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DISCUSSION OF THE
THE METHOD
METHOD
(Fjord [Ln vere ity Fress . Conducting the
Conducting the Engineer's
Engineer's Approach
Approach toto
0 on 1: Some Problem Solving
Problem Solving
Exyneensig
Pr [28 pfe

Qj!Lp I - Seme i ^ ^ u ^ / r

Billy
Billy Vaughn
Vaughn Koen
Koen

New
New York
York Oxford
Oxford
OXFORD
OXFORD UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY PRESS
PRESS
2003
2003
 * a

= %& 8 . Sy}
ae & 8

For Deanne, Kent,

For Deanne, Kent, and
and Doug

O x f o r d University
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press
Press

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Copyright
C © 22003
opyright © 0 0 3 bbyy Billy Vaughn
Billy V a u g h n Koen.
Koen.

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Library
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Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Cataloging-in-Publication Data Data
Koen,
Koen, B.B. V.V.
Discussion of
Discussion of the
the method
method :: conducting
conducting the engineer's approach
the engineer's to problem
approach to problem solving
solving
/Billy
/Billy Vaughn
Vaughn Koen.
Koen.
p.p. cm.
cm.
Includes
Includes index.
index.
ISBN
ISBN 0-19-515599-8,
0-19-515599-8.
1.1. Methods
Methods engineering.
engineering. 2.2. Problem
Problem solving.
solving. I.I. Title.
Title

T60.6
T60.6 .K635
.K(x>5 2003
2003
620—de21
620—dc21
2002193018
2002193018

Printing
Printing number:
number: 987654321
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 21

Printed} in the
Printed in the United
United States
States of
of America
America
on
in\ acid-free
acid-free paper
paper
 En
Some Thoughts
Some Thoughts on
on Engineering
Engineering

Tihe use
use of of the
the engineering
engineering m method rather than
than the the use
use ofof reason
reason is
is hu-
T mankind's
m most equitably
a n k i n d ' s most
e t h o d rather
equitably divided
divided eendowment.
n d o w m e n t . II mean
mean byby
hu-

the engineering
the engineering method
method the
the strategy
strategy for
for causing
causing the
the best
best change
change in
in aa poorly
poorly un-
un-
derstood situation
derstood situation within
within the
the available
available resources
resources

and by
and by reason,
reason, thethe ability
ability to to distinguish
distinguish between between the the true
true and and the the false,
false, or
or what
what
Descartes has
Descartes has called
called "good “good sense."
sense.” WhereasWhereas reason reason had had to to await
await early
early Greek
Greek
philosophy for
philosophv for its
its development,
development, is is even
even nnow denied in
o w denied in some
some cultures,
cultures, and and is is inin
retreat in
retreat in others,
others, the the underlying
underlying strategy strategy that that defines
defines the the engineering
engineering method method
has not
has not changed
changed since since the the birth
birth of of hhumans. To be
u m a n s . To be human
human is is toto be
be an
an engineer.
engineer.
The objective
The objective of of this
this chapter
chapter is is to
to pprepare the way
r e p a r e the way for for aa consideration
consideration of of the
the
strategy the
strategy the engineer
engineer uses uses to to solve
solve problems
problems that that will
will be be given
given in in Part
Part II.It. ToTo
achieve this
achieve this objective
objective we we will
will divide
divide our our thoughts
thoughts into into three
three sections.
sections. In In the
the first,
first,
we will view
we will view the the engineer
engineer throughthrough the the eyes
eyes of of the
the layperson,
layperson, historian,
historian, etymol-
etymol-
ogist, lexicographer,
ogist, lexicographer, and and anthropologist
anthropologist to to learn
learn hhowow w wee are
are to to recognize
recognize an an en-en-
gineer w
gineer when
hen w wee meet
meet one. one. In In the
the second,
second, attention
attention shifts
shifts to to the
the characteristics
characteristics
of aa problem
of problem that that requires
requires the the talents
talents of of this
this newnew acquaintance.
acquaintance. Finally, Finally, in in thethe
third part
third part of of this
this chapter,
chapter, w wee will
will examine
examine several several problems
problems that that unexpectedly
unexpectedly
bear
bear aa resemblance
resemblance to to engineering
engineering problems. problems. We We should
should anticipate
anticipate that that theythey
might
might be be effectively
effectively attacked
attacked using using the the engineering
engineering m method. Incidentally we
e t h o d . Incidentally we willwill
come to
come to appreciate
appreciate how how longlong ago ago itit was
was that
that ancient
ancient man*man* first first encountered
encountered en- en-
gineering problem
gineering problem situations
situations and and hhow frequently m
o w frequently modern
o d e r n manman confronts
confronts them them
today. Acceptance of
today. Acceptance of thethe claim
claim of of identity
identity between
between hhuman u m a n and and engineer
engineer will will
come subliminally
come subliminally as as the
the engineering
engineering method method becomesbecomes more more fully fully understood.
understood.
Consideration of
Consideration of the
the correct
correct epistemological
epistemological status status of of reason,
reason, the the engineering,
engineering

*The rules of
T h e rules of contemporary
contemporary writing writing in in America
America require
require thethe author
author to to go
go through
through
wild contortions
wild contortions to to avoid
avoid thethe sexist
sexist use
use of
of masculine
masculine nounsnouns andand pronouns.
pronouns. This This
was not the
was not the state
state ofof the
the art
art in
in 1982
1982 when
when thethe first
first version
version was was completed.
completed. With With anan
apology to
apology to those
those onon both
both sides
sides of of this
this question,
question, we we will
will retain
retain the
the original
original format
format
that referred
that referred toto the
the engineer
engineer as as male.
male. AtAt least
least initially,
initially, the
the pronoun
pronoun she she will
will refer
refer
to everyone
to everyone else:
else: philosophers,
philosophers, scientists,
scientists, artists,
artists, poets,
poets, andand soso forth.
forth. This
This serves
serves as as
an excellent
an excellent example
example of of the
the changing
changing rulesrules ofof thumb
thumb in in acceptable
acceptable practice
practice over
over
time.
time.

“I
See

Some Thoughts
Some Thoughts on
on Engineering
Engineering // 99
88 / DISCUSSION ;
THE METHO
OF THE
DISCUSSION OI METHODD

until aa
reserved until
be reserved
will be
pie "engineering re aa bill bill through
through congress."
congress.” But But despite
despite these these frequentfrequent examples
examples
m e t h o d's' s chief
chief rival
rival as basis of
as aa basis universal m
the universal
of the e t h o d, , will
method
method a© thethe contrary,
to contrary,V, w when
h e n aa definition
definition of engineering
of engineering
engi ing isi sought,
is sought, t the the usual| tendency
ate :
much
m u c h later chapter in
later chapter this discuss
in this ion.
discussion. is to
to look
look to
is to concrete
concrete objectsobj jects such
such
; as chemicals,
as chemicals,
od airplanes,
i
airplanes, brid gen
eat bridges, or roads in- =in
non
stead of
stead of to
to thethe method
method that th at brought
brought ght each
each
e of "tie these
of these aumtremttee
engineering
engineering
i i devices
devices
i
desien into
i don
into
existence.
weThis
Thisbe Ls
same {os i es art art and i
and artifact
artifact
THE ENGINEER
THE ENGINEER same confusion between exists in
exists in efforts
efforts to to date
date thethe birth
birth
of h u m a noe k i n d . - Most
Most ann
anthropologist
anthropologists ogists define
define the the hhuman u m a n by by y hishishi use
use ofof tools,
too] none
terms of
in terms artifacts instead
his artifacts
of his instead of art. As
his art.
of his as eloquently
as eloquently as as Loren
Loren Eiseley
Eiseley in in his
his book
book The The Firmament of of Time:
Time: _
Most
Most people people think think of of the engineer in
the engineer As
where they should see unity and find it hhard to ac-
result they see diversi
aa result they see diversity ty w h e r e they should see unity a n d find it a r d to ac-
engineer. The question, "“What
The question, is an engineer?” is
an engineer?" is DL ito hands had had shaped
shaped aa sepulcher
cept
cept the identity of
the identity of m mana n andand engineer. W h a t is Massive flint-hardened hands sepulcher and and placed
placed flat stones
flat stones
who makes chemica ls, airplan es, bridges , or tar the
guard
to guard the dead
dead man's
man’s head.
head.ad. AA haunch
haunch of of of meat
meat had
had been
been left
lettt to aid Hedead
to aid the
the ddead
usually answered by “a person
usually a n s w e r e d by "a person w h o m a k e s chemicals, airplanes, bridges,
from the
or
the chemic engineer; from
al engineer; man’s journey.
man's journey. Worked
Worked flints,flints, a:a little
little treasure
treas
easure of of the
the human
kuman dawn dawnth Sehad been
roads.” From the chemicals, the layperson infers bes
roads." From the chemicals, the layperson infers the chemical the had. be
enginee r; and from the bridges and roads, the civil poured lovingly
poured lovingly
T 5 intointo the
the grave.
grave.
x And down
; And d own the the untold
untold centuries
centuries the mmessage
the message
essage
airplanes, the
airplan es, the aeronau
aeronauticaltical engineer; and from the b r i d g e s a n d roads, the civil
makes mistake. Be-
this mistake. Be- had come
had come without
without words:
words: "We “We too
too were
were human,
human, we we too
too suffered,
suffered, we we tootoo be-
engineer. Not only the layperson, but also the engineer,
engineer. N o t only the layperson, but also the engineer, m a k e s this
cause the connection
connec tion of
of the
the enginee
engineer r with
with his
his comple
completed ted design is
design is so e n d u r ing
so enduri ng lieved
eve
lieved that
hat the
the grave
g I ay e is
150 not
not the the end.
end + We
We too, whose faces
too , whose
affright
fac eS affri
a
you now,
2 ht y ou nov 7h
cause the insists he he is is an knew human
human agony
agony and and human love."
, aa pperson
and the connection with his use of method so fleeting
knew human love.
a n d the connection with his use of m e t h o d so fleeting, e r s o n insists an “

produce s, irrespe ctive of how he goesgoes aboutabout it, it, in-

engineer
engineer based based on
on what
w h a t he
he p r o d u c e s , irrespective of h o w he in-
is an engineer based
an engineer based on on howhow he he goesgoes aboutabout it, it, irre- fo — ge
In this miniature drama w
drama wee seesee aa problem
problem bornborn of of the
the most most hhuman u m a n craving
craving
stead of insisting that
stead of insisting that he he is irre-
s. In a similar fashion , the histori an usesuses the the exis- to create TER
eate an appropriateer resting
an appropriate resting place place for for aa loved
loved one on e andand aa solution solution i pitifull
itifully
pitifully
spective of what
spective of w h a t he
he produce
produces. In a similar fashion, the historian exis-
irrigation canals
Nile, irrigation
the Nile, canals in various parts
in various parts ol ancient world,
the ancient
of the !
constrained
constrained byJ severe
by severe limits limits in in knowledge
k nowledge and and resources.
resources. Recalling Recalli "the thedefini. defini-ini
tence of
tence of ddams
a m s on on the world,
in
infer the existen ce of enginee rs and craftsp ersons tion of
tion of engineering
engineeringg method method od as as: the strategy for
the strategy causing the
for causing best change
the teenbest cl arse in iilea ence
poorly
gunpowder, and pottery to
gunpow d e r , and pottery to infer the existence of engineers a n d craftspersons
the com-
in
each pot
road, each pot hides the com- hides uunderstood S1tur
situation within the th e available
available
i resources, Hen can w wetea
e ddoohace
past civilizations. But behind each chemical, each
past civilizations. But behind each chemical, each road, n d e r s t o o d situation within resources, can u b t dhthat oeat ae least;
r o u g ht t it being. It
into being.
it into It isis to unity of
this unity
to this of m method that w wee must as early
as early as as Neanderthal
Neanderthal man man w wee find
find engineers?
engineers? —— east
m o n activity
mon activity that that bbrough e t h o d that must
in every man. =n, In dating sa thethe birth birth of of hhumankind, other scholars
u m a n k i n d , other scholars aargue r g u e that that itit is is more
more im- im-
look to see the
look to see the enginee
engineer r in every m a n .
see an an eemphas m p h ais on m method instead of of object, port
portant nr that hat "primitive
eee man m a n stuckstuck feathers
feathers inin hishis hair”
hair" than than that that he he worked
worked inin
To
To be sure, w
be sure, occasionally see
wee occasionally s i s on e t h o d instead object,
in the writing s of the noneng ineer. We read in the
in flint.- WeWe are: are told
are told that that our our error
error in in defining
defining hhumans
u m aans
n s by theiri use
by their use of tools results
of tools results
ironically most frequently
ironically most frequently in the writings of the nonengineer. We read the
S u n d a y n e w s p aper m e n t that
s u p p l ement
p e r supple reignin
that aa reigning g prince
prince enginee
engineered red the
the divorce
divorce of
of apne:
from society's 5 present el preoccupation
preoccupation with materialism and
with materialism and technology
technology on on the the
Sunday newspa one2 hand hand and and the
his d a u g h t e r , in in the daily newspa
the daily n e w s p aper that
p e r that clergy in
the clergy
the Iran enginee
in Iran engineered red thethe firing
firing the lack lack of of traces
traces of earlyy myths,
of earl myths, customs,
customs, and and literature
i
literature r in in the th
his daughter,
of the president, in a medical report that doctors have h a v e enginee better bacte-
red aa better physical
physical record record on on the the other.
other.. “If "If onl
onlyy we could still
w e could i seesee the pictures of earliest
of nrtint
of the president, in a medical report that doctors
engineered bacte- still the pictures earliest
rial host, and in book on
in aa book on the the gameg a m e of chess that
of chess white has
that white has enginee
engineered red aa perfect
perfect a
man and gre
: A
hear OO -
him "ns,
=
sing," the
DT nm
the humanist
humanist laments,
=
laments, “we " w e wouldwould define define him him by by his ahis
rial host, and
counter to black's opening. Even the headline of one of Dear Abby's
of Dear Abby's newspa n e w s p per aarts ad ofof his his: tools.”
tools."' Again the
counter to black's opening. Even the headline of one
aper gel instead #
Again the emphasis
emphasis isis on on an an object
object
j such
such as
as a glyph > or
columns offers the advice, advice, “Don’t "Don't enginee engineer r a problem
a problem; ; just keep
just keep silent about past.”
silent about past." aa magesong, Peak but in in thisthis case case itit isis just just aa moremore ephemeral
ephemeral one. one. cee
columns offers the g aa desir- 7 Each of these nn views views isis too
Similar statements using using the the wordw o r d enginee
engineering ring inin the the sensesense of of creatin
creating desir- too narrown a r r o w andand self-serving
self-serving to to bebe aa properproper definition definition
Similar statements
able change in an uncertain in situati
situation on within
within the
the availab
available le resourc
resources es are found
are found ofof fur h u m a=n k iinn d A. For For behind behind the the earliest
earliest crudecrude flint,
flint, behind
behind the the earliest
earliest artistic
artistic
able change in an uncerta
daily in novels, reviews, and n e w s p a p e r s and heard on radio and
on radio and televisi on. ae oo aa ayesc o m m o n PETE process that that brought
brought itit into
into being.being. We We do d o not see this
daily in novels, reviews, and newspapers and heard
television. scrawl lies not see this
each of these cases
of these cases we w e sensesense that that the the word w o r d isis being correctly used, a n d we
being correct ly used, and NR
method : MAHA ecause HS
because G2
its earliest
its earliest e, like
use,
use, like thethe earliest pict
earliest picture
picture or
or song,5
song, left
left no no traces.
traces.
InIn each we
Englan d's most noted ninete
noted enth-century engi- ang
But a c o m m o n sense 8 | of method—of
method—off desirable desirable change nge i inin an
change an unknown,
u n k n o w n , resource-resource-
are right. According to one of
are right. According to one of E n g l a n d ' s most nineteenth-century
(ed. by Burke and
engi-
UT reg w o r l d — ppervadese r v a d e s and and certainly
certainly predates
predates bothboth the the tools
and Change
ogy and tools we we find find and and the
in Technol
limited the
neers, Sir
neers, Sir Willia
William m Fairbai
Fairbairn, rn, quotedquoted in Technology Change (ed. by Burke and
a
arts we - infer.
infer. Throughout
T h r o u g h o u t history, history, differences
differences may m a y havehave beenbeen observedobserved in in how how
Eakin),
Eakin), wellwo hrae
u m a n s havehave used used the the engineering
engineering method method or or in in the
the subject
subject matter matter they they
the form
have treated, but the the rd use ofof the engineering method
the engineering coterminous with
m e t h o d isis coterminous with any
French wordword in in the Es any
The term engine
The term engineer comes more
er comes more directl
directly from an
y from old French
an old form
we arrive at the interes ting and certain ly lit- fl ‘
reasonable nition ofof tthe
definition the h uhuman species.k The
m a n species. engineering rmethod,
The engineering neth 1 a midwife,
like idwift
wife,
of a verb—s'ingenier . . . and thus
of a verb—s'ingenier. . . and thus we arrive at the interesting and certainly
who
lit-
sets was
was present present atat the the birth birth ofof humankind,
an engine er is . . . anyone who seeks in his mind, humankind. . 5 _—
tle known fact, that
tle known fact, that an engineer is . .. anyone who seeks in his mind, who sets
his mental
his order toto discov
action, inin order
powers inin action,
mental powers discover devise some
er oror devise means of
some means of suc-
suc-
he may
task he
lt task have toto perfor
may have m.
ceeding
ceedin g inin aa difficu
difficult perform.

