Covalent Bonding and Electron-Dot Structures

7 Covalent Bonding and
Electron-Dot Structures
7.1 (a) SiCl4 chlorine EN = 3.0

silicon EN = 1.8
ΔEN = 1.2 The Si–Cl bond is polar covalent.
(b) CsBr bromine EN = 2.8
cesium EN = 0.7
ΔEN = 2.1 The Cs+BrS bond is ionic.
(c) FeBr3 bromine EN = 2.8
iron EN = 1.8
ΔEN = 1.0 The Fe–Br bond is polar covalent.
(d) CH4 carbon EN = 2.5
hydrogen EN = 2.1
ΔEN = 0.4 The C–H bond is polar covalent.
7.2 H is positively polarized (blue). O is negatively polarized (red). This is consistent with
the electronegativity values for O (3.5) and H (2.1). The more negatively polarized atom
should be the one with the larger electronegativity.
7.3 (a) H S H (b) H

Cl C Cl
Cl
7.4 (a) OF2 (b) SiCl4
7.5 (a) H (b) Cl Al Cl (c)

O
H C F Cl
O Cl O
F O
(d) Cl (e) O (e)
F H
F
Cl P Cl Xe H N H
F F
Cl Cl H
7.6 (a) is incorrect, the least electronegative atom (P) should be placed in the center.
(b) correct
(c) is incorrect, oxygen does not have a complete octet.
Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. 145

Chapter 7 S Covalent Bonding and Electron-Dot Structures
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7.7 (a) C O (b) H C N (c) 2 (d) O C O

O
O C O
7.8 (a) correct

(b) is incorrect, the electron-dot structure has 34 electrons, but there are only 32 valence
electrons in phosphate.
(c) correct
(d) is incorrect, the oxygen with a double bond does not have a complete octet and there
are only 30 electrons in the electron-dot structure while there are 32 valence electrons.
Electron-dot structures are a model for bonding and it is possible to draw several
structures that meet the criteria for a valid structure. If more than one electron-dot
structure can be drawn, the molecule exhibits resonance.
7.9 (a) O Cl O (b) O H (c) H H

H C C
H H
7.10 O2S is a radical and the presence of an unpaired electron leads to a highly reactive species.
7.11 (a) H (b) H H (c) H H H

H C N H H C C H H C C C H
H H H H H
(d) H O O H (e) H H
H N N H
7.12 H H H H
H C C O H and H C O C H
H H H H
7.13 Molecular formula: C4H5N3O
O
H N C
N C N H
H C C
H H
146 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

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7.14 (a) H H H H H
H C C C C C C N H N H
H H C H
C C
C C
H C H
H
(b) H H O H O H
H N C C O H H O C C N H
H H
7.15 (a)
(b)
7.16 (a)
(b)
(c)
7.17 (a)
This is a valid resonance structure.

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(b)
This is not a valid resonance structure. The N with two double bonds has 10 electrons,
not 8.
7.18 (a)
(b)

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7.19 (a)
N C O
For nitrogen: Isolated nitrogen valence electrons 5
Bound nitrogen bonding electrons 4
Bound nitrogen nonbonding electrons 4
Formal charge = 5 S ½(4) S 4 = S1
For carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4

Bound carbon bonding electrons 8
Bound carbon nonbonding electrons 0
Formal charge = 4 S ½ (8) S 0 = 0
For oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

Bound oxygen bonding electrons 4
Bound oxygen nonbonding electrons 4
Formal charge = 6 S ½(4) S 4 = 0
(b) O O O
For left oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6
For central Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

oxygen: Bound oxygen bonding electrons 6
Formal charge = 6 S ½(6) S 2 = +1
For right Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

oxygen: Bound oxygen bonding electrons 4
7.20 (a)
(b)


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The first two structures make the largest contribution to the resonance hybrid because the
S1 formal charge is on either of the electronegative N or O. The third structure has a +1
formal charge on O and does not significantly contribute to the resonance hybrid.
(c) Carbon–nitrogen because of the triple bond contribution to the resonance hybrid.
7.21
All atoms in this structure have 0 formal charge.
For top oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For right oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

All the other atoms in this structure have 0 formal charge.
The structure without formal charges makes a larger contribution to the resonance hybrid
because energy is required to separate + and S charges. Thus, the actual electronic
structure of acetic acid is closer to that of the more favorable, lower energy structure.

