Parallel transport and geodesics

February 24, 2013

1 Parallel transport
Before defining a general notion of curvature for an arbitrary space, we need to know how to compare vectors
at different positions on a manifold. Parallel transport provides a way to compare a vector in one tangent
plane to a vector in another, by moving the vector along a curve without changing it. Suppose we have a
curve with unit tangent t in flat space and Cartesian coordinates. Then to move a vector v along this curve
without changing it simply means holding the components constant. At any point λ along the curve, we
may find the transported components by solving

(t · ∇) v = 0

or, in components,
ti ∂i v j = 0
Since the connection vanishes in Cartesian coordinates, this is the same as writing

ti Di v j = 0

but this expression now holds in any coordinates. The same argument holds in a curved space because close
enough to any point we may find Cartesian coordinates, transport infinitesimally, then change coordinates
to Cartesian again. At each point, the Cartesian expression may be written covariantly, but the covariant
expression is the same at every point of the curve regardless of coordinates. We therefore define parallel
α
transport of a vector v α along a curve with tangent uα (λ) = dx α
dλ to be the solution v (λ) to the equation

uα Dα v β = 0

A curve is called autoparallel if it is transported along its own direction,

v α Dα v β = 0

Notice that parallel transport preserves the length of the vector because
 
2
uα Dα |v| = uα Dα (gµν v µ v ν )
= uα (Dα gµν v µ v ν + gµν Dα v µ v ν + gµν v µ Dα v ν )
= gµν (uα Dα v µ ) v ν + gµν v µ (uα Dα v ν )
= 0

2 Example: parallel transport on the 2-sphere

Consider the parallel transport of a vector around a θ = θ0 curve on the 2-sphere. The curve itself may
parameterized using ϕ as xi = (θ0 , ϕ), with tangent, ti = (0, 1). The length of this tangent vector is given

1
by
l2 = gij ti tj
= R2 sin2 θ0
so the unit tangent is
1
ui = (0, 1)
R sin θ0
At ϕ = 0, let v i = v0θ , v0ϕ , and solve the parallel transport equation for v i (ϕ),

0 = ui D i v j
1
= Dϕ v j
R sin θ0
0 = ∂ϕ v j + v k Γjkϕ

2.1 The metric

Since the metric is given by the line element, ds2 = R2 dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 , we have, in matrix components,
 2 
R 0
gij =
0 R2 sin2 θ
with inverse
1
 
ij R2 0
g = 1
0 R2 sin2 θ
There are intrinsic ways to get this metric. One approach is to specify the symmetries we require – three
independent rotations. There are techniques for finding the most general metric with given symmetry, so we
can derive this form directly. Alternatively, we could ask for 2-dim spaces of constant curvature. Computing
the metric for a general 2-geometry, then imposing constant curvature gives a set of differential equations
that will lead to this form.

2.2 The connection

Since the only non-constant component of the metric tensor is gϕϕ , there are only three nonvanishing
connection components,
1 θθ
Γθϕϕ = g (gθϕ,ϕ + gθϕ,ϕ − gϕϕ,θ )
2
1 1  2 2


= − R sin θ
2 R2 ,θ
= − sin θ cos θ
1 ϕϕ
Γϕθϕ = Γϕϕθ = g (gϕϕ,θ + gϕθ,ϕ − gθϕ,ϕ )
2
1 1 2 2


= 2 R sin θ ,θ
2 R2 sin θ
cos θ
=
sin θ

2.3 Parallel transport

The parallel transport equation becomes
0 = ∂ϕ v j + v k Γjkϕ
= ∂ϕ v j + v θ Γjθϕ + v ϕ Γjϕϕ

2
There are two components to check. For j = θ we have

0 = ∂ϕ v θ + v ϕ Γθϕϕ
∂v θ
= − v ϕ sin θ0 cos θ0
∂ϕ
For j = ϕ,

0 = ∂ϕ v ϕ + v θ Γϕ
θϕ
∂v ϕ cos θ0
= + vθ
∂ϕ sin θ0
Therefore, we need to solve the coupled equations,

∂v θ
0 = − v ϕ sin θ0 cos θ0
∂ϕ
∂v ϕ cos θ0
0 = + vθ
∂ϕ sin θ0
Taking a second derivative of the first equation and substituting the second,