ve oror CHARACTERIS TICS OF

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
AN ENGINEERING PROBLEM
ENGINEERING PROBLEf
The dictio
The nary concur
dictionary concurs s by by author izing the
authorizing verb toto engine
the verb engineer er as "to contri
as "to contrive
subtle skill or craft” and by giving as an exam-
plan usually with
plan usually with more
more or
or less
less subtle skill or craft" and by giving as an exam-
The engineer’ss method
method itself,
iitself,y not
The rs not the
the results
results of
of this
this method,
method, legitimates
legitimates the
the word
second definit "to guide,
ion: “to engineer's method word
"to engine
ple “to
ple engineer d a r i n g jailbre
er aa daring jailbreak." gives aa second
also gives
ak.” ItIt also definition: guide,
or devel opmen t,” includ ing the exam- suiver inin all
engineer all of
of the
the previous
previous examples,
examples, and
and itit isis by
by this
this method
method that
that the
the engi-
engi-
manag or superv
g e , or
m a n ae, ise during
supervise d u r i n g produc tion
production or d e v e l o p m e n t , " including the exam-
 Some
Some Thoughts
Thoughts on
on Engineering
Engineering // 11
11
DISCUSSION OF
10 // DISCUSSION
10
METHOD
THE METHOD
OF THE
lem. Again
lem. Again the the Golden
Golden GateGate Bridge
Bridge will
will serve
serve asas aa good
good example.
example. Design
Design ofof aa
bridge isis aa complex
bridge complex operation
operation requiring
requiring knowledge
knowledge of of strength
strength of of materials,
materials, wind
wind
conditions, economics,
conditions, economics, politics,
politics, mathematics,
mathematics, fluid fluid flow,
flow, andand so forth. No engi-
so forth. No engi-

Measure of Change
neer or
neer or team
team of of engineers
engineers could
could ever
ever hhope to acquire
o p e to acquire all all of
of the
the information nec-
information nec-
essary to
essary to design
design the the perfect
perfect Golden
Golden Gate
Gate Bridge, even if such an absolute
Bridge, even if such an absolute ideal ideal
were to
were to exist.
exist. This
This uncertainty,
uncertainty, this
this complexity,
complexity, this d o u b t about the system or
this doubt about
about the
about the exact
exact problem
problem statement
statement itself—this poorly u n d e r s t o o d the system or
itself—this poorly understood situation—is situation —is
B the sure mark of a problem that requires an engineer to roll up his sleeves and
the sure mark of a problem that requires an engineer to roll u p his sleeves
and
go to work.
go to work.
ee Now
N o w wewe will
will look
look in
in detail
detail at at the
the key
key words
words change,
change, resources,
resources, best,
best, and un-
and un-
Time certainty, all
certainty, all of
of which
which havehave aappeared in the
p p e a r e d in the definition
definition of an an engineering
engineering prob-
Time prob-
lem situation.
lem situation. Of Of these
these four,
four, the
the reasons
reasons for for including
including the the first
first two
two are
are relatively
relatively
Figure 11 Measure
Figure of Change
Measure of Change easy to
easy to explain.
explain. The The third
third is is less
less wellwell understood
understood aand more philosoph
n d more philosophically
ically
charged. ItIt will
charged. will occupy
occupy more more of of our
our time.
time. TThrougho
h r o u g h out
u t the
the discussion
discussion of these
of these
first three key words we will sense the fourth, the lack of information or the un-
first three key words we will sense the fourth, the lack of information or the
un-
at 51 oe 1 TR 2an- certainty that
certainty that always
always pervades
pervades an an engineering
engineering problem,
problem, menacing
menacing us from the
us from the
neer
neer should should bbee recognized. recognized. W Whether
hether w wee consider consider i
h u m a n s at their birth, Nean-
rn wings. After
wings. After thisthis mise-en-scene,
mise-en-scéne, the the engineering
engineering strategy
strategy itself can m a k e an ap-
derthals,
derthals, als the the ancient ancient ie ddam but ilders, y the
a m builders, the prince prince w who h o DO w wants the
a n t s the divorce of his c itself can make an ap-
curectly called ca anan oe pearance in
pearance in Fart
Part II JI of
of this
this discussio
discussion. n.
a u g h t e,r , or
ddaughter or the the designer designer signer of of of aa m moco ddern bridge,
e r n bridge, idg each each is correctly
is correctly engi-
himself
himself in
i n an
a n eq
equivale ‘ nt kind ofary situation hes and reacts nbin
neer because each finds
neer because each ‘nds
finds himself in an equivalent kind of situation and reacts
w a n t s5 to hange,70), to
to cchange, to modify, or to convert Tie
tom— convert the world taal1d repre- ota
ref Change
Change
aa similar
similar
imilar way.
ww a y . Each Each: wants modify, or the
a worl d represen ted by a different one. ee min acre
sented by one state into
sented by o n e state i
into a w o r l d represented by a different one. The initial state
Engineers cause cause change.
change. IJ know know of of nnoo engineer
i o w wi iithout the Golden Golden Gate Gate Bridge; Bridge; ‘le lastate,
thethe final tonal, San Fran- Engineers engineer w who would disagree
h o would disagree with with that
that
might
m i1 g h t bebe San San
7 FranciscoFrancisc t h o u t the
statement. Prompted
Prompted by
state might be the Nile w i t h o u t a d a mbe;: the
be the en Nile v eee ‘ ia 5 iefi- statement. by their
their senses,
senses, mostmost people
people will will agree
agree withwith thethe engineer
engineer
cisco
cisco
isco with with
wi thisis bridge.
this bridge.
bri The initial
The ini
initial state might
that change
Or the initial = state sgt mig deat that change does does occur
occur and and that
that thethe world
world isis ssomehow different from
o m e h o w different from oneone mo-
mo-
nal one, the Nile
nal one, the Nile i with
with i a
a new
n e w dam
d a m in
in place.
place. Or the initial state might be a Ne-
ment to to the
the next. Close the book you you have
loved one; the final one, the world geafter W have in in your
,
the final , one, AO ment next. Close the book your hand
h a n d and
and reopen
reopen it. it. Can
Can youyou
c o n t e m lating
a n d e r t h al l contemp
andertha p l a t ii n g the the deathd e a t h of of aa loved one;
0b” deny
d e n y that
that itit was
was open,
open, then then closed,
closed, and a n d now
e r i n gg toto ob-
n o w open
open once
m a n e u vvering
once again?
the mane
the again? TheThe engineer,
engineer, if
the construc
the construction tion i of aa sepulche
of sepulcher. r. But ButBut we w e can can alsoalso view view "IS if
creation of a i he
he thinks
thinks about
about itit atat all,
all, finds
finds itit hard
hard to to believe
believe that
that anyone
a n y o n e could
could seriously
seriously ques-
ques-
tain aa divorce,
tain divorce, the the firing firing of of the the presiden
president t of Iran, or
of Iran, or the the creation of a better bac-
Ha orld 1sisis 5some- somets tion
tion thethe existence
existence of of change,
change, especially
especially the the change
change he he causes,
causes, and and dismisses any-
i host hostst in in aaé complete etely analog o g o u s way.
a n a llogous \ Can Can we wyoe deny denyay tha tha the world
the dismisses any-
terial
terial
erial in completely way. deny that world
wy the ne one
one whow h o professes
prolesses to to do
do so so asas aa charlatan.
charlatan. An An engineeri
engineering colleague once told
after the composi tion of a song, the painting ofa picture, ng colleague once told
how different
h o w different after the composition of a song, the painting of a picture, or
one
one of of mymy classes,
classes, “l"I consider
of aa rhyme? rhyme? Graphica lly each of these example s is represen an consider anyone a n y o n e who
w h o isis not
not actively
actively engaged in causing
engaged in causing
construction of
construction Graphically each of these examples is represented in
engineeri
engineering ng change
change aa leech leech on on society.”
society." Fortunate
Fortunately for him, most Western
Figure 1,1, where
Figure w h e r e time time isis given given on o n the the horizonthorizontal al line line or or axisaxis and and some s o m e meas measure ly for him, most Western
axis. IE philosoph
philosophers ers wouldwould at at least
least agree
agree thatthat change
change can can occur,
occur, but there have been
but there have been
of change
of change _ inin the the world w o r l d isiis given on
s gigiven on the the vertical
the vertical axis.
to B. of identify a situatio some
some notable
notable exceptions
exceptions. . In In ancient
ancient timestimes Parmenid
Parmenides taught that change was
es taught that change was
The sn
The e n g i n e e r isis to to cause the transitio n from A
cause the transition from A to B. To identify a situation re-
. impossibl
impossible e andand felt
felt that
that the
the changes
changes we w e seem
seem to to perceive
perceive are b u t illusions of the
are but illusions of the
uiring
quiring irl an engineer,
an engineer, i seek first
seek i
first aa sisituationituation calling calling for for change. change. senses.
senses. Surely
Surely itit must
must seem seem toto us us inin the
the modern
modern age that Parmenides was delu-
of view not all cg = _ oe ae age that Parmenides was delu-
- Yet Yet from from = an engineer engineering ing point point of view not all changes or all final states are sional,
sional, and and hishis claim
claim unworthy
u n w o r t h y ofof being
being used as an example. Is there any chance
é replacin splacing g elem the GoldenentGate es ridgea used as an example. Is there any chance
equally desirable
equally esi
desirable. .>. Today Today Today few few would w (o u l d suggest suggest replacing the Golden Gate Bridge that
that thethe delusion
delusion isis instead
instead ours?ours? More More recently Santayana has held that doubt
sco o Bay with one
) of the
ba with one of the w o o d e n covered bridges woode tee recently Santayana has held that doubt
asas aa meansm e a n s5 of of crossing
crossing SSI San Francisc
San Francisco Bay isis always
always possible
possible about about the the existence
existence of actual change, and McTaggart has ex-
of actual change, and McTaggart has ex-
a atsituation Se a calling dak
that were
that w e r e once once commonl c o m m o nyl y seen seen 1n inin Maine. Maine.: To To identifyidentify a situation calling for the plicitly
plicitly denied
denied that that change
change exists.exists. The engineer m a y be startled to learn that
The engineer may be startled to learn that
which not j just
inin vwhich not just any change, b u t the any change,
engineer
engineer, i , oe second i w e: m u s t look look for forr one oneone in Leibnitz,
Leibnitz, who w h o inin parallel
parallel with with Newton
N e w t o n invented the branch of mathematics most
invented the branch of mathematics most
; [ Y =
vest cchange,h a n g e , isis desired. desired. concerned
concerned with with change—t
change—the calculus—had serious reservations about the mat-
best
select this best change from all ae he calculus—had serious reservations about the mat-
in orale the engineer cannot ter.
ter. InIn addition,
addition, considera
consideration of the work of Bradley and expansion
Unfortunately the engineer cannot select this best change from all conceiv-
the final one. ier ae = tion of the work of Bradley and expansion ofof our our dis-
dis-
abletransiti
able transitions ons from from the initial state
the initial state toto the final one. Physical, economic, polit- cussion to include the view of Eastern philosophy, where denial of change isis
cussion to include the view of Eastern philosophy, w h e r e denial of change
nts
i a lways 5 exist.
exis S t . Despite ite its favo
favorab lec : ee
ical, and
ical, a n d artistic ist
artistic constrai
constraints a l w a y s exist. Despite its favorable corrosion p r o p - even more prevalent, s h o w that, contrary to
even more prevalent, show that, contrary to the belief of my engineering col-the belief of my engineering col-
erties no
erties n o consider ation was w a s given given toto building building the
Golden Gate HER oe
consideration the Golden Gate Bridge of an alloy‘
a league, there are serious philosophical problems in determining if change exists
league, there are serious philosophical problems in determining if change exists
reasons. In the third place, then, the engineer
ofofpure gold, for
p u r e gold, for obvious and
and what what itit is. By insisting that an engineer is involved in changing the world,
is. By insisting that an engineer is involved
taken a philosophically risky first step. Given in thechanging
obvious reasons. In the third place, then, the engineer a l w a y s the world,
— ee
seeks the
seeks the best best change change within within the the available available resources. we have taken
we have
a philosophically risky first step. Given the equally ambiguous
equally ambiguou
isticistic ofofof aaa situa situation requirin g the engineer gn 15 ne he ae s
: The Thefifinalfinal character characteristic situation requiring the engineer is that k n o w l e d g= e notion of causality in modern philosophy, by professing that engineers can
notion of causality in m o d e r n philosophy, by professing that engineers can cause
cause
system before, fore during, i c
and a after the transitio n 1s incomplete,
Arps this change, we have taken an even more precarious second one. just for the
a aboutt the the system before, d u r i n g , and after the transition is incomplete, incon- this change, we have taken an even more precarious
ate than the lifetime of the pro second one. Just for the
sistent, or
count or w mb o u l d require require more m o r e time time toto accumul accumulate than the lifetime of the prob-
 12 / / DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION OF-
OF THE Some
Some Thoughts
Thoughts on
on Engineering / 13
12 THE METHOD
METHOD Engineering / 13