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7.22
All atoms in structures 1 and 2 have 0 formal charge.
In structure 3:


All the other atoms in structure 3 have 0 formal charge.
The structures 1 and 2 without formal charges make the larger contribution to the
resonance hybrid because energy is required to separate + and S charges.
7.23 ΔEN(P=O) = 1.4 and ΔEN(P=S) = 0.4. Both bonds are polar covalent, but the
phosphorus-oxygen bond is more polar.
7.24 For the reaction between an organophosphate insecticide and the enzyme to occur, the
phosphorus atom must bear a positive charge. Greater positive charge leads to increased
rate of reaction and increased toxicity of the insecticide. The more electronegative the X
group, the more positive the phosphorus.
(a) Cl (b) CF3
7.25 Phosphorus is in the third row of the periodic table and can utilize d orbitals to hold extra
electrons, and therefore form more than four bonds.

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7.26 C11H19N2PSO3
7.27
For phosphorus: Isolated phosphorus valence electrons 5

Bound phosphorus bonding electrons 10
Bound phosphorus nonbonding electrons 0


For fluorine: Isolated fluorine valence electrons 7

Bound fluorine bonding electrons 2
Bound fluorine nonbonding electrons 6

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7.28 (a)




(b)

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(c)




______________________________________________________________________________

(d)
This structure is not valid because one carbon has five bonds.
The resonance structure in problem 7.27 is the major contributor to the resonance hybrid
because formal charges on all atoms are zero.
Conceptual Problems
7.29 (a) A (b) D (c) B (d) C
7.30 C–D is the stronger bond. A–B is the longer bond.
7.31 As the electrostatic potential maps are drawn, the Li and Cl are at the tops of each map.
The red area is for a negatively polarized region (associated with Cl). The blue area is for
a positively polarized region (associated with Li). Map (a) is for CH3Cl and Map (b) is
for CH3Li.
7.32 (a) fluoroethane (b) ethane (c) ethanol (d) acetaldehyde
7.33 (a) is ionic; (b) and (c) are covalent.
7.34 (a) C8H9NO2

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7.35 (a) C13H10N2O4
7.36
7.37
Section Problems
Strengths of Covalent Bonds and Electronegativity (Sections 7.1–7.4)
7.38 (a) ionic (b) covalent (c) nonpolar covalent
7.39 (a) Attractive forces between the positively charged nuclei and the electrons in both
atoms occur when the atoms are close together and a covalent bond forms.
7.40 Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period and decreases down a group.
7.41 Z = 119 would be below francium and have a very low electronegativity.
7.42 Cs < K < Sr < Al < Ni < I

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7.43 O > Cl > Ag > Sc > Ba
7.44 (a) LiF fluorine EN = 4.0

lithium EN = 1.0
ΔEN = 3.0 LiF is largely ionic.
(b) HI iodine EN = 2.5

hydrogen EN = 2.1
ΔEN = 0.4 HI is polar covalent.
(c) TiCl4 chlorine EN = 3.0

titanium EN = 1.5
ΔEN = 1.5 TiCl4 is polar covalent.
(d) MgBr2 bromine EN = 2.8

magnesium EN = 1.2
ΔEN = 1.6 MgBr2 is polar covalent.
(e) NaOH Na+ – OHS is ionic

OHS oxygen EN = 3.5
hydrogen EN = 2.1
ΔEN = 1.4 OHS is polar covalent.
(f) CS2 carbon EN = 2.5

sulphur EN = 2.5
ΔEN = 0.0 CS2 is nonpolar covalent.
7.45 The electronegativity for each element is shown in parentheses.

