation, emotion
26
Which CFS patients require
Sleep disturbance in CFS sleep-wake cycle treatment
• Around 90% subjects have symptoms of • Recognise sx of body clock desynchronised
sleep disturbance at night - remember jet-lag - a) to e) together:
• What symptoms do these CFS patients a) impaired alertness (drowsy not just tired)
complain of? and attentional capacity
• What might one see on a sleep EEG in CFS b) poor quality sleep - not refreshed
patients? c) muscle aches, stiffness and headaches
• In around 33% CFS patients, sleep d) poor appetite and bowel disturbance
disturbance will cause added disability, e) effort ++ after both physical & mental
added CFS symptoms and will prevent exertion
graded exercise from working
• Look for signs of disrupted sleep-wake
28
Night Assessment- deconditioning, body
• If do not sleep, then lying relaxed will rest
and promote recharging of body energy and clock desynchronisation, emotion
synchonisation of body clock • What are the symptoms of deconditioning -
• Body will sleep if it needs to - do not worry on muscles, metabolism, circulation,
autonomic nervous system?
• Promoting sleep- relaxation exercises,
breathing exercises (valsalva - breath out 6 • How might deconditioning affect exercise
sec, breath in 4 sec, slows heart etc) capacity, sensory deprivation, emotion
• Keep bed for night sleep and activities • What are the symptoms of body clock
associated with sleep desynchronisation?
• Rest in chair by day in a different room. • How might body clock desync. affect
Why? exercise capacity, mental capacity, stress
• Avoid temptation for day time sleep or repsonse, cortisol, metabolism, immunity?
sleeping tablets- rebound bad night’s sleep
29
Contents of session
• Aims of session
• Terminology
Pragmatic rehabilitation training
• Psychological approaches to stress and anxiety
session 6
• Stress and anxiety in CFS patients
The somatic symptoms of anxiety. • Physiology of stress and the somatic symptoms
Hyperventilation of anxiety
• Health anxiety and panic
• Hyperventilation
30
Anxiety What CFS patients say about stress
31
The SAM stress-response system The adrenal glands
• Broadly speaking, SAM activated quickly in • Two of them!
response to immediate threat. • One on top of each kidney
• Additional mechanism is release of adrenaline • Each with two distinct functional zones
(from adrenal medulla) into blood stream • Inner medulla directly innervated by SNS
• Thus SAM is under control of both SNS and and when activated releases adrenaline into
adrenal glands blood stream
• (Outer adrenal cortex involved in HPA
system, as you may have learned last week)
32
And symptoms can have knock-on
Health anxiety
effects…
• Muscle tension can lead to head-ache, jaw- • Continuum of health anxiety
ache and neck ache • People at far end may receive diagnosis of
• Dry mouth can lead to sore throat hypochondriasis, (defined as a distressing belief
• Can have a feeling of tightness in the chest in having a serious illness when none is present,
due to muscle tension and altered breathing and the belief is resistant to reassurance)
patterns • People with CFS rarely have health anxiety this
• Also psychological effects – what do these severe, but may have some health anxiety
symptoms mean? features (Trigwell et al.,1995).
33
Hyperventilation What is hyperventilation?
• Mentioned earlier that stress, anxiety, arousal can
• Hyperventilation is defined as breathing in
be associated with altered breathing patterns
excess of the body’s metabolic demands.
• Hyperventilation can occur when people are
• The only reliable way to know if someone
anxious; chronic hyperventilation can also
is hyperventilating is to measure carbon
produce symptoms which increase anxiety, so
dioxide in expired air, but there are signs
again there is a vicious circle
associated with it, such as visible panting
• Terminology – hyperventilation a pejorative and audible sighing, and symptoms such as
term? – over-breathing, altered breathing feelings of breathlessness, dizziness etc.
patterns
Breathing
• To deliver oxygen (O2) to arterial blood and to Inspiration (breathing in)
remove excess carbon dioxide (CO2) from
body • Normally, thoracic cavity is expanded by
contraction of diaphragm – sucks air in
• Gas exchange occurs in lung alveoli – rest of
lung is “dead space”. • Diaphragmatic breathing may be sufficient at rest
• Inspired air mixes with residual air in “dead • In exercise, need to breath faster and harder –
space” – enrichment in O2 and depletion in used intercostal muscles
CO2 • Strenuous activity – extra muscles recruited, eg in
• Gases diffuse down pressure gradients neck
34
What happens in hyperventilation (HV) ?
Gas pressures
• Rate of alveolar ventilation greater than
• Partial pressures – pressures generated by needed for metabolism at the time
individual gases in mixture e.g. air • Composition of alveolar gases altered from
normal
• Partial oxygen pressure denoted PO2
• Increased PO2 and decreased PCO2 .
• Partial carbon dioxide pressure denoted PCO2
• Arterial blood saturated with O2, so little
• Determines extent of gas exchange – gases effect
diffuse until equal pressure reached on each • But blood CO2 level falls beyond optimal
side of divide (alveolar membrane) levels
35
Contents of session
Pragmatic rehabilitation training • Aims of session
session 7 • Terminology
• Psychological approaches to stress and anxiety
The somatic symptoms of anxiety.