mmoment, well, wwee will

note well,
o m e n t , note will aassume that change
s s u m e that occurs and
change occurs will consider
and will that
consider that Resources
Resources
change for for wwhich engineer claims
the engineer responsibilit
claims responsibility. y.
change h i c h the
difficulties wwhen
practical difficulties
four practical we consider the The second
The second characteristic
characteristic ofof aa situationsituation that that requires
requires the the services
services ofof an engineer
an enginee
m m e d i a t e l y rrun
We i immediately into four
We u n into h e n w e consider the isis that
that thethe desired
desired solution
solution mmust be consistent
u s t be consistent with with thethe available
changes for for wwhich engineer claims
the engineer The engineer
credit: The
claims credit: doesn’t kknow
engineer doesn't where available resources.
resources "These
These
changes h i c h the
going toto get
he isis going
now where
there, or
get there, or ifif aanyone will care when
care w h e n resources are
resources are an an integral
integral part part of the problem statement and both define and con-
of the problem statement and both define and
he is,
he is, wwhere
h e r e he going, hhow
he isis going, o w he n y o n e will ‘i
engineer isis located
the engineer located at point AA in
at point Figure 1.1. No
in Figure No one one w would strain its
strain its solution.
solution. Different
Different resources
resources imply imply different
different problems, and different
problems, and diff
he does.
he Initially, the
does. Initially, ould
about the world at the time represented by this problems require
problems require different
different solution
solution techniques.
techniques. To make this point, one of my
To make this paint
each class period withrin
to have perfect knowledge
claim to h a v e perfect k n o w l e d g e about the w o r l d at the time represented by this
claim f my
that the exact final
the exact final state, point 15,
state, point also uunknown
B, isis also former engineering
former engineering professors*professors* would would begin begin each class period with aa simple
point. TThe
point. second pproblem
h e second r o b l e m isis that nknown problem to
‘ia back
nie
goes to
first goes work. An
to work. example will
An example will mmake clear.
point clear.
this point problem to bebe answered in fifty seconds by what an engineer would
answered in fifty seconds by what an engineer would call
wwhen
h e n the the eengineer
n g i n e e r first a k e this call ue
increased the salinity of
the salinity of the Nile by
the Nile by 10 per-
10 per- of the
of the envelope
envelope calculation.
calculation. Once, Once, for for example, we were asked to estimate the n u m -
example, we were asked to estimate th :
The AAswan
The swan H High
igh D Dama m in Egypt hhas
in Egypt a s increased >
collapse of the sardine industry in the
of the sardine i n d u s t r y in the Delta, has caused Delta, has caused ber ofof Ping-Pong
ber Ping-Pong balls balls thatthat would
would fit fit into the classroom. In addition to devel-
into the classroom. In addition vs choad
cent, hhas
cent, a s ledled to to thethe collapse
Nubians displaced oping the
oping the ability
ability to to manipulate
manipulate large n u m b e r s in our heads, these problems
large numbers in our heads, these roblems
erosion, aand
coastal erosion,
coastal n d has forced the
has forced the one u n d r e d tthousand
one hhundred housand N u b i a n s displaced
life as
to life farmers on
as farmers on the newly created
the newly created arable arable taught the
taught the importance
importance of of resources
resources in the definition of a project. Based on fifty
in the definition of a project. Based on fifty
by the
by reservoir to
the reservoir to trytry to to aadapt
d a p t to seconds
some would say more than offset, by seconds w wee were
were to to provide an a n s w e r to the problem—a correct engineering
provide an answer to the problem—a correct en ineering
land. These
land. These liabilities
liabilities hhave
a v e been
been balanced,
balanced, s o m e w o u l d say more than offset, by
generation of
the generation of eenough hydroelectric ppower to furnish answer. H
answer. ad w
Had wee been
been givengiven two d a y s for our response, we would have been ex-
two days for our response, we would
other assets
other assets ssuch u c h as as the n o u g h hydroelectric o w e r to furnish ae been cor- e :
etc. O Our however, isis not
interest, however, not to critique
to critique pected to
pected to measure the room and calculate
measure the room a n d the number—again, an entirely
calculate the number—again, an entirely od
one-half of
one-half of EEgypt's electrical nneeds,
g y p t ' s electrical e e d s , etc. u r interest,
project or or toto reconcile conflicting opinions
reconcile conflicting opinions as its
to its
as to rect engineering answer given the additional resources. I suppose if
rect engineering answer given the additional resources. I suppose if w e were
spectacular engineering
this spectacular
this engineering project given —_— have
state A,
at state the engineer
A, the given even even more time and needed the best possible answer, we should
more time and needed the best possible answer, we should
net w
net o r t h , bbut
worth, u t to to eemphasize
m p h a s i z e that that before construction, at
before construction, engineer filled the room with Ping-Pong balls and counted them. Although obviously have
change in
exact change salinity and
in salinity erosion or
and erosion exact
the exact
or the filled the room with Ping-Pong balls and counted them. Although
could not
could not hhave predicted the
a v e predicted the exact similar, each of these problems was fundamentally different as evidenced obvious]by
fishermen aand the N Nubians. ‘The final state always
final state similar, each of these problems was fundamentally different as evidence
hhuman costs to
u m a n costs to thethe ssardine
a r d i n e fishermen n d the u b i a n s . The always their need for diflerent m e t h o d s of solution. The a n s w e r to each was absolutely d by
their need for different methods
reality that
has aa reality
has that an engineer situated
an engineer situated at initial state
the initial
at the anticipate. Like-
cannot anticipate.
state cannot Like- correct from an engineering pointofofsolution. view w hThe answer
e n both to each was
the problem and abepintel
time con- y
correct from an engineer
wise,
wise, the the presidential
presidential o order
r d e r to p u t aa m
to "“put mana n onon thethe m moono o n byby the end of
the end the decade”
of the decade" straint were considered ing point of view when both the problem and time con-
together.
Armstrong descended to leave his
to leave his foot- straint were considered together.
lacks the
lacks specificity of
the specificity the lladder
of the a d d e r NeilNeil A r m s t r o n g descended foot- =
engineer is
The engineer willing to
is willing transition strategy
e v e l o pa a transition
to ddevelop strategy from Contrast an
Contrast an engineering
engineering problem problem to to aa scientific
scientific one one withwith respect
respect toto their
their de-
de-
print on
print on thethe moon.
m o o n . The from
rarely is
but rarely he given
is he ppendency
e n d e n c y onon resources
resources. . Although Newton was limited in the amount of time he
Although N e w t o n w a s limited in the a m o u n t of time he
to aa presumably
p r e s e n t to
the present
the presumably m more desirable future
o r e desirable future state,state, but given
p r o b l e m to to solve. Instead he
solve. Instead determine for
m u s t determine
he must for himself had
had toto develop
develop his his theory
theory of of gravitati
gravitation on and a modern cancer researcher is con-
a n d a m o d e r n cancer researcher is con-
specific, well-define
aa specific, well-defined d problem himself
w h a t the actual problem
the actual problem isis on on the basis of
the basis society's diffused
of society’s diffused desiredesire for for change. strained
strained by by thethe funds
funds at at her
her disposal,
disposal, we we usually
usually think of each as trying to read
think of each as trying to read
what change.
project the engineer rarely knows exactly the
the already
already writtenwritten book book of of Nature
N a t u r e instead
instead of of creating a new best-seller based
creating a new many avi
At the beginning of
At the b e g i n n i n g of an
an engineering
engineering project the engineer rarely k n o w s exactly
upon
upon the the available
available resources
resources. . We We quibble,
quibble, by extending the analogy beyond its
by extending the analogy ever
w h e r e he
where he isis going. its
going.
| falsities the ease in de- bounds,
bounds, ifif we we try try toto argue
argue that that Nature,
Nature, and by implication science, has a correct
and by implication science, has a correct
The third
The difficulty isis with
third difficulty with the change itself.
the change itself. Figure
Figure 1 falsifies the ease in de- answer
answer toto the the Ping-Pon
Ping-Pong g ball
ball problem
problem and that the engineer is only limited bv
ciding which path to take from A to B by showing only one. Usually a number and that the engineer is only limited b
ciding w h i c h p a t h to take from A to B by s h o w i n g only one. Usually a n u m b e r
constraints. The engineer is not re- his
his resources
resources inin his his approxim
approximation ation toto this this n u m b e r . A similar sense of conver-
number. A similar sense of
alternatives exist,
ofof alternatives exist, each limited by
each limited by different
different constraints. The engineer is not re- gence
gence toto truth truth does does not not usually
usually exist in an actual engineering problem. Foray: ex-
sponsible for implementi ng a single given change, but for choosing the most ap- exist in an actual engineering problem. For ex-
sponsible for i m p l e m e n t i n g a single given change, b u t for choosing the most ap-
state A he doesn’t know how he is going to ample, if we try to argue that Nature has an absolutely correct answer r asas to
ample, if we try to a r g u e that N a t u r e has an absolutely correct a n s w e
propriate one. In other words, at to
propriate o n e . In other w o r d s , at state A he d o e s n ' t know h o w he is going to
complete knowledge of the problem he is whether
whether the the Aswan
Aswan High High D a m should have been built and that the engineer will
Dam should have been built and that the engineer will
state BB even
get toto state
get even ifif he were to have
he w e r e to h a v e complete k n o w l e d g e of the p r o b l e m he is converge to it with additional resources, we quickly become froma
converge to it with additional resources, w e quickly become inundated in pro-
in pro-as
toto solve. found
found philosoph
philosophical water. Instead of looking for the answer to a problem,
solve.
change is that an engineering goal has a way ical water. Instead of looking for the answer to arela as
The final
The difficulty inin causing
final difficulty causing change is that an engineering goal has a way does the scientist, the engineer seeks an answer to a problem consistent with the
does the scientist, the engineer seeks an answer to a problem consistent with
ofof changing throughout a design. From the start of a project to completion is of- the
c h a n g i n g t h r o u g h o u t a design. From the start of a project to completion is of-
it takes twelve years to construct a nu- resources
resources available available toto him. This distinction will become clearer when we later
him. This distinction will become clearer
ten a long time. At present, for example,
consider
consider the engineer's notion of best. At least for now it seemswhen
the engineer' reasonablewe laterto
ten a long time. At present, for example, it takes twelve years to construct a nu-
in America. During the completion of an engineering project, s notion of best. At least for now it seems reasonab le the to
clear reactor agree
agree with with the famous engineer, Theodore Von Kantian: "Scientists discover
clear reactor in America. D u r i n g the completion of an engineering project,
often occur requiring a reorientation of the project in the famous engineer, Theodore Von Karman: “Scientists discover the
changes in the final goal
changes in t h e final goal often occur requiring a reorientation of the project in world that
world that exists; engineers create the
exists; engineers create the world that never was.” world that never was."
midstream. InIn the
midstream. automobile industry
the automobile
the public’s demand has flitted from the
industry the public's d e m a n d has flitted from the
safe automobile, to a small, fuel-efficient An
An engineer ing problem
engineering problem does,
does, however,
however, require
require evaluatio
evaluation of the true re-
n of the true re-
desire for a powerful automobile, to a
desire for a powerful automobile, to a safe automobile, to a small, fuel-efficient sources
sources thatthatare
are available.
available. This
This isis difficult
difficult for
for three
three reasons.
reasons. We usually think of
We usually think of
that has often left a new automobile de-
one, and
one, a n d back larger one
back toto a a larger one atat a a rate
rate that h a s often left a new automobile de- oe asas time
resources osand money
m o n e y because
because they
they are
are often
often explicitly stated in the prob-
sign obsolete before it leaves the drawing board. With the lack of information explicitly stated in the prob-
sign obsolete before it leaves the d r a w i n g board. With the lack of information
transition path between them, combined =lem,: = are
: aeusuallyy inin short
short supply,
supply, and and are
are depletabl
depletable. In exceptional cases other
e. In exceptional cases other
about points A and B and the desired
about points A and B a n d the desired transition p a t h between them, combined pletable resource
depletable resources s may
may also
also bebe important
important. Since a good engineering rule of
. Since a good engineering rule of
project, how can the engineer ever hope
with c h a n g e s inin point
with changes t h r o u g h o u t the
point BBthroughout the project, h o w can the engineer ever h o p e thumb is that approximately one hundred pounds of rocket are required to place
thumb is that approximately one h u n d r e d p o u n d s of rocket are required to place
toto cause the change he desires? Change is recognized as a characteristic of an
cause the c h a n g e he desires? C h a n g e is recognized as a characteristic of an
with all of the attendant uncertainty, what strategy
engineering problem,
engineering p r o b l e m , but
b u t w i t h all of the a t t e n d a n t uncertainty, w h a t strategy X
vr. J. |. J. |. McKetta,
*Ur. McKetta,Jr.Jr.
does use to achieve it?
does thethe engineer
engineer use to achieve ID
le