(a) C (2.5), H (2.1), Cl (3.0): The C–Cl bond is more polar than the C–H bond because
of the larger electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms.
(b) C (2.5), Mg (1.2), Br (2.8): The C–Mg bond is more polar than the C–Br bond because
of the larger electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms.
(c) K (0.8), Br (2.8), H (2.1): The K–Br bond is more polar than the K–H bond
because of the larger electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms.
δS δ% δ% δS δS δ% δ% δS
7.46 (a) (b)
C – H C – Cl Si – Li Si – Cl
δS δ%
(c) N – Cl
N – Mg
δS δ% δS δ% δ% δS
7.47 (a) (b) (c)
F – H I – H Ti – Cl
δ% δS δS δ%
(d) (e) (f ) symmetrical electron distribution
Mg – Br O – H

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7.48 (a) AlF3, Li2O, CsBr (b) PH3 (c) SO2, H2O, CCl4, PdCl2
7.49 (a) CaO, InF3 (c) NCl3, P4 (c) CuCl2, BaS, SiH4, CO
7.50 (a) Cl2O oxygen EN = 3.5

chlorine EN = 3.0
ΔEN = 0.5
(b) ZnO oxygen EN = 3.5
zinc EN = 1.6
ΔEN = 1.9
(c) SO2 oxygen EN = 3.5
sulfur EN = 2.5
ΔEN = 1.0
(d) PO3 oxygen EN = 3.5
phosphorus EN = 2.1
ΔEN = 1.4
Increasing ionic character: Cl2O < SO2 < PO3 < ZnO
7.51 (a) Al2S3 sulfur EN = 2.5

aluminum EN = 1.5
ΔEN = 1.0
(b) B2O3 oxygen EN = 3.5

boron EN = 2.0
ΔEN = 1.5
(c) BH3 hydrogen EN = 2.1

boron EN = 2.0
ΔEN = 0.1
(d) Li2S sulfur EN = 2.5
lithium EN = 1.0
ΔEN = 1.5
Increasing ionic character: BH3 < Al2S3 < B2O3 ~ Li2S
7.52 (a) SrCl2 (b) CCl4
7.53 (a) BaBr2 (b) SiBr4

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7.54 H N N H H H
N N
H H
N2H2 has the stronger N–N bond because of the higher bond order.
7.55 N O O N O O N O
NO has the stronger N–O bond because of the higher bond order.
7.56 C–F 450 kJ/mol ΔEN = EN(F) S EN(C) = 4.0 S 2.5 = 1.5
N–F 270 kJ/mol ΔEN = EN(F) S EN(N) = 4.0 S 3.0 = 1.0
O–F 180 kJ/mol ΔEN = EN(F) S EN(O) = 4.0 S 3.5 = 0.5
F–F 159 kJ/mol ΔEN = EN(F) S EN(F) = 4.0 S 4.0 = 0
In general, increased bond polarity leads to increased bond strength.
7.57 C–F 450 kJ/mol ΔEN = EN(F) S EN(C) = 4.0 S 2.5 = 1.5
C–Cl 330 kJ/mol ΔEN = EN(Cl) S EN(C) = 3.0 S 2.5 = 0.5
C–Br 270 kJ/mol ΔEN = EN(Br) S EN(C) = 2.8 S 2.5 = 0.3
C–I 240 kJ/mol ΔEN = EN(I) S EN(C) = 2.5 S 2.5 = 0
In general, increased bond polarity leads to increased bond strength.
7.58 B–H ΔEN = EN(H) S EN(B) = 2.1 S 2.0 = 0.1