Hyperventilation • Stress and anxiety in CFS patients
Rationale for treatment and goal setting • Physiology of stress and the somatic symptoms
of anxiety
• Health anxiety and panic
• Hyperventilation
36
Anxiety What CFS patients say about stress
37
The SAM stress-response system The adrenal glands
• Broadly speaking, SAM activated quickly in • Two of them!
response to immediate threat. • One on top of each kidney
• Additional mechanism is release of adrenaline • Each with two distinct functional zones
(from adrenal medulla) into blood stream • Inner medulla directly innervated by SNS
• Thus SAM is under control of both SNS and and when activated releases adrenaline into
adrenal glands blood stream
• (Outer adrenal cortex involved in HPA
system, as you may have learned last week)
38
And symptoms can have knock-on
Health anxiety
effects…
• Muscle tension can lead to head-ache, jaw- • Continuum of health anxiety
ache and neck ache • People at far end may receive diagnosis of
• Dry mouth can lead to sore throat hypochondriasis, (defined as a distressing belief
• Can have a feeling of tightness in the chest in having a serious illness when none is present,
due to muscle tension and altered breathing and the belief is resistant to reassurance)
patterns • People with CFS rarely have health anxiety this
• Also psychological effects – what do these severe, but may have some health anxiety
symptoms mean? features (Trigwell et al.,1995).
39
Hyperventilation What is hyperventilation?
• Mentioned earlier that stress, anxiety, arousal can
• Hyperventilation is defined as breathing in
be associated with altered breathing patterns
excess of the body’s metabolic demands.
• Hyperventilation can occur when people are
• The only reliable way to know if someone
anxious; chronic hyperventilation can also
is hyperventilating is to measure carbon
produce symptoms which increase anxiety, so
dioxide in expired air, but there are signs
again there is a vicious circle
associated with it, such as visible panting
• Terminology – hyperventilation a pejorative and audible sighing, and symptoms such as
term? – over-breathing, altered breathing feelings of breathlessness, dizziness etc.
patterns
Breathing
• To deliver oxygen (O2) to arterial blood and to Inspiration (breathing in)
remove excess carbon dioxide (CO2) from
body • Normally, thoracic cavity is expanded by
contraction of diaphragm – sucks air in
• Gas exchange occurs in lung alveoli – rest of
lung is “dead space”. • Diaphragmatic breathing may be sufficient at rest
• Inspired air mixes with residual air in “dead • In exercise, need to breath faster and harder –
space” – enrichment in O2 and depletion in used intercostal muscles
CO2 • Strenuous activity – extra muscles recruited, eg in
• Gases diffuse down pressure gradients neck
40
What happens in hyperventilation (HV) ?
Gas pressures
• Rate of alveolar ventilation greater than
• Partial pressures – pressures generated by needed for metabolism at the time
individual gases in mixture e.g. air • Composition of alveolar gases altered from
normal
• Partial oxygen pressure denoted PO2
• Increased PO2 and decreased PCO2 .
• Partial carbon dioxide pressure denoted PCO2
• Arterial blood saturated with O2, so little
• Determines extent of gas exchange – gases effect
diffuse until equal pressure reached on each • But blood CO2 level falls beyond optimal
side of divide (alveolar membrane) levels
41
Contents of session
• Aims of session
• Homework role plays
Pragmatic rehabilitation training
• The structure of treatment – what happens on
session 8 each week
Agenda setting and the structure of • How to set an agenda for each session
treatment • Setting goals for treatment
• Reviewing treatment and re-setting goals
42
Content of session
W1 Visit 1
90 minutes
Half hour history taking, followed by 1 hour rationale-giving and
handing over of patient manual.
Week 1 face-to-face
W2 Visit 2
60 minutes
Review manual, ask patient which bits are most relevant to their needs,
followed by collaborative goal setting in three areas: deconditioning, • Introductions etc. (any special
sleep and anxiety, first prioritising the areas with the patient.
W3 Phone 1 Progress with goals; identifying impediments to progress; new goal
considerations?)
W4
30 minutes
Visit 3
setting.
Recalibrating goals according to progress achieved; checking that de-
• Taking a brief history
W6
60 minutes
Phone 2
conditioning is being addressed; reinforcing rationale.
As week 4
• Presenting the explanation
W8
30 minutes
Phone 3 Half way review, looking forward to the future
• Handing over the manual
W10
30 minutes
Visit 4
Addressing termination issues
Managing alone, looking forward to the future, relapse prevention
• Setting agenda for next session
W12
60 minutes
Phone 4
What has helped, what hasn’t.
Continued goal setting, monitoring progress, opportunities for change
• Patients’ tasks for intervening period (read
30 minutes and relapse prevention. the manual – which bits? – noting queries)
W15 Phone 5 Continued goal setting, monitoring progress, opportunities for change
30 minutes and relapse prevention.