∂ 2 vθ ∂v ϕ
0 = − sin θ0 cos θ0
∂ϕ2 ∂ϕ
∂ 2 vθ cos θ0
= + vθ sin θ0 cos θ0
∂ϕ2 sin θ0
∂ 2 vθ
= + v θ cos2 θ0
∂ϕ2
Similarly, differentiating the second equation and substituting the first we have

∂ 2 vϕ ∂v θ cos θ0
0 = 2
+
∂ϕ ∂ϕ sin θ0
2 ϕ
∂ v cos θ0
= + v ϕ sin θ0 cos θ0
∂ϕ2 sin θ0
2 ϕ
∂ v
= + v ϕ cos2 θ0
∂ϕ2
Each of these is just the equation for sinusoidal oscillation, so we may immediately write the solution,

v θ (ϕ) = A cos αϕ + B sin αϕ

ϕ
v (ϕ) = C cos αϕ + D sin αϕ

with the frequency α given by

α = cos θ0
Starting the curve at ϕ = 0, it will close at ϕ = 2π. Then for v α we have the initial condition v α (0) = v0θ , v0ϕ ,

and from the original differential equations we must have

∂v θ 

= v0ϕ sin θ0 cos θ0
∂ϕ ϕ=0
∂v ϕ 

cos θ0
= −v0θ
∂ϕ  ϕ=0 sin θ0

3
These conditions determine the constants A, B, C, D to be

v0ϕ sin θ0 cos θ0

v θ (ϕ) = v0θ cos αϕ + sin αϕ
α
= v0θ cos αϕ + v0ϕ sin θ0 sin αϕ
v0θ
v ϕ (ϕ) = v0ϕ cos αϕ − sin αϕ
sin θ0
This gives the form of the transported vector at any point around the circle,

v θ (ϕ) = v0θ cos (ϕ cos θ0 ) + v0ϕ sin θ0 sin (ϕ cos θ0 )

v0θ
v ϕ (ϕ) = v0ϕ cos (ϕ cos θ0 ) − sin (ϕ cos θ0 )
sin θ0
1
Look at the inner product of v with the tangent vector at the same point, u = R sin θ0 (0, 1),

vθ
 
u·v = gϕϕ tϕ v0ϕ cos (ϕ cos θ0 ) − 0 sin (ϕ cos θ0 )
sin θ0
vθ
 
= R sin θ0 v0ϕ cos (ϕ cos θ0 ) − 0 sin (ϕ cos θ0 )
sin θ0
= v0ϕ R sin θ0 cos (ϕ cos θ0 ) − v0θ R sin (ϕ cos θ0 )
π
If the circle is at the equator, θ0 = 2, then

u·v = v0ϕ R

is constant. On the other hand, near the pole, θ0  1,

u·v = v0ϕ Rθ0 cos ϕ − v0θ R sin ϕ

and the transported vector rotates almost completely around the tangent.

3 Geodesics
Consider a curve, xα (λ) in an arbitrary (possibly curved) spacetime, with the proper interval given by

dτ 2 = −gαβ dxα dxβ

Then the 4-velocity along the curve is given by

dxα
uα =
dτ
dxα
and in an arbitrary parameterization, the tangent is tα = dλ . Then proper time (or length) along the curve
is given by integrating
ˆτ q
τ = −gαβ dxα dxβ
0
ˆτ r
dxα dxβ
= −gαβ dλ
dλ dλ
0

4
A curve of extremal proper length is called a geodesic. We may find an equation for geodesics by finding the
equation for the extrema of τ ,
0 = δτ
ˆτ r
dxα dxβ
= δ −gαβ dλ
dλ dλ
0
ˆτ
dxα dxβ
 