B–O ΔEN = EN(O) S EN(B) = 3.5 S 2.0 = 1.5
B–Cl ΔEN = EN(Cl) S EN(B) = 3.0 S 2.0 = 1.0
In general, increased bond polarity leads to increased bond strength. The most polar bond
is the B–O bond and should be the strongest of the three.
7.59 All three bonds are nonpolar. In general, the longer the bond length, the weaker the bond.
C > Si > Ge. The Ge–Ge bond is the longest and should be the weakest of the three.
7.60 (a) Phosphorus trichloride (b) Diphosphorus pentoxide (c) Dinitrogen oxide
(d) Dinitrogen oxide (e) Nitrogen trichloride (f) Selenium tetrabromide
(g) Disulfur difluoride (h) Iodine pentafluoride
7.61 (a) S2N2 (b) ICl (c) NO (d) OF2 (e) PCl3 (f) XeO3
7.62 (a) and (c) are ionic compounds; (b) is a covalent compound and is most likely a gas at
room temperature.
7.63 (a) and (b) are covalent compounds; (c) is an ionic compound and is most likely a solid at
room temperature.
Electron-Dot Structures and Resonance (Sections 7.5–7.9)
7.64 The octet rule states that main-group elements tend to react so that they attain a noble gas
electron configuration with filled s and p sublevels (8 electrons) in their valence electron

______________________________________________________________________________
shells. The transition metals are characterized by partially filled d orbitals that can be
used to expand their valence shell beyond the normal octet of electrons.
7.65 (a) AlCl3 Al has only 6 electrons around it. (c) PCl5 P has 10 electrons around it.
7.66 (a) Br (b) Cl N Cl (c) H H (d)

F
Br C Br Cl H C C Cl
F B F
Br H H
F
(e) 2 (f)
O O N O
7.67 (a) Cl Sb Cl (b) F Kr F (c)

Cl
(d) F (e) O (f)

F
P H O P O H
F F
O
F
H
7.68 (b) is the correct electron-dot for XeF+
7.69 +
H
HO H + H+ HO H
hydr onium ion
7.70 O O
H O C C O H
7.71 S C S ; CS2 has two double bonds.
7.72 (a) The anion has 32 valence electrons. Each Cl has seven valence electrons (28 total).
The minus one charge on the anion accounts for one valence electron. This leaves three
valence electrons for X. X is Al.
(b) The cation has eight valence electrons. Each H has one valence electron (4 total).
X is left with four valence electrons. Since this is a cation, one valence electron was
removed from X. X has five valence electrons. X is P.

______________________________________________________________________________
7.73 (a) This fourth-row element has six valence electrons. It is Se.
(b) This fourth-row element has eight valence electrons. It is Kr.
7.74 (a) O H (b) H

Cl C O C H H C C C H
H H
7.75 (a) O H (b) H

H C N H H C C N O
H
7.76 H
H C H
O O
H C H
H H
H C C N
C C C C H
H
C C H C C H
H C HH C
H
H H H
7.77 H
H H H H N H
C C H O
H H
H C C C C
C C O H
H H H
H H H
7.78 (a)
(b)
(c)

______________________________________________________________________________
7.79 (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
7.80 (a) yes (b) no (c) yes (d) yes
7.81 (a) yes (b) no (c) yes
7.82
7.83
Formal Charges (Section 7.10)
7.84 C O

______________________________________________________________________________

7.85 (a) H
H N O H
For hydrogen: Isolated hydrogen valence electrons 1
Bound hydrogen bonding electrons 2
Bound hydrogen nonbonding electrons 0


(b)
H
H N C H
H



______________________________________________________________________________
(c) O
Cl P Cl
Cl
For chlorine: Isolated chlorine valence electrons 7
Bound chlorine bonding electrons 2
Bound chlorine nonbonding electrons 6


7.86
O Cl O
For both oxygens: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6


O Cl O
For left oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6


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7.87 O
HO S OH
For sulfur: Isolated sulfur valence electrons 6
Bound sulfur bonding electrons 8
Bound sulfur nonbonding electrons 2
For doubly Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

bound oxygen: Bound oxygen bonding electrons 4
For oxygen Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

bound to Bound oxygen bonding electrons 4
hydrogen: Bound oxygen nonbonding electrons 4

O
HO S OH
For oxygen not Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

bound to Bound oxygen bonding electrons 2
hydrogen: Bound oxygen nonbonding electrons 6
Formal charge = 6 S ½(2) S 6 = S 1
For oxygen Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

bound Bound oxygen bonding electrons 4
to hydrogen: Bound oxygen nonbonding electrons 4