DISCUSSION OF
14 // DISCUSSION
14 METHOD
THE METHOD
OF THE Some Thoughts
Some Thoughts on
on Engineering
Engineering /7 15
15

one pounci
one pound of satellite into
of satellite orbit, weight
into orbit, weight isis often often limitedlimited in in space exploration,
space exploration, sumably overall
sumnbly overall productivity
productivity of of the
the work
work force.force. When When the the flexibility
flexibility of of allocat-
allocat
and the engineer treats
the engineer treats itit as precious resource
as aa precious resource to to be wisely m
be wisely managed. ing ing resources
resources and and exchanging
exchanging one one for
for another
another isis decreased,
decreased, the the design
desi ho often suf-
and anaged. often suf.
But depletable quantities
But depletable quantities such such as money, and
time, money,
as time, weight are
and weight are onlyonly one one part part fers. In
fers. In the
the project
project to to pput
u t aa m
man on the
a n on the moon, the deadlines within the pr by t
m o o n , the deadlines within the project
of wwhat is m meant resource in
by aa resource in an engineering context.
an engineering context. An engineering re-
An engineering re- were set,
were set, in in large
large measure,
measure, by by political
political considerations,
considerations, and,
of h a t is e a n t by and, hence,
hence =" rela
were rela-
source isis aanything that m makes an important or significan t difference to a proj- tively ee inflexible. As _ aa result
oe preliminary suborbital and orbital missions were
preliminary suborbital and orbital missions
source n y t h i n g that a k e s an i m p o r t a n t or significant difference to a proj-
perform this this “a
ect. To o m e t h i ngg should
e t e r m i nee ifif ssomethin
To ddetermin should be considered as
be considered resource, perform
as aa resource, sche
scheduled ea so so closely
closely together
together that
that time
time diddi not permit rmit thethe rresults from one ex-
ect. O m ©
simple test:
simple Imagine two
test: Imagine e a m s of engineers identical in all respects but one. IfIf
two tteams of engineers identical in all respects but one. ane
periment to be
to be analyzed
analyzed and and used
used in in the
the design
pip of the following one. Instead,
ew ay alae
the finalfinal pproduct of oneone team team is is judged preferable to
judged preferable the pproduct
to the of the other,
the other, results from
results from one one experiment
experiment could could only
only affect
affect later later missions in a leapfrog man-
missi mpirog
as opposed to "by the:
the r o d u c t of r o d u c t of
then the difference bbetween
the difference the two two teamsteams should should be taken as
be taken resource. As
as aa resource. As an an = Putting
ner. OY aa man = on on the
the moon
moon in inaa longoy period
Pack aof time ene
would have beengyfarat
then e t w e e n the
example, consider two engineeri ng teams with the same number of members, end of
end of thethe decade,"
decade,” although
although unacceptable
unacceptable politically,politi
less
example, consider two engineering teams with the same n u m b e r of members, rou re be a consider-
same education, and
same education, and same same aamountsm o u n t s of time and
of time and m money
o n e y at disposal. One
their disposal.
at their One costly.
costly. The The efficiency with which nate A malesas important
efficiency with which resources are used is
coke a aoc
team, hhowever, is m more experienc ed solving problems similar to the one w pose.
wee pose. ation as
ation as thethe total
total aamount
m o u n t in
in defining and limiting an engineering project.
defining and limiting an macula
team, o w e v e r , is o r e experienced solving p r o b l e m s similar to the one — ~
experience with
Past experience similar pproblems
with similar usually pproduces better design.
r o d u c e s aa better design. Past Past ex- ex- An engineering
engineering problem
problem is is defined
defined and
and limited
limited by by its
Past r o b l e m s usually An its resources,
respunces but but the true
th t
perience with with similar problems should,
similar problems should, therefore, be considere
therefore, be considered as a resource, al- d as a resource, al- resources must
resources must bebe considered.
considered. Because
Because w wee tend
tend toto think
think only only in terms of de-
in ‘tenth
perience of de.
tthough obviously itit is depletable one.
not aa depletable
is not one. As As aa second example, consider
second example, consider the the pletable resources,
pletable resources, because
because we we confuse
confuse nominal
nominal and and actual
actual resources,
h o u g h obviously resources and aid be-
be-
project of writing aa book.
of writing book. Money Money and and time time to to aidaid in the eendeavor
in the clearly re-
are clearly re- cause we
cause we neglect
neglect the
the efficiency
efficiency of allocating
allocating resources
resources and and the
project n d e a v o r are the possibility
rumnibilie . ofig ex-
wy
Sources, bbut what of interest and encourage ment? I believe the author given these changing one
changing one kind
kind for
for another,
another, often
often the
the true
true resources
resources are hard to determine.
sources, ut w h a t of interest and encouragement? I believe the author given these are hard to sae a.
Jast ttwo
last effectively has
w o effectively has been been given resource, and
given a a resource, and both both the speed of
the speed of completi
completion on Given the uncertainty in determining what should be considered a resource,
Given the uncertainty in determining what should be considered a resource,
and the
and quality of
the quality of the writing are
the writing enhanced. Again, the
are enhanced. Again, the important point is that important point is that how can
how can the
an the inee ever
the engineer
engineer ever hope
hope to i an
to provide
provide an aadequate
d e q u a t e solution to a problem?
solution to
neither interest
neither interest nor encouragement is
nor encouragement depletable. By
is depletable. analysis, team
similar analysis,
By aa similar team cont-com- What
What strategy doesdoes he use?
he use? ERS
patibility, organizational ability,
patibility, organizational ability, aand enthusiasm should
n d enthusiasm should also also be considered as
be considered as im-im-
portant resources.resources. The The first difficulty in
first difficulty e t e r m i ning
in ddetermin what should count count as as aa re-
portant ing w h a t should re- Best
Best
source is
source is focusing exclusively on
focusing exclusively depletable resources.
on depletable resources.
second difficulty
A second confusion bbetween
is confusion nominal resources
the nominal (those ex- We have
have agreed
agreed to to consider
consider the the four
four characteristics
characteristics of of an
an engineerin
A difficulty is e t w e e n the resources (those ex- We g problem
engineering proble
plicitly named
plicitly n a m e d in in the p r o b l e m statement
the problem statement) ) anda n d the actual resources
the actual resources. Perhaps aa
. Perhaps captured
captured in in the
the kkeywords
e y w o r d s change,
change, resources,
resources, best,
best, and
and uncertaint y. The
uncertainty. The drat
first two
two of
of
problem isis nominall
problem nominally s u p p o s e d to
y supposed to be finished within
be finished within aa certaincertain budget b u d g e t or or within
within these
these were
w e r e easy
easy toto understan
u n d e r s t a nd.d . We
We cancan easily
easily accept
accept that
that anan engineer
engineer wants
wants
fixed time
aa fixed period, but
time period, b u t common practice allows
c o m m o n practice allows aa 10 percent overrun
10 percent overrun in in either.
either. change
change and,
and, with
with some
s o m e thought,
thought, almost almost as as easily
easily accept
accept that
that the
the definition
definition of an
of 1
design proposal
T h e design
The proposal that u n a w a r e of
that isis unaware this fact
of this fact isis inaccurat
inaccurate e and,a n d , in in competi-
competi- engineeri
engineering ng problem
problem depends
d e p e n d s on on the
the available
available resources.
resources. TheThe third
third characteris-
charact i
b i d d i n g , at
tive bidding,
tive definite disadvant
at aa definite Large governme
t a g e . Large
d i s a d v a n age. g o v e r n m nt projects are
e n t projects are espe-espe- tic
tic of
of aa problem
problem that that requires
requires the the services
services of of anan engineer,
engineer, the the appro
appropriate notion
—_ ation
cially prone
cially p r o n e to to this Another example
effect. Another
this effect. example isis the the managem
managem ente n t of funds for
of funds for re- re- of
of best,
best, isismore
more ofof aa challenge
challenge to to understan
understand d and and must
m u s t occupy
occupy m o r e of our time.
ra our time.
search into
search serious disease,
into aa serious disease, such such as cancer. Instead
as cancer. Instead of using all
of using all ofof thethe available
available The
The engineer
engineer wants
w a n t s the
the best
best solution
solution to to his
his problem,
problem, but but then
then w h o wouldn't?
who wouldn't?
m o n e y on
money research, common,
on research, practice isis to
c o m m o n practice use some
to use some of of thethe moneym o n e y for for aa fund-fund- The
The difficulty
difficulty isis that
that the the engineer'
engineer's s notion
notion of of best
best represent
represents a surprising de-
s a surprisin de-
actual resources for research m a y be m a n y times may be many parture
resources for research parture from from the
the standard
s t a n d a r d concept
w a y thethe actual
concept as as endorsed
this way
In this
e n d o r s e d by
by most
most Western philosophers
raising drive.
raising drive. In times Western hiloso A
greater than
greater than the original nominal
the original n o m i n a l ones.ones. and
and as as understo
understood od by by most
most nonengine
nonengineers. ers. MostMost of of us would accept Plato's no-
us would ane Plato's a
resources available
the resources available toto aa project project isis ne- tion
g the tion (without
(without recognizi
m a d e inin evaluatin
recognizing
ng toto whom
w h o m we
w e owed
o w e d the debt) of an ideal, perfect form
T h e final
The error made
final error evaluating ne- the debt) of an ideal, perfect for
the efficiency of their use. A l t h o u g h the total nominal resources are resources of,
of their use. Although the total nominal of, say,
say, beauty,
beauty, justice,
justice, oror whatever
whatever as as an
an ultimate
ultimate best and then consider ap-
glecting the
glecting efficiency are best and then consider ap-
flexible. Given Given two two design design teams, teams, the Proximati ons toto thisthis form
m o r e flexible.
form as as better
total isis more
proximations better andand better
better as they approach this ideal. In
fixed, allocation within
fixed, allocation within this this total the as they approach this ideal i
one kind kind into into an- =fact, itit isis GRE
converts one
evendifficult
resources or or converts
difficult forfor the
its resources
thephilosop
allocates its
lly allocates philosopherher toto conceive
conceive of an alternative to Plato's
one that
one that most most strategica
strategically an- of an alternative to Plato's
m o m e n t has has effectivel increased the
y increased a m o u n t available.
the amount near progressi on toward the ideal form if she has
linear progression toward the ideal form if she has not studied engineering. Since
other atat the
other a p p r o p r i te
the appropria a t e moment effectively available. not studied engineering, Since
assemble a more experienced design team or
experienc ed design team b u y more
or toto buy our ultimate goal is to discover a universal method by generaliz
a more our ultimate goal is to discover a universal m e t h o d by generalizing the method
Money may
Money may be used toto assemble
be used more ing the method
relevant informa- used
used by
for relevant
by the
literature for
the engineer,
the literature
engineer, we
search the
we must
allocated toto search
must have
have aa very
very clear u n d e r s t a n d i n g of what the en-
e q u i p m et.
equipmen Time may
n t . Time m a y be be allocated informa- clear understanding of what the en-
obtain this this informati on. AA good good alloca- gineer Fs by his terms before we proceed. This is especially critical
gineer m e a n s by his terms before we proceed. This is especially critical when
increase the
tion oror toto increase
tion the basic research toto obtain
basic research information. alloca- when
resources. In addition, one re-
one : e engineer's definitions are at odds with both common and accepted philo-
the engineer's definitions are at o d d s with both c o m m o n a n d accepted
tion strategy effectivel y increases the available
w e n o w seek, therefore, is the engineer's notion of aphilo-
tion strategy effectively increases the available resources. In addition, re-
people atat
l people Sophical
sophical practice.
hiring additiona
practice. What W h a t we best
source may
source m a y be converted into
be converted another. For
into another. instance, hiring
For instance, additional now seek, therefore, is the engineer's notion ote best
. ButBut ifif com- solution or what is technically called
solution or w h a t is technically called the optimum solution. What w e will find is
certain steps
certain project effectivel
steps inin aa project effectively y exchange
exchanges m o n e y for
s money for personnel
personnel. com- the optimum solution. What we will find is
pletion ofof this
pletion this step critical, inin the
step isis critical, the sensesense that complete itit blocks
failure toto complete
that failure blocks fur- fur- aa new,
new, radical
radical concept of best little used in Western, Greek-based philosophy.
concept of best little used in Western, Greek-based philosoph
idle, the the in- This
This adventure
a d v e n t u r e will carry us into the heart of an important area of engineer-
other people people and a n d machiner y toto remain remain idle, will carry us into the heart of an
ing called optimization theory, which is familiar, at important
progress and
ther progress
ther forces other
a n d forces machinery in- area of toenallame
coffee break least in outline, engi-
creased
creased expense
expense on
on personnel
personnel will
will result
result in
in an
an overall
overall saving.
saving. The
The coffee break ing called optimization theory, which is familiar, at least
neers but bo relatively unheard of and more challenging toin the outline, to ait engi-
philosopher and
curious example
isis aa curious example ofof the exchange rate
the exchange between resources.
rate between resources. Here Here aa small small an
ers =
but relati veely u nheec urd of and more
. -
ch 6] allen gi ing to the philosopl 1eT and
nonengineer.
a m o u n t ofof time
amount given up
p u r p o s eyl y given
time isis purposel u p forfor an increase inin enthusia
an increase enthusiasm sm and and pre- pre-
 Some Thoughts
Some Thoughts on
on Engineering
Engineering // 17
17
16 / DISCUSSION
16 THE METHOD
OF THE
DISCUSSION OF METHOD