W19 Phone 6 Continued goal setting monitoring progress,, opportunities for change
30 minutes and relapse prevention, ending
Week 2 – face-to-face
Role-play exercise • Reviewing the manual & responding to
questions
• Introduction
• Which bits are most relevant to patient?
Greeting, saying who you are, asking where to
sit, asking the patient how he/she likes to be • Collaboratively setting main goals for
called, explaining purpose, explaining tape. treatment in each of 3 areas:
• History – Deconditioning
Eliciting symptoms, eliciting effect of symptoms, – Sleep / circadian rhythms
brief history (10 minutes max.). How to hurry – Anxiety
the patient along (without being rude). • Setting tasks for next week
• Setting agenda for next week’s telephone call
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Week 4 – face-to-face
The non-compliant patient • Eliciting patient feedback
• Avoid being punitive – positively reframe! • Evaluating progress towards goals and
• Elicit exactly how much homework has impediments to progress
been done • Ensuring that deconditioning/graded
• Identify impediments activity is being addressed
– Didn’t understand/agree with rationale • Recalibrating goals if necessary
– Too difficult • Setting tasks for next week
– Unanticipated barriers
• Setting agenda for next telephone call
• Revised homework plan
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The second half of the PR treatment
Homework
schedule
• Later sessions will address: Another bloody role-play!
– How to keep patients motivated using
motivational interviewing techniques
– How to plan for the future and discuss relapse
prevention with patients
– Discharging patients back to their GPs
Tasks of PR treatment
Impediments to Change • The main tasks of PR treatment are:
and Anxiety Problems 1. to deliver graded exercise to tackle
deconditioning;
2. address body clock problems;
3. address emotional issues including
anxiety
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Identification of fears Identification of Fears continued
• When a patient seems to understand what • Enquire if they have any concerns about what you
you are asking them to do but is hesitant to asked them to do
do it, resistant or refuses. • If they do, ask them what they think might happen
• Especially when they look worried or if they did the task you set.
anxious ( may experience anxiety • Ask them what was the worst that could happen
symptoms) • How do they know that this may happen?
• Ask yourself whether they are fearful of the • Usually it is based on their own experience or
consequences of what you are asking from other sources of information
Expect Fears
• Almost all CFS patients have fears about
the consequences of PR that become Motivational Interviewing
evident at some stage Techniques
• Successful PR treatment will identify and
address these fears
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Learning objectives Cognitive Dissonance
• Learn theory of motivational interviewing: • People become anxious (demoralised, frustrated,
worried, stressed, irritable, guilty) if what they do
1) Cognitive Dissonance
does not match what they believe they should do
2) Transtheoretical Model of Change • If you can change what they believe they should
3) Evaluating Pros and Cons of Actions do, then either they will change what they do in
4) Making change seem possible line with this new belief or reject your view and
return to their old actions
• Practice motivational interviewing with • This happens to reduce their negative emotion
actress (usually anxiety)
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Contents of session
What you may get out of the session Judging when to return to work
• How would a patient know when s/he is
• You should be aware of some of the dilemmas ready to return to work?
and pitfalls of returning to work for patients
with CFS • What does a patient need to have
accomplished in treatment?
• You should start thinking about how best to help
patients design a sensible return to work plan – Physical stamina and conditioning
• You should think about what additional – Regular sleep pattern
information you might need to garner (e.g. – Improved concentration and mental functioning
about benefits) in order to help patients with – Ability to withstand stress
this aspect of their rehabilitation
Analysing the decision to return to Need also to take into account other
work factors
• Which aspect of work was the patient unable to • Transport to and from work
deal with when s/he gave up? • Child care issues
• Would the patient be returning to the same job?
• Getting some (more) help in the home
• Which bits of returning to work will be
enjoyable and manageable, and which bits are • Leisure and social commitments (not a good
likely to cause problems? idea to have to give up too much in order to
• (What is motivation for return to work – can return to paid employment)
motivational interviewing techniques be useful?) • Realistic time-scales
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The patient’s work history Considering the options
• Does patient want/have to return to the same job?
• How did the patient give up work – • Can s/he break back into world of work gently?
voluntarily, under duress, made to leave etc. – Education
• Has there been any dispute over benefits? – Voluntary work
• Has the patient been in the position of – Working at home
– Part-time working
having to prove that he/she was ill?
– Return to a less demanding job
– Lateral thinking!
• Help patient to design a return to work
programme
What can patient expect when s/he How to deal with set-backs at work
returns to work?
• Try not to catastrophise or engage in other
• Increased symptoms? – which symptoms? unhelpful thoughts
why?
• Look at progress made
• Will patient feel anxious about return to work?
– what are the likely effects of anxiety? • Patient understands this illness and can
• Focus on the benefits of return to work work out what to do
– Maintain activities
• How will patient maintain activity and
relaxation programme in conjunction with – Avoid ruminating on symptoms - have
work? confidence in the programme
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