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7.88 (a) H
C N N
H

(central) Bound nitrogen bonding electrons 8

(terminal) Bound nitrogen bonding electrons 4

(b) H
C N N
H

(central) Bound nitrogen bonding electrons 6

(terminal) Bound nitrogen bonding electrons 4

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Structure (a) is more important because of the octet of electrons around carbon.
7.89 O
C H
H C
H
For left carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4

For right carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4

O
C H
H C
H
For left carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4

For right carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4


______________________________________________________________________________
The second structure is more important because of the S1 formal charge on the more
electronegative oxygen.
7.90 Cl O Cl O
Cl C N O Cl C N O
Cl Cl




(double bonded) Bound oxygen bonding electrons 4

(single bonded) Bound oxygen bonding electrons 2
7.91
O N Cl O N Cl

(single bonded) Bound chlorine bonding electrons 2

(double bonded) Bound chlorine bonding electrons 4

______________________________________________________________________________


(double bonded) Bound oxygen bonding electrons 4

(single bonded) Bound oxygen bonding electrons 2
O N Cl is the larger contributor to the resonance hybrid because it has no formal

charges.
7.92
All atoms have 0 formal charge.



______________________________________________________________________________
All other atoms have 0 formal charge.
The original structure is the larger contributor.
7.93
All atoms have 0 formal charge.


All other atoms have 0 formal charge.
The original structure is the larger contributor.

______________________________________________________________________________
Chapter Problems
7.94 (a)
(b) ii)
7.95 (a) reactants

F
F B H3C O CH3
F
For boron: Isolated boron valence electrons 3
Bound boron bonding electrons 6
Bound boron nonbonding electrons 0
Formal charge = 3 – ½(6) – 0 = 0
Formal charge = 6 – ½(4) – 4 = 0
product
F CH3
F B O
F CH3
For boron: Isolated boron valence electrons 3
Bound boron bonding electrons 8
Bound boron nonbonding electrons 0
Formal charge = 3 – ½(8) – 0 = S1

Formal charge = 6 – ½(6) – 2 = +1

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7.96 (a) F (b) H H

F S S F H C C C O
F H H O
7.97 (a) H C N S




(b) H N C S




______________________________________________________________________________

(c) H N C S is more stable because it has no formal charges.
7.98
O O O
O O O+
O S O O S O O S O
+2 +2 +2
For O
O
O S O
(top) Bound oxygen bonding electrons 2

(middle) Bound oxygen bonding electrons 4

(left) Bound oxygen bonding electrons 4

(right) Bound oxygen bonding electrons 2


______________________________________________________________________________
For O
O
O S O




For O
O
O S O


______________________________________________________________________________



7.99 H H
H C N C O H C N C O
H H
H
For H C N C O
H

(left) Bound carbon bonding electrons 8


(right) Bound carbon bonding electrons 8


______________________________________________________________________________
H
For H C N C O
H

(left) Bound carbon bonding electrons 8


(right) Bound carbon bonding electrons 8

7.100 Cl O H
Cl C C O H
Cl H
7.101 CH4(g) + 3Cl2(g) ÷ CHCl3(g) + 3HCl(g)

Energy change = D (Reactant bonds) S D (Product bonds)
Energy change = [4 DCSH + 3 DClSCl] S [1 DCSH + 3 DCSCl + 3 DHSCl]
Energy change = [(4 mol)(410 kJ/mol) + (3 mol)(243 kJ/mol]
S [(1 mol)(410 kJ/mol) + (3 mol)(330 kJ/mol) + (3 mol)(432 kJ/mol)] = S327 kJ

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7.102 CH3
O O
H H O H C H
H O C C C H
C C N C
H C C C
O NH2 H H H C H
C C
H
H
7.103
H H H
H C
H H H H
C C O
C C C C
H H
H C C C C O
C C H H
H H
H H H
7.104 (a)
(b)
7.105 Structures (a) and (b) are resonance hybrids of the same molecule.
7.106 (a) O O (b) (c)