will be be w worthwhil because, in

o r t h w h i lee because, addition to
in addition defining the
to defining en-
the en-
investigation will
This investigation
This
best, it will indicate, once again, the crucial lack of informa-
gineer’s notion of
gineer's notion of best, it will indicate, once again, the crucial lack of informa-
tion that
tion that is is aalways present w
l w a y s present when
h e n an engineer solves
an engineer solves aa problem problem aand nd w i t h which
with which
his method must cope.
his m e t h o d m u s t cope. After
After some
s o m e preliminar
preliminaries, ies, the
the discussion
discussion will
will be
be divided
divided
most iimportant technical terms

Sharpness
into three
into parts: aa simple
three parts: simple example example to explain the
to explain the most m p o r t a n t technical terms 1
1

used in optimization theory,

used in optimization theory, a
a short
short theoretica
theoretical l analysis,
analysis, and
and finally
finally ssome
o m e prac-prac- 1
1

considerations. Mentioning
tical considerations.
tical Mentioning optimization optimization theory theory is is not not m meant
e a n t to imply that
to imply that 1
1

all engineers
till engineers use use itit formally in all projects. Instead
formally in all projects. Instead it is included at this point to it is included at this point to
capture the
capture essence of
the essence of the engineer’s notion
the engineer's notion of of best.
best.
1
1

Best is
Best is an adjective applied
an adjective applied rredundant e d u n d a n tly l y to describe an
to describe existing engineeri
an existing engineering ng i
I

automobil e exists proves that it is some engineer's sub-

design. That a specific
design. That a specific automobile exists proves that it is s o m e engineer's sub- ——
jective notion
jective notion of of thethe best solution to
best solution the pproblem
to the r o b l e m he he w was a s givengiven to solve. Saying
to solve. Saying 1 2 3 4
4 5 6 7
that aa Mercedes
that Mercedes is is aa better e than a Mustang
automobil than a M u s t a n g is nonsensical
better automobile is nonsensic better is
al ifif better is n
Knob Setting

being
being used
used in
in an
an engineeri
engineering ng sense.
sense. They
They are
are both
both ooptimum
p t i m u m solutions
solutions to
to differ-
differ- Figure 22 Sharpness
Figure Sharpness vs.
vs. Knob
Knob Setting
Setting
ent specific
ent specific design design projects. projects. Likewise,Likewise, the complaint that
the complaint “American engineers
that "American engineers
cannot build an
cannot build an automobil
a u t o m o b i e
l e that
that will
will last
last for
for fifty
fifty years”
y e a r s " can
can only be
only voiced by
be voiced by
aa person person with with little n d e r s t a nding
little uunderstan d i n g of engineering. To
of engineering. construct such
To construct such an an auto-
auto- ssponds
p o n d s toto aa sharpness
sharpness of of 8.
8. The
The sharpness
sharpness of of the
the picture
picture is is higher
higher for for aa settin
setting
mobile is
mobile well within
is well within the ability of
the ability of m o d e r n aautomotiv
modern engineers, but
u t o m o t i vee engineers, but to to ddoo soso ofof 66 than
than for for one
one ofof 2.2. For
For nono compelling
compelling reason reason this this curve
curve is is often
often called
called aa re-
=
different design
isis aa different design pproblem r o b l e m fromfrom the the one currently given
one currently given to to the American en-
the American en- turn
turn function.
function. |
does m
It does make sense to prefer one
to prefer design project
one design project over over the other. An
the other. An engi- AA different
different return
return function,
function, FigureFigure 3, 3, exists
exists for for thethe ssound. Turning the
o u n d . Turning the knob
knob
gineer. It
gineer. a k e sense engi-
neer could conceivab
neer could conceivably ly aargue
r g u e that
that designing
designing an
an automobil
automobile e similar
similar to
to the Mer-
the Mer- to
to aa higher
higher setting
setting decreases
decreases the the fidelity
fidelity of of thethe sound.
sound. W When the control knob is
h e n the control knob is
cedes is
cedes better goal
is aa better goal than than designing
designing one similar to
one similar the M
to the Mustang because itit would
u s t a n g because would set to
set to the
the value
value 4, 4, the
the value
value of of the
the fidelity
fidelity is is also
also 4, 4, asas can
can be be seen
seen onon the
the graph
graph.
last longer,
last longer, conserveconserve natural resources, ppromote
natural resources, national pride,
r o m o t e national pride, or or whatever.
whatever. To represent
To represent pictorially
pictorially w what
h a t aa person
person does does instinctively
instinctively w when he selects
h e n he selects his
his
AAnd, n d , of course, aa second
of course, second engineer engineer m may feel that
a y feel that he he couldcould have have pproducedr o d u c e d aa bet- bet- preferred setting,
preferred setting, thethe twotwo return
return functions
functions m must be combined
u s t be combined or or superimposed
superimposed
ter final
ter final product
p r o d u c t thanthan the engineer given
first engineer
the first given the same pproblem
the same statement. But
r o b l e m statement. But on the
on the same
same graph;
graph; they they m must
u s t bebe pputu t on
on the the same
same basis;basis; or, technically, they
or, technically, they
for
for the
the engineer
engineer who
w h o designed
designed the
the Mustang,
M u s t a n g , the
the automobil
automobile e you
you see
see before
before you
you must
must be be made
m a d e commensurate.
commensurate. This This requires
requires that that aa common
common measure
measure of ofgoodness
goodness
isis hishis best solution to
best solution problem he
the problem
to the he was given to
w a s given solve. To
to solve. exist isis foto be
To exist be some
some be
be found
found for for picture
picture and and sound.
sound. W What
h a t the
the engineer
engineer seeks seeks isis the
the relative
relative im or
impor-
engineer's
engineer's notion notion of of best.
best. tance
tance of of sound
sound and and picture
picture to to the
the owner
o w n e r of of the
the television
television set. set. InIn other
other newts
words, aa
Defining the
Defining technical terms
the technical terms used used in in optimizat
optimization ion theory theory will will help help to to make
make 10
10 percent
percent increase
increase in in the
the sharpness
sharpness of of the
the picture
picture isis worth worth what
w h a t percentage
percentage aa de-
this point, although
this point, a l t h o u g h the
the discussion
discussion that
that follows
follows may
m a y be
be somewhat
s o m e w h a t tedious
tedious for
for crease
crease in in the
the fidelity
fidelity of of the
the sound?
s o u n d ? This
This relative
relative importance
importance isis expressed
expressed bby the the
the nonengine
the nonengineer. er. Still, should be
Still, itit should carefully studied
be carefully studied for for itit has p r o f o u n d philo-
has profound philo- weighting
weighting coefficients
coefficients of of the
the two
two conflicting
conflicting criteria.
criteria. Another
Another term term usedused for
for athe set
set
sophical consequen
sophical consequences ces for for the definition of
the definition universal method.
of universal method. ofof weighting
weighting coefficients
coefficients isis the the value
value system
system of of the
the problem.
problem.
Consider aa television
Consider television set with one
set with control. We
one control. We will will assume a s s u m e that turning this
that turning this Let
Let us us assume
assume for for the
the moment
m o m e n t that that sharpness
sharpness and a n d fidelity
fidelity are are equally
equally desir-
desir-
knob to a higher number will produce
knob to a higher n u m b e r will p r o d u c e a
a better
better picture
picture but
b u t at
at the
the s a m e time
same time able.
able. ThatThat is, is, the
the relative
relative weights
weights in in the
the two
two cases
cases are are equal.
equal. TheThe resulting
resulting com-corn-
worsen the
worsen the sound; turning the
s o u n d ; turning control to
the control to aa lowerlower number, n u m b e r , on on the other hand,
the other hand,
w o r s e n the
will worsen
will picture but
the picture i m p r o v e the
b u t improve s o u n d . Confronte
the sound. Confronted d with such aa device,
w i t h such device,
w o u l d be
itit would relatively simple
be relatively simple for for youyou to adjust itit for
to adjust for your personal preference
y o u r personal preference asas
12+
you balance the
you balance relative importanc
the relative importance picture and
e ofof picture and sound s o u n d to you. The
to you. The engineer's
engineer's 11+
job, however, is not only
job, h o w e v e r , is not only to
to please
please you,
you, but
b u t also
also to
to find
find the
the best
best permanen
p e r m a n e tn t ad-
ad- ‘ot
justment of this knob
of this k n o b to society. Let
please society.
to please Let us us seesee howh o w this this isis doned o n e theoretical ly.
justment theoretically.
The setting of
The setting of the k n o b isis called
the knob manipulatedd variable.
called aa manipulate variable. One O n e can can set set itit toto aa lower
lower
picture (say, sharpness ) and d the

Fidelity
oror higher
higher number
n u m b e r as
as desired.
desired. The
The quality
quality of
of the
the picture (say, sharpness) a n the
quality of the sound
of the s o u n d (say, fidelity) are
(say, fidelity) are the criteria inin the
the criteria p r o b l e m . ItIt isis against
the problem. against
quality
these two characteristics that a j u d g m e n t is m a d e as to w h e t h e r or not the con-
these two characteristics that a judgment is made as to whether or not the
con-
ent
trol setting is best. In general, the criteria are conflicting in that an improvem
trol setting is best. In general, the criteria are conflicting in that an i m p r o v e m ent
in one implies a w o r s e n i n g of of the other. The
the other. criteria taken
The criteria taken together together make m a k e up u p the
the
in one implies a worsening
optimization space or axis system system of problem. Figure
the problem.
of the Figure 22 isis aa graph g r a p h thatthat showsshows
optimizati on space or axis
h o w the s h a r p n e s s of the picture might might change change with with the position of
the position of the the knob.
knob. 3 4 5 6 7
how the sharpness of the picture Knob Setting
As the n u m b e r on the horizontal axis increases, the
axis increases, sharpness, shown
the sharpness, s h o w n on on the the
As the number on the horizontal Figure
Figure 33 Fidelity
Fidelity vs.
vs. Knob
Knob Setting
vertical axis, is i m p r o v e d . The dotted line
The dotted indicates that
line indicates setting of
that aa setting of 44 corre-
corre- Setting
vertical axis, is improved.
 METHOD
THE METHOD
OF THE
DISCUSSION OF Some Thoughts
Soine Thoughts on
on Engineering
Engineering // 19
19
18 // DISCUSSION
18
udices. IfIf aa nation
udices. nation feelsfeels thatthat aa funeral
funeral pyre pyre should
should be be aligned
aligned in in aa north-south
north-south
direction to
direction to aidaid the
the ddead’s journey into
e a d ' s journey into heaven,
heaven, the
the model
model to to be
be optimized
optimized will will
incorporate this
incorporate this consideration
consideration as as aa design
design criterion
criterion irrespective
irrespective of of the
the truth
truth of of
the claim.
claim. Likewise,
Likewise, the

S
the the engineering
engineering model model isis not
not based
based on on anan eternal
eternal or absolute
or absolute

Objective Function
value system,
value system, but but on on thethe oneone thought
thought to to represent
represent aa specific
specific society.
society. In a soci-
In a soci-