1
= − q δ gαβ dλ
2 −gαβ dx
α dxβ dλ dλ
0 dλ dλ
ˆτ
dxα dxβ dδxα dxβ dxα dδxβ
 
1
= − q δgαβ + gαβ + gαβ dλ
2 −gαβ dx
α dxβ dλ dλ dλ dλ dλ dλ
0 dλ dλ
ˆτ
dxα dxβ
 
1
= − q gαβ,µ δxµ dλ
2 −g dxα dxβ dλ dλ
0 αβ dλ dλ

ˆ τ
 
d  1 dxβ  α
+ q gαβ δx dλ
dλ 2 −g dxα dxβ dλ
0 αβ dλ dλ
ˆτ
 
α
d  1 dx  β
+ q gαβ δx dλ
dλ 2 −g dxα dxβ dλ
0 αβ dλ dλ

Now choose the parameter λ to be proper time (length) so that

dxα dxβ dxα dxβ
gαβ = gαβ
dλ dλ dτ dτ
= −c2
= −1
Then we have
ˆτ 
dxα dxβ dxβ dxα
     
1 d d
0 = −gαβ,µ δxµ + gαβ δxα + gαβ δxβ dλ
2 dτ dτ dτ dτ dτ dτ
0
ˆτ  
1 d d
−gαβ,µ uα uβ δxµ + gαβ uβ δxα + (gαβ uα ) δxβ dλ



=
2 dτ dτ
0
ˆτ 
dxν β duβ dxν α duα
    
1 α β

µ α β
= −gαβ,µ u u δx + gαβ,ν u + gαβ δx + gαβ,ν u + gαβ δx dλ
2 dτ dτ dτ dτ
0
ˆτ 
duβ duα
  
1 α β ν β ν α
δxµ dλ


= −gαβ,µ u u + gµβ,ν u u + gµβ + gαµ,ν u u + gαµ
2 dτ dτ
0
ˆτ 
duβ duα

1
= gµβ,ν uν uβ + gαµ,ν uν uα − gαβ,µ uα uβ + gµβ + gαµ δxµ dλ
2 dτ dτ
0

The equation for the geodesic is therefore

duβ duα
 
1 ν β ν α α β
0 = gµβ,ν u u + gαµ,ν u u − gαβ,µ u u + gµβ + gαµ
2 dτ dτ

5
 1 duβ
= (gµβ,α + gαµ,β − gαβ,µ ) uα uβ + gµβ
2 dτ
β
du 1
0 = g µν gµβ + g µν (gµβ,α + gαµ,β − gαβ,µ ) uα uβ
dτ 2
duν ν α β
0 = + Γ αβ u u
dτ
But this is just
duν duν
 
+ Γναβ uα uβ = uµ + uα Γναµ
dτ dxµ
= uµ Dµ uν

and we have the equation for an autoparallel,

duν
uµ Dµ uν = + Γναβ uα uβ = 0
dτ

4 Example: Geodesics on the 2-sphere

Once again consider the 2-sphere, but not look for autoparallels. We have the connection components,

Γθϕϕ = − sin θ cos θ

cos θ
Γϕθϕ = Γϕϕθ =
sin θ
and the equations to solve are now,

duθ
+ Γθαβ uα uβ = 0
dτ
duϕ
+ Γϕαβ uα uβ = 0
dτ
Expanding the first, there is only one nonvanishing connection term,

duθ
+ Γθϕϕ uϕ uϕ = 0
dτ
duθ 2
− (uϕ ) sin θ cos θ = 0
dτ
For the second,
duϕ
+ Γϕαβ uα uβ = 0
dτ
duϕ
+ Γϕϕθ uϕ uθ + Γϕθϕ uθ uϕ = 0
dτ
duϕ cos θ
+ 2uϕ uθ = 0
dτ sin θ
Let the initial conditions be
π
θ0 =
2
ϕ0 = 0
uϕ
0 = 1
uθ0 = 0

6
Since every point and direction on the sphere are equivalent, there is no loss of generality in this choice.
Then we initially have
 θ
du 2
= (uϕ 0 ) sin θ0 cos θ0
dτ 0
= 0

and uθ does not change. For the ϕ equation, it follows that

duϕ cos θ
= −2uϕ uθ
dτ sin θ
= 0

so uϕ is also constant and the velocity vector is

ui = (0, 1)

Integrating to find the curve,

dθ
= 0
dτ
dϕ
= 1
dτ
π
so θ = θ0 = 2 and ϕ = ϕ0 + τ = τ . The curve is therefore the equator,

(θ, ϕ) = (0, τ )

We may characterize the equator as the intersection of the unique plane normal to the surface, containing
the initial velocity vector. Such a plane always passes through the center of the sphere, so all geodesics are
given by great circles.