O O O O
N O N
N O N N O N
O O
O O O O

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(d) (e) (f)

O O O O O O
N O N N O N N O N
O O O O O O
(g) (h)
O O O O
N O N N O N
O O O O
Structures (a) – (d) make more important contributions to the resonance hybrid because
of only S1 and 0 formal charges on the oxygens. A +1 formal charge is unlikely.
7.107 (a) (1) (2) (3) 2

O C N O C N O C N
(b) Structure (1) makes the greatest contribution to the resonance hybrid because of the
S1 formal charge on the oxygen. Structure (3) makes the least contribution to the
resonance hybrid because of the +1 formal charge on the oxygen.
Multiconcept Problems
7.108 (a) Assume a 100.0 g sample. From the percent composition data, a 100.0 g sample
contains 47.5 g S and 52.5 g Cl.
1 mol S
47.5 g S x = 1.48 mol S
32.065 g S
1 mol Cl
52.5 g Cl x = 1.48 mol Cl
35.453 g Cl
Because the two mole quantities are the same, the empirical formula is SCl.
Cl S S Cl


7.109 (a) Assume a 100.0 g sample. From the percent composition data, a 100.0 g sample
contains 47.5 g S and 52.5 g Cl.
1 mol S
69.6 g S x = 2.17 mol S
32.065 g S

______________________________________________________________________________
1 mol N
30.4 g N x = 2.17 mol N
14.007 g N
Because the two mole quantities are the same, the empirical formula is SN.
The empirical formula weight = 47.07
molecular weight 184.3
Multiple = = = 4.00
empirical formula weight 47.07
The molecular formula is S4N4.
(b) S N
N S
S N
N S

(1 lone pair) Bound sulfur bonding electrons 6

(2 lone pairs) Bound sulfur bonding electrons 4

(1 lone pair) Bound nitrogen bonding electrons 6

(2 lone pairs) Bound nitrogen bonding electrons 4
S N
N S
S N
N S

(1 lone pair) Bound sulfur bonding electrons 6

______________________________________________________________________________

(2 lone pairs) Bound sulfur bonding electrons 6

molecular weight 92.2

(c) Multiple = = = 1.96 = 2
empirical formula weight 47.07
The molecular formula is S2N2. Two possible structures are shown here.
N S N N
S N S S
7.110 (a) O H
O H
(b) The oxygen in OH has a half-filled 2p orbital that can accept the additional
electron. For a 2p orbital, n = 2 and l = 1.
(c) The electron affinity for OH is slightly more negative than for an O atom because
when OH gains an additional electron, it achieves an octet configuration.
7.111 (a) (4 orbitals)(3 electrons) = 12 outer-shell electrons

(b) 3 electrons
(c) 1s3 2s3 2p6; X
(d) X X
7.112 (a)
O O
O Mn O Mn O
O O
(b) Each Mn atom has 7 pair of electrons around it.


Covalent Bonding and Electron-Dot Structures

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Covalent Bonding and Electron-Dot Structures

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7 Covalent Bonding and

7.1 (a) SiCl4 chlorine EN = 3.0

7.3 (a) H S H (b) H

7.5 (a) H (b) Cl Al Cl (c)

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. 145

7.7 (a) C O (b) H C N (c) 2 (d) O C O

7.8 (a) correct

7.9 (a) O Cl O (b) O H (c) H H

7.11 (a) H (b) H H (c) H H H

7.13 Molecular formula: C4H5N3O

146 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

This is a valid resonance structure.

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. 147

148 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

For carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4

For oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For central Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For right Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For nitrogen: Isolated nitrogen valence electrons 5

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. 149

For carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4

For oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For nitrogen: Isolated nitrogen valence electrons 5

For carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4

For oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For nitrogen: Isolated nitrogen valence electrons 5

For carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4

For oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

150 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

All atoms in this structure have 0 formal charge.

For top oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For right oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

All the other atoms in this structure have 0 formal charge.

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. 151

All atoms in