—NMWwWAOAMDNDWYO
ety of
ety of cannibals,
cannibals, the the engineer
engineer will will try
try to
to design the most efficient kettle, As aa re-
design the most efficient kettle. As
re-
sult, the
sult, the ooptimum obtained from
p t i m u m obtained from this
this model
model doesdoes not
not pretend
pretend to be the absolute
to be the absolute
best in
best in the
the sense
sense of of Plato,
Plato, but but only
only thethe best
best relative
relative toto thethe society to which it ap-
society to which it ap-
plies. Contrast
plies. Contrast tins this with
with aa scientilic
scientific model.
model. Speaking
Speaking of of Einstein's
Einstein’s theory as the
theory as the
best available
best available analysis
analysis of of time
time andand space implies that it comes closest to de-
space implies that it comes closest to
de-
scribing reality
scribing reality than than any any alternative
alternative proposal.
proposal. ItIt isis considered better than the
considered better than the
formulation of
formulation of Newton
Newton becausebecause itit explains
explains more accurately or more simply our
more accurately or more simply our
3 4 5 6 7
Knob Setting
observations of
observations of an
an assumed,
assumed, external,external, immutable N a t u r e — a "Nature behind the
immutable Nature—a “Nature behind the
veil.” To emphasize the difference in the engineer's and
veil." To emphasize the difference in the engineer's the scientist's notions
and and scientist's
Figure 44 Objective
Objective Function
Function vs.
vs. Setting of best,
of best, consider
consider the the odd would arise if time the notions
Figure Setting odd situation
situation that space turned
that would arise if time and space turned out
out
to be human-made myths. I grant that for most of us this is an unbelievable sit-
to be h u m a n - m a d e myths. I grant that for most of us this is an unbelievable
sit-
bottom two
The bottom
4. The curves are
two curves OE
are the uation, bbut
uation, u t some
some philosophers
philosophers believe just that. For example, in the book The
believe just that. For example, in the book The
bined ggraph
bined r a p h is given in
is given Figure 4.
in Figure return func-
that w e r e sshown
were Figure 2a and Figure
in Figure igure 3. 3 The ſhe Tao of Physics by Fritjof Capra, Swami Vivekanada is quoted as saying, “Time,
Tao of Physics by Fritjof Capra, Swami Vivekanada is quoted as saying, "Time,
tions for
tions conflicting criteria
the conflicting
for the criteria that h o w n in space, and causation are the glass through which the
the ee Ng ie space, and causation are the glass through which the Absolute is seen. . . . In
o t t e d ccurve
p p e r ddotted
uupper u r v e is is the
the sum
s u m of
of these
these two
two uunder
n d e r the assumption that im- the Absolute there is neither time, space or causation."Absolute With noisexternal seen... time
. In
picture and and ssound desirab e. Verify
equally desirable.
are equally Verify that a = the Absolute there is neither time, space or causation.” With no external time
r o v e m e ts
pprovemen n t s in both picture
in both o u n d are this and space to refer to, the scientist's best, as an approximation to these concepts,
of 1212 at at setting equal to
setting 44 isis equal our previc
to our us and space to refer to, the scientist’s best, as an approximation to these concepts,
o m b i n e d ddashed
ccombined curve w
a s h e d curve with value of
i t h aa value previous becomes vacuous. On the other hand, the engineer's best is still a valid model
point. This dashed curve is the common measu becomes vacuous. On the other hand, the engineer's best is still a valid model
reading
reading of
of 8
8 and
a n d 4
4 at
at the
the same
same point. This d a s h e d curve is the c o m m o n m e a s u re of society's (now) mythical concept of time and space. Best for the scientist im-
called the objective function
the objective or mea- of society’s (now) mythical concept of time and space. Best for the scientist im-
of g o oodness
d n e s s for problem. It
the problem.
for the It is o m e t i m ess called
is ssometime function or mea- plies congruence with an assumed external Nature; best for the engineer implies
We w want largest or
the largest maximum value of bj
the objec-
of the plies congruence with an assumed external Nature; best for the engineer implies
ol
sure of system effectiveness. ctiveness. We a n t the or m a x i m u m value objec- congruence with a specific view of Nature.
For = ee congruence with a specific view of Nature.
rein
tive function. ine toe This number called the
n u m b e r isis called optimum or
the onda best value.
or best value. For our television
or manip The
The appropriate
a p p r o p r i a t e view
the knob
view of
of the
of Nature
setting of
Nature for
control setting
for optimizatio
to aa control n by
optimization by the
the engineer
engineer isis not
not just
just
set the
set the optimum c o r r e s p onds
setting correspo
o p t i m u m setting n d s to knob or m a n i p -
an
an objective,
objective, faithful
faithful model
model of
of society’s
society's view,
view, but
but includes
includes criteria
criteria known
known only
only
f ari
ulated variable of 4. 4.
1s belleres o_ — toto him.
him. One
O n e important
important considerati on inin lowering
consideration lowering the
the cost
cost of
of an
an automobile,
automobile, for
for
ent c o m p r o msing
z a t i o n is aa compromi
O p t i m i eran process. IfIf the
i s i n g process. the setting
setting is below 4, the sound instance,
and the picture worse, but in such a way that our net CES with instance, isis its
its ease
ease of
of manufacture
manufacture.. IfIf standard
standard parts
parts can
can be
be used
used or
or ifif the
the auto-
auto-
isis better
better a n d the picture worse, b u t in such a w a y that our net satisfaction with
above 4 produces a 7 - pic . mobile
mobile cancan be
be constructed
constructed onon an
an assembly
assembly line
line instead
instead of
of by
by hand,
hand, the
the cost
cost of
of
the t i o n isis lower.
c o m b i n aion
the combinat Likewise, aa setting
lower. Likewise, setting above 4 p r o d u c e s a better picture each
each unit
unit goes
but this
but this isis more than compensa ted for by a reduction in TO
m o r e than c o m p e n s a t e d for by a reduction in the fidelity of the s o u n d ,
the sete goes down.
d o w n . Ease
Ease of
of manufacture
manufacture isis aa criterion
criterion seldom
seldom considered
considered by the
by the
ng pointee of :view lew Point ig public
public when
w h e n itit decides
decides which
which automobile
automobile toto buy
b u y but
b u t one
one that
that isis essential to an
essential to an
and again
and again our o u r satisfacti
satisfaction less. From
on isis less. From an an engineeri
engineering point 4 is
calls the process of = anci am im accurate
accurate model,
model, for for determinin
determining g best
best automobile
automobile design.
design. To To quote
quote a prominent
best, or
the best,
the optimal, setting.
or optimal, The engineer
setting. The engineer calls the process of balancing an im- a prominent
engineer
engineer KarlKarl Willenbroc
Willenbrock k from
from anan editorial
editorial inin Science
Science magazine,
magazine, "Their [engi-
p r o v e m e tn t in
provemen criterion against
one criterion
in one against aa worseninw o r s e n i ngg of another aa tra
of another trade-off.> O xn eRT can- “Their [engi-
neers’]
neers'] designs
designs must must satisfy
satisfy scientific
sight -and ane
scientific as
as well
well asas nonscientifi
nonscientific criteria such as
not the best
h a v e the
not have best of possible worlds—i
all possible
of all w o r l d s — i n this case the world «=of Sigh
n this case the world the c criteria such as
, realre manufactura bility, maintainabi
manufacturability, lity, risk-minimi
maintainability, risk-minimization,
zation, and a n d cost-effectiveness."
world of
world hearing. The
of hearing. The mostmost one one can can hopehope for best inin the
the best
for isis the the combined
combined, cost-effectiveness.”
Because
Because ofof these
these additional
additional variables,
variables, the
the appropriate
appropriate optimization model is not
optimization model is not
world.
contains en oy just
just aa surrogate
surrogate for for society
society but
but includes
includes subjective
subjective considerations of the engi-
simple, itit contains the important theo-
considerations of the engi-
preceding example
the preceding
u g h the
A l t h ogh e x a m p l e isis simple, neer
neer who
w h o makes
makes the the design.
design.
aspects ofof optimizat
retical aspects
retical theory. IfIf the
ion theory. engineer can
the engineer
develap a mal emma
optimization can develop a m a t h e m a t -
CA spac : pw InIn general,
general, the the optimum
o p t i m u m isis different
different when
w h e n an
an optimizatio n space
space with
a p p r o p r ite
optimization with aa re-
re-
m o d e l for
ical model
ical for his including the
problem including
his problem the appropria a t e optimization space, return duced
duced numbern u m b e r ofof criteria
criteria isis used.
used. The
The best
best automobile
functions, and commensu ration, the optimum is determine d. This does no automobile from from the
the points
points ofof view
view
functions, a n d c o m m e n s u r a t i o n , the o p t i m u m is determined. This does not mean
can be found. The design ona of ofof the
the public
public andand the the engineer
engineer willwill therefore
therefore differ.
differ. The
The person
person who
w h o criticizes
criticizes
that easy tto
that itit isis easy find, but
o find, only that
but only principle itit can be found. The design of
that inin principle the
the engineer
engineer for for not
not providing
providing an an automobile
le will have an optimiza tion space with a BE larger ad automobile toto last
last fifty
fifty years
years makes
makes the the error
error
an automobi
an a u t o m o b i l e will have an optimization space with a m u c h larger n u m b e r of ofof not
not using
using aa complete
complete axis axis system.
system. She
She isis almost
safety, com wy any Q ye ane almost certainly
certainly notnot considering
considering the
the
conflicti
conflicting ng criteria such asas fuel
criteria such economy, power,
fuel economy, p o w e r , safety, comfort, and style, and ease
ease withwith which
which such such an an automobile
automobile could could be be manufactur
will have
itit will m o r e complica
h a v e more ted returnreturn functions . As eae sarge co puter
As aa result, a large c o m p u t e r
manufactured, ed, andand soso forth. Her
forth. Her
complicated functions.
obtain - oP imum view
view ofof thethe true
true optimum
o p t i m u m inin this
this reduced
reduced axis
axis system
system is.as
is as deficient
deficient as the knowl-
as the knowl-
sophisticated numerical strategies w o u l d be n e e d e d toto obtain the o p t i m u m
a n d sophisti
and cated numerica l strategie s would be needed
edge
edge ofof aa three-dime nsional world
three-dimensional world toto the
the two-dimens
two-dimensional inhabitants confined
w e wanted
ifif we calculate itit analytica
w a n t e d toto calculate lly. But the important point isis that
But the importan t point hat ggiven a ional inhabitants confined
analytically.
ing MES = toto live
live inin aa two-dimens ional world
two-dimensional world inin Abbot's
Abbot's classic
classic novel Flatland. The design
novel Flatland. The design
valid model,
valid evaluati on of best is a well-def ined engineer
m o d e l , evaluation of best is a well-defined engineering operation.
assumed, ea ; my ofof aa long-life
long-life automobile
automobile isis possible
possible anda n d would
would bebe asas exciting
exciting a challenge to the
science, engineer
Unlike science,
Unlike ing does not seek
d o e s not to model an a challenge to the
engineering seek to model an a s s u m e d , external, im-
its myths and pre} engineer
engineer asas the the present
present line
line ofof produets.
products. But
But the
the demand
d e m a n d for one in the United
for one in the United
m u t a b l e reality,
mutable but society’s percepti on of reality including
reality, b u t society's perception of reality including its myths and prej-
 OF THE
DISCUSSION OF
20 // DISCUSSION METHOD
THE METHOD
20 Some Thoughts
Some Thoughts on
on Engineering
Engineering // 21
21
States is
States is so so low,low, and and the the cost cost of r o d u c i n g itit so
of pproducing high, that
so high, that thethe costcost per vehicle
per vehicle
wwould
o u l d be prohibitive. By
be prohibitive. By the the w way, such aa car,
a y , such car, the Rolls-Royce, is
the Rolls-Royce, actually on
is actually to-
on to-
dday’s
ay's m a r k e t , bbut
market, u t ifif all automobiles in
all automobiles America cost as much
in America cost as m u c h as a Rolls-Royce, as a Rolls-Royce,
few AAmericans would
o u l d nneed e e d aa two-car
two-car garage. garage.

Objective Function
few mericans w
As aa second
As second eexample x a m p l e of deficient system
of aa deficient system of axes being
of axes being used used by by ssomeome m mem-em-
bers of the public, consider the complaint
bers of the public, consider the complaint communication engineers occasion- communicat ion engineers occasion-
ally hear,
ally hear, "This “This holidayholiday season season all all ofof the telephone lines
the telephone lines werewere busybusy and and II couldn't
couldn't
get through. You would think the people
get t h r o u g h . You w o u l d think the people at the telephone c o m p a n y could at the telephone company could an- an-
ticipate the
ticipate rush.” Again
the rush." Again w wee hhavea v e two different axis
two different systems being
axis systems being used—oneused—one
by the
by layperson aand
the layperson different one
n d aa different one by by the communication engineer.
the communication engineer. The engi-
The engi-
neer could
neer could easily easily design design aa telephone telephone system system for busiest period
the busiest
for the period of of thethe year,
year,
|
k

but the
but the extraextra eequipment
q u i p m e n t that that w would
o u l d be needed w
be needed would remain idle
o u l d remain idle the the restrest of the
of the le ; a
and maintained. The engineer uses

os
year and would have to be stored, insured,
year a n d w o u l d h a v e to be stored, insured, a n d maintained. The engineer uses 1 2 3 44 5 66 77 8 Q
seldom-used eequipment
extra, seldom-used being traded
is being Knob Setting
Knob Setting
an axis
an axis alongalong w which
h i c h thethe cost cost of the extra,
of the q u i p m e n t is traded
has a right (I would say ob-ob- Figure 55 Revised
Figure Revised Weighti ng
Weighting
against the
off against
off logs of service. Lagree that the public
the loss of service. I agree that the public has a right (I w o u l d say
ligation) to
ligation) help select
to help select the the pproblems
r o b l e m s for solution, the
for solution, criteria to
major criteria
the major to bebe included
included
in the design, aand
the design, importance of
relative importance
the relative criteria. The
these criteria.
of these engineer, how-
The engineer,
in n d the
public. Since
the public. Since in general the
in general
how- struction is is begun.
begun. From
From a a practical
practical point
point of of view
view neither
neither can
can be
be determined
determined per-per
ever, aalways
ever, l w a y s uses additional criteria
uses additional criteria uunknown n k n o w n to to the the
struction
used, it naive for
is naive
it is fectly. Assume,
fectly. Assume, however,
however, that
that ssomehow
o m e h o w we we know
know these
these quantities.
quantities. To use our
ooptimum
p t i m u m will will shift shift ddepending
e p e n d i n g on on the the nnumber
u m b e r of variables used,
of variables for To use ‘our
theoretic al optimization
optimization procedure,
procedure, the the separate
separate optimization
optimization spaces
h y the
justifying w why theoretical s aces for all of
layperson to
the layperson
the criticize the
to criticize engineer’s final
the engineer's final design without justifying
design without the fo cat
the individuals
the individuals that that make
make up up society
society m must now be
u s t now be combined
combined to fableproduce a rep-
reduced set
reduced set w was more appropriate.
a s more appropriate. > paar
resentat ive average.
average. No No unique,
unique, completely
completely defensible
a n i p u l a t i ngg aa model
manipulatin resentative defensible average
average exists. It will de-
Theoretically, then, then, best best forfor an engineer is
an engineer result of
the result
is the of m exists. It will de
Theoretically, model
ns ppend on. whether
e n d on whether aa numerical,
numerical, political,
political, or or economic
economic schemescheme is
society’s perceived
of society's perceived reality including additional
reality including additional subjective subjective consideratio is used
used to weight
to wei ht
of
In essence, the
considerations
engineer cre- the individual
the individual optimization
Optimization spaces
spaces to to pproduce it. In
r o d u c e it. In practice
practice the engineer must
the engineer emt
kknown only to to thethe engineer the model.
constructing the model. In essence, the engineer cre-
engineer constructing
n o w n only
based on his knowledge determine this
determine average. Assume,
this average. Assume, however,
however, that that this
this has also been done. At last
has also been eee At last
ates what
ates w h a t he thinks an informed society
an informed society should want
he thinks should w a n t based on his knowledge we
we areare able
able to to evaluate
evaluate thethe theoretical
theoretical best
best forfor society, b u t unfortunately we now
society, but unfortunatel we air
of
of what
w h a t an an uninformed
u n i n f o r m e d society society thinks thinks itit wants. wants.
for indicating, have
have no no assuranc
assurance e that
that this
this average
average isis acceptable to any one member of the
acceptable to any one ire
A l t h o u g h the
Although theoretical procedure
the theoretical described here
p r o c e d u r e described here isis usefuluseful for indicating group.
g r o u p . IfIf one-half
one-half of of the
the public wanted a vehicle with four wheels and theofother
public wanted th
what an engineer means by best, it runs into serious practical difficulties. Accu- a vehicle with four wheels and the oth :
w h a t a n engineer m e a n s by best, it r u n s into serious practical difficulties. Accu- half
half preferre
preferred d one
one with
with two,
two, II doubt
doubt the engineer should design a three-wheeled
the engineer should design
k n o w l e d g e of
rate knowledge
rate of the optimization space a p p r o p r i a t e for society is often un-
the optimizatio n space appropriate for society is often un- car.
car. Or Or asas one
one ofof my
my former
former chemical
chemical engineering professors* p u t it memorably, ee eel sd
engineering professors* put it nerd,
available, and, even if it isis available,
available, and, even if it available, itit does does not necessarily reflect
not necessarily reflect the desire of
the desire of erate
although aa bit bit earthily,
earthily, “Always
"Always remember that the engineer designs for the in-
remember that the engineer designs
any one
any individual. Society
o n e individual. Society isis an abstraction for
an abstraction g r o u p of
for aa group individuals each
of individuals each of of dividual, not the average. The average American w o u l d have one titforand
ae , not the average. The average American would have one tit and one
the one
in
w h o m has
whom h a s her her own personal definition
o w n personal definition of best. This
of best. abstraction isis necessary
This abstraction necessary be- be- ball."
cause aa specific
cause television set
specific television set isis toto be which implies
p r o d u c e d , which
be produced, implies one one optimization
optimization Althoug h the
the theoretic al procedur e for
for determin ing the
r e t u r n functions, a n d one set of weighting coefficients. IfIf we
of weighting coefficients. Although theoretical procedure determining the best
best design
design isis well
well
space, one
space, o n e set set of of return functions, and one set we defined,
defined, the
thePractical
practical procedur
p r o c e d u er e isis not.
not. In
In some
some complet ed wiga
used in
w a s used the ear-
in the
completed engineering projects
were to
were to ask different people
ask different people to adjust the
to adjust television set
the television that was
set that ear- we
n rojects
we have
have experime ntal evidence
evidence that that thethe axis
axis system
system ultimate
knob. AA person person who ly chosen
experimental ultimately ie anas rep-i
lier e x a m p l e each
lier example each would w o u l d choosechoose aa differentdifferent setting setting of of thethe knob. who resentati ve of
of society
society was
was deficient . The
The San
more emphasis
San Francisc
place more
resentative deficient. Francisco Embarcadero, originally
w a s hard
was h a r d of hearing or
of hearing interested inin high
or interested fidelity would
high fidelity w o u l d place emphasis begun
o Embarcad ero, ori inall
begun inin 1959,
1959, has
has become
becomea a classic
classic example
example of of the
the practical
practicalproblemproblem of trying
s o u n d than
on sound
on picture, and
than picture, a n d her o p t i m u m setting
her optimum setting would w o u l d shift.
shift. of inp
toto evaluate
evaluate society’s
society's optimum
optimum . . ItIt was
was designed
designed as as the
the best
best wayway toto move traffic
Figure
Figure 5
5 is
is drawn
d r a w n with
with the
the quality
quality of
of the
the picture
picture half as
half important as
as important that of
as that of move traffic
about
about the thecity.
city. Money
Money was was appropri ated and
appropriated and construc
construction
tion was was begun. But the
the s o u n d . For
the sound. convenience the
For convenience function for
return function
the return for the sharpness of
the sharpness the picture
of the picture begun. But the
Embarca dero isis now
Embarcadero now known
k n o w n as
as the
the “freeway
"freeway that that goes
goes nowhere.
nowhere."
has been
has been redrawn r e d u c e d by
r e d r a w n reduced one-half so
by one-half so thatthat the combined curve
the combined curve can can be be cal-
cal- ” | |
The
The reason
reason isis shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 6,6, where
w h e r e we
we see
see the
the end
setting of
end of of an
function atat aa setting
an uncompl
uncompleted
culated with
culated ease. Verify
w i t h ease. Verify that that the value ofof the
the value objective function
the objective of eted
ramp.
ramp. ItIt was
w a s abandon ed inin mid-cons truction because
because the thedesign
plus the the old
design failed
sharpness (4) (4) plus
abandoned mid-construction failed yoto in-
in-
n o w equal
44 isis now equal toto 8,8, or one-half ofof the
or one-half the old value for
old value for sharpness old
clude
clude consider ations that
considerations that ultimate
ultimately ly proved
proved importan
important.t. Criteria
Criteria such such asas “Don’t
"Don't
value for
value fidelity (also
for fidelity (also 4). 4). As expected the
As expected o p t i m u m has
the optimum has now shifted toto aa lower
n o w shifted lower
increase
increase thethe noise
noise level
level oror density
density ofof people
people inin mymy neighbo
n e i g h b orhood”
r h o o d " and
and "Don't
setting—one that
setting—one favors sound.
that favors Each person
s o u n d . Each person will different value
choose aa different
will choose value de- de- “Don’t
this ex- decrease
decrease the the overall
overall quality
quality ofof life”
life" were
were importan
important t to the citizens of San
to the citizens of San Fran-
Fran-
pending upon the relative
p e n d i n g u p o n the relative importance
importance of
of sound
s o u n d and
and picture
picture to
to her.
her. In
In this ex-
cisco. Too expensiv
cisco. Too expensivee toto tear
tear down,
d o w n , the
the Embarca
Embarcadero stood for
for many
many years as a
a m p l e itit would
ample w o u l d be be easy d e t e r m i n e the
easy toto determine the best setting for
best setting for each individual exper-
each individual exper- dero stood vears as a
imentally by simply asking
b v simply asking her her toto set dial asas she
the dial
set the desires. But
she desires. actual practice
But inin actual practice monumen
m o n u m etn t toto the
the differenc
differencee between
between engineer ing theory
engineering theory and
and the real world. To
the real nib. Th
imentally quote
quote an an article
article inin the
the Los
Los Angeles
Angeles Times
Times (Novemb
(November
the engineer
engineer must d e t e r m i n e what
m u s t determine w h a t bestbest meansm e a n s for individual before
each individual
for each before the the er 5,5, 1985);
1985):
.
the
product is even built. Therefore,
p r o d u c t is even built. Therefore, he
he must
must guess
guess what
what criteria
criteria each
each individual
individual ee
considers important
considers important and a n d the the relative importance attached
relative importance attached toto each each beforebefore con- con- “Prof.
'Prof. Van
Van Winkl e.
Winkle.
 22 // DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION OF
OF THE
THE METHOD
METHOD Some Thoughts
Some Thoughts on
on Engineering
Engineering // 23
23
22
Study for
Study for Suite
Suite 33 (4
(4 Desks)
Desks) Two
Two Sets
Sets of
of Bunk
Bunk Beds
Beds

Bathroom for
Bathroom for - Living
Living Room
Room for
for
Suites 1-4 uites 1-4
Suites 1-4

Elevator
and
Utility

Top
Top View
View of
of Typical
Typical Floor
Floor
Figure 77 Mystery
Figure Mystery Floor
Floor Plan
Plai

Figure corners.
corners. InIn addition,
addition, the the wwindows
i n d o w s on
on the
the extreme
extreme outside
outside were
were reduced
reduced to tiny
to tiny
Figure 66 San Francisco Embarcadero
San Francisco Embarcadero
slits
slits similar
similar toto those
those used
used in in castles
castles toto protect
protect archers
archers defending
defending the fortress.
the fortr ss
This
This innovatio
innovation n was was evidently
evidently madem a d e to
to minimize
minimize thethe air
air conditioni
conditioning cost by
n 2 Þ /
reducing
reducing thethe window
w i n d o w area.
area. The
The overall
overall floor
floor plan
plan looks
looks strikingly
strikingly like a beehive,
Politicians here have
Politicians here 20 years
for 20
have for hearts—and votes—by
won hearts—and
years won pledging toto de-
voles—bv pledging de- like a be ehiv n
o and
and well
well itit might.
might. The
The beehive
beehive has has evolved
evolved over over centuries
centuries to to have m a x i m u m ca-
molish an
molish an ugly, stump of
unfinished stump
ugly, unfinished the elevated,
of the double-deck Embarcader
elevated, double-deck Embarcadero i OT
the Board of Supervisors pacity
pacity (for
(for honey)
honey) forfor aa minimum
m i n i m u m amount
a m o u n t of
of constructi
construction materials (since bees
on materials
Freeway along
Freeway along the the city's waterfront. On Monday,
city's waterfront. On Monday, the Board of Supervisors (sine hace
have
have toto transport
transport the
the constructi
construction on materials
materials in in many
m a n y trips.)
trips.)
voted 88 toto 22 toto proceed
voted engineering on
preliminary engineering
with preliminary
proceed with on aa project that would
project that would _
exchange the freeway for a tree-lined boulevard and better mass transit. .. .. ..
the freeway for a tree-lined boulevard and better mass transit. The
The history
history ofof these
these buildings
buildings isis revealing
revealing and and serves
serves as as experimen
experimental evi-
tal evi-
exchange
the freeways—e
years, the
For years, specially the the Embarcade ro—were seen seen as as useless
dence
dence that
that engineers
engineers do d o not
not always
always getget the
the optimizat
optimizationion space right. Ori snailig
space right. Originally
For freeways—especially Embarcadero—were useless
blocked views. ; these
these skyscrape
skyscrapers rs were
were toto serve
serve asas modern,
m o d e r n , desirable,
desirable, state-of-th
state-of-the-art
e-art Duh dormito-
eyesores that
eyesores went nowhere
that went and
nowhere and blocked views. ;
ries,
ries,but
but when
w h e n students
students refused
refused toto live
live there
there by by choice,
choice, they
they hadhad toto be
be made into
made avs
required
required freshmen
freshmen dorms.
d o r m s . II have
have been
been told
important toto
told that
that when
w a s important
when even
even this
this did not produce
Evidently, the
Evidently, the $10 system left
axis system
million axis
$10 million out aa criterion
left out that was
criterion that did not prod i
aa satisfactor
satisfactoryy occupancy
occupancy rate, rate, with
with poetic
poetic justice,
justice, atat least
least one
one ofof them was m a d e
them wa made
the
the voters. into
into an an administr
voters.
renewal projects in New York ative building.
administrative building. TheseThese buildings
buildings were were simply
simply not optimal as
not o time 2
As an additional
As an example, remember
additional example, the urban
r e m e m b e r the u r b a n renewal projects in N e w York demonstra
demonstrated ted by bv the
the exodus
exodus ofof students.
students. Although
Although theoretica
theoretically the best design
with respect to money, space utilization, lly the cee d a My
City that
City designed toto be
w e r e designed
that were be optimal
optimal with respect to m o n e y , space utilization, isis determine
determined d once
once the
the optimizat
optimization ion space
space isis known,
known, practically it is hard to be
They proved to be suboptimal when the tenants broke windows, practically it is hare to be
and materials.
and materials. They p r o v e d to be suboptimal w h e n the tenants broke w i n d o w s , sure
sure that
that we
we have
have not
not neglected
neglected an an important
important axis in constructing this space. In
dumped garbage in the halls, and moved out. axis in constructing this space. I
all
allofof these
these three
three examples,
examples, the the optimizat
optimizationion spacespace of the engineer proved in
introduce a third and final example of an engineering proj-
d u m p e d garbage in the halls, a n d m o v e d out. of the en a oa 1 by
serves toto introduce a third and final example of an engineering proj-
Figure 77 serves
Figure practice
practice toto bebe aa poor
poor representa
It depicts the schematic of the floor plan tion ofof the
representation the one preferred by society.
one preferred by po —
ect that
ect t u r n e d out
that turned be suboptimal.
out toto be s u b o p t i m a l . It depicts the schematic of the floor plan Please
Please remember
remember the the engineer's
engineer's notion notion ofof best
best oror optimum
optimum = well. ByBy the
the time
campus of a well-known (but charitably time
used inin two
used skyscrapers built
t w o skyscrapers on the
built on the c a m p u s of a w e l l - k n o w n (but charitably TY completed
completedPart Part IVIV itit should
should become
become obvious
the center of the figure, we note
we have obvious that
that itit isis preferable
preferable to the
to the
university in the N o r t h . Beginning atat the center of the figure, w e note
u n n a m e d ) university
unnamed) in the North. Beginning
classical
classical Platonic
Platonic oneone inin defining
defining the the universal
universal method.
living areas. Each living area
method. The The bestbest wezee can do is not
the elevator and utility areas surrounded by six can do is not
the elevator a n d utility areas s u r r o u n d e d by six living areas. Each living area
separate suites. Each suite has the
the best;
best; the
the best
best we
we can
can dodo isis the
the best
best we
we can
can do.
do.
| we
consists ofof aa bathroom
consists and living room for four
b a t h r o o m a n d living room for four separate suites. Each suite has
four inhabitants who sleep in bunk beds in ar sr
A fundamental etcharacteristic
he ofof an
an engineeri
engineering solution isis that
ng solution that itit isis the
the best
best
a a study area with four desks for the
s t u d y area with four desks for the four inhabitants w h o sleep in b u n k b e d s in
in each of the six living areas. siecle pond | the
available from e en
point of view
view ofof aa specific
specific engineer.
engineer. IfIf this
this engineer
engineer knew knew the the
the outer
the all, sixteen
area. InIn all,
outer area. people are
sixteen people are housed
h o u s e d in each of the six living areas. mee
absolute Eno a he won
ItIt isis also worth noting that none of the walls meet in right angles. Psychologists
also w o r t h noting that n o n e of the walls meet in right angles. Psychologists
good, would dodo that
that good.
good.Failing
Failing that,
that, hehe calculates
calculates his
his best
best based
based
hasdmas disariented when thev are in rooms with odd is subjective
on his subjective estimate
estimate ofof anan informed
informed Society's
society's perception
perception ofof the
the good.
good. With
With
oO ' nc"' ' u
-" "<-'^'-"" <-HunrH>nrprl w h e n thev are in rooms with odd
 LL

24 // DISCUSSION
24 DISCUSSION OF
OF THE
THE METHOD
METHOD Some Thoughts
Some Thoughts on
on Engineering
Engineering // 25
25
ddoubt about the the criteria important to
are important
that are
criteria that to society, with ddoubt
society, with about the rel-
the rel- I MSnA nt Kennedy's
Kennedy 's exhilarating
Sera
exhilara
Haeat
ting problem
o u b t about o u b t about President problem statement
statement before
before Congress
Congress was
was the
the
ative iimportance criteria, aand
these criteria,
of these with ddoubt to wwhether
as to best
society’s best ggun
>u n that sounded
nes
5 the start
start ofof oneone of
ative m p o r t a n c e of n d with o u b t as h e t h e r society's that the of America's
America1 ’s mostmost spectacular engineer-
spectacular
; engineer-
reflects thethe individual's best, hhow
individual's best, the engineer
can the the ooptimum
design the
engineer design prod- ingoe
it g raraces.
races. MakeMake no
no mistake:
mistake: 4 ItIt wwas
reflects o w can p t i m u m prod- ing P primaril y / aa race
a s primarily race between
betw een engineers, not
i ee s, not
engineer
uct? W
uct? What strategy does
h a t strategy does he
he use?
use? scientists.
hare
Similarly, when Congress
when Congress passedpassed aand President Johnson
n d President Johnson signed
signed the
the Ap-
Ap-
Uncertainty
Uncertainty palachian Regional
palachian Regional Development
Development Act, Act, anan engineering
engineering problem
problem was
was implied: implied:
Not m
Not u c h nneeds
much to be
e e d s to about the
said about
be said the last characteristic of
last characteristic engineering prob-
an engineering
of an prob-
each of the previous
of the it bill
bill authorized
authorized aa total
total of
of $840
$840 million
million inin federal
federal grants
lem, uncertainty,
lem, because we
uncertainty, because we hhave
a v e seen specter ppervade
its specter
seen its e r v a d e each previous
This grants over
over the
the six-year
Six-year
period ending
period ending June
June 30,
30, 1971,
1971, to
to pay
pay up
up to
to 70
70 percent
percent ofof the
the cost
three characteristics. Indeed
three characteristics. Indeed this uncertainty, this
this uncertainty, this ddoubt,
o u b t , this struggle to
this struggle solve aa
to solve cost of building
of building
signa- 2,350 miles
2,350 miles of development highways and 1,000 miles of local access roads in
of development highways and 1,000 miles of local access roads
pproblem
r o b l e m in absence of
the absence
in the information isis one
complete information
of complete one of identifying signa-
the identifying
of the in
the region.
the region. ”
tures of
tures of an problem. Until
engineering problem.
an engineering Until ssomeone can rremove
o m e o n e can e m o v e this uncertainty, I,I,
this uncertainty, -
along w
along with
ith m myy engineering colleagues, m
engineering colleagues, must continue our
u s t continue struggle to
our struggle cause the
to cause the
Reagan, Kennedy,
Kennedy, Johnson—in
Johnson—in these these three
three examples
resources. W
available resources. h a t strat-
What examples aa president
president asked
Reagan,
best cchange
best h a n g e in an uncertain
in an within the
situation within
uncertain situation the available strat- asked for
for the
the
best change
best change from
from anan initial
initial state
state AA to to aa different,
different, more more desirable
desirable state
egy sshould
egy hould w wee use?
use? state BB for
for a
a
complex, poorly
complex, poorly understood
understood system
system within
within the the resources
resources at his disposal.
at his disposal. ForFor
each, he
each, he needed
needed the
the services
services ofof people
people w whoh o uunderst
n d e r s t ood the engineering
o o d the method.
engineering method
Engineer ing change
Engineering change is is not
not limited
limited to to the
the creation
creation of physical devices such
of physical devices
EXAMPLE ENGINEERING
EXAMPLE ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS such as as
defense systems,
defense systems, spaceships,
spaceships, or or hhighways
i g h w a y.s . Consider
Consider the the following
following statement: statement:
Best, uncertainty, and
change, uncertainty,
Best, change, resources—although w
and resources—although wee ddoo not not as yet know
as yet know what what We ..-». . have
We have already
already declared
declared war
war onon poverty
poverty in in all
all its
its forms.
forms... . . ,. We have
engineer's strategy
the engineer's
the strategy for causing change
for causing change is, should not
is, itit should not be be too difficult to
too difficult rec-
to rec- We have
$8,700,000 going
$8,700,000 going into
into vocational
vocational training
training of
of 3,000
3,000 persons
persons forfor 50 occupations.
50 eruption
situation calling
ognize aa situation
ognize calling for usé. But
its use.
for its unfortunately it
But unfortunately is. W
it is. When President Rea-
h e n President Rea- We
Wehave
have $4$4 million
million in in loans
loans and
and grants
grants for
for housing.
housing. We We have
have surplus
surplus food dis-
generation of
new generation
p r o m o t e d aa new
gan promoted space w
of space weapons defensive umbrella
create aa defensive
to create food dis-
gan e a p o n s to umbrella tribution
tribution in in all
all the
the eastern
eastern Kentucky
Kentucky counties.
counties. We We have 360 schools,
have 360 schools, 10,000
10,000
for
for America
America and
a n d then
then called
called on
on the
the “scientific
"scientific community”
c o m m u n i t y " to
to give
give us us aa wway a y ofof pupils, participating in
pupils, participating the school
in the school lunch
lunch program.
program. Under
Under our our comnitiuni
community work
ty work
d e v e l o p i n g it,
developing he confused
it, he science and
confused science and engineering.
engineering. Relatively Relatively speaking,speaking, little little and
and training
training program,
program, we we have
have 48
48 programs
programs going,
going, 1,400
1,400 men
men in action.
in action.
n e w science
new N e w t o n ' s law
involved. Newton’s
science isis involved. law of gravitation, the
of gravitation, equations of
the equations of motion,
motion,
a n d the
and theory of
the theory of energy emission by
energy emission lasers or
by lasers particle beams
or particle b e a m s areare allall reasonably
reasonably Once
Once again,
again, we
we sense
sense the
the concepts
concepts best,
best, change,
change, uncertaint
u n d e r s t o o d by
well understood
well by the scientist. IfIf such
the scientist. such aa devicedevice isis to to be developed, the
be developed, the presi-
presi- y, and
uncertainty, and resources
resources all used
all used
as
as an
an engineer
engineer would
would use
use them;
them; once
once again,
again, President
President Johnson
Johnson should
should have called
d e n t would
dent have been
w o u l d have advised to
better advised
been better call on
to call on the "engineering community.”
the “engineering have called
community." on
on the
the engineeri
engineering ng communit
c o m m u n iyt y for
for help.
help.
Journalists share
Journalists share this this same confusion about
same confusion about what constitutes aa scientific
w h a t constitutes scientific prob-prob- Other
Other political,
political, economic,
economic, and and psycholog
psychological ical examples
examples that that require
require the tal-
the tal-
lem and
lem constitutes an
w h a t constitutes
a n d what engineering one.
an engineering one. When reporters seeking
W h e n reporters seeking informa-
informa- ents
ents ofof the
the engineer
engineer are are easy
easy toto find.
find. SomeSome are are almost
almost trivial,
trivial, others
others are more
tion about
tion Reagan's project
about Reagan’s project wentw e n t to "scientific experts”
to “scientific experts" to evaluate the
to evaluate the “feasi- are pars
"feasi- complex
complex—but —but all all have
have the the characteri stics of
characteristics of an
an engineeri
engineering ng problem
problem. Perhaps a
Perhaps a
bility of
bility space-age missile defense system," they w e n t to the w r o n g place.
this space-age
of this missile defense system,” they went to the wrong place. Politicia
politician n wants
w a n t s toto be
be reelected
reelected or or toto win
w i n support
s u p p o r t in
in Congress
Congress for for the construc-
certainly more
feasibility isis certainly
Its feasibility
Its m o r e in in doubt because materials
d o u b t because materials able survive the
able toto survive the as oy
the tion
tion ofof aa dam
d a m inin her
her home
home district;
district; perhaps
p e r h a p s an
an economis
economist t would
w o u l d like to increase
like to increase
tensile d a m a g e , and
radiation damage,
stresses, radiation
tensile stresses, alien temperature
a n d alien e n v i r o n m e n t or
t e m p e r a t u r e environment or be-be- the
the gross
gross national
national product
product or or find
find aa wayway to to reduce
reduce the the national
national debt;
debt; perhaps a
cause aa device
cause device able maintain the
able toto maintain the severe pointing accuracy
severe pointing accuracy needed needed cannotcannot be
perhaps a
be psycholog
psychologist ist would
would like like toto stop
stop aa child
child from from biting
biting her her nails
nails or
or condition a race
condition a a
found than
found than itit isis because s o m e t h i n g that
because something violates the
that violates k n o w n laws
the known N a t u r e will
laws ofof Nature will toto create
create aa utopian
Utopian state state using
using behaviora
behavioral l engineeri
engineering. ng. The The changes implied by
changes irnplied by
be found.
be feasibility isis the
found. IfIf feasibility the question, journalists should
question, journalists should contactcontact the local dean
the local dean these
these examples
examples are are usually
usually not not associate
associated d withwith the the engineer,
engineer, but careful study
but careful study
engineering, not
college ofof engineering,
ofof aa college not their resident scientist.
their resident scientist. otof the
the characteri stics they
characteristics they share
share withwith the the obvious
obvious engineering projects of de-
engineering projects of de-
evidently exists
confusion evidently
Since confusion
Since exists inin the m i n d ofof the
the mind nonengineer asas toto what
the nonengineer what signing
signing aa nylon nylon plant,
plant, construct
constructinging aa bridgebridge across
across the Mississippi River, and
the Mississippi River and
constitutes an
constitutes an engineering let us
p r o b l e m , let
engineering problem, consider several
us consider additional examples
several additional examples building
building an an electrical
electrical power p o w e r station
station for for New
N e w York
York City shows a definite pattern.
City shows a definite attern
with the defining
w i t h the characteristics ofof one
defining characteristics one inin mind.mind. For
For each,
each, thethe engineeri
engineering ng method
m e t h o d isis needed.
needed.
. . .
statement ofof an
The statement
The engineering problem
an engineering might well
p r o b l e m might well be: be: | IfIf you,
you, asas with
with all all humans
h u m a n s since
since the
the birth
birth ofof humankin
h u m a n k id,
n d , desire
desire change;
change; ifif the
the
system
system youyou want want toto change
change isis complex
complex andand poorly
poorly understoo
understood; d; ifif the
the change
change
I I believe that this
believe that should commit
nation should
this nation achieving the
itself toto achieving
commit itself before this
goal, before
the goal, this you
you will
will accept
accept must must bebe the
the best
best available
available asas you
you balance
balance often often conflictin
conflicting cri-
returning him safely toto the g cri-
decade is
decade is out,
out, of
of landing
landing aa man
man on
on the
the moon
moon and
and returning him safely the teria;
teria; and
and ifif itit isis constrain
constraineded byby limited
limited resources,
resources, then
then you you areare in the presence
in the presence
earth. No
earth. No single project inin this
space project
single space period will
this period will bebe more impressive toto
more impressive ofof an
an engineeri
engineering ng problem.
problem. IfIf you
you cause
cause this
this change
change using
using thethe strategy
strategy described
described
mankind, oror more
mankind, important for
more important the long-range
for the exploration ofof space;
long-range exploration and none
space; and none next,
next, then
then you
you are are anan engineer.
engineer.
|
difficult oror expensive
soso difficult accomplish. . . . . . . [The
expensive toto accomplish. would be]
cost would
[The cost $531 million
be] $531 million
1962 and
inin 1962 $7-9 billion
estimated $7-9
and anan estimated over the
billion over the next five years.
next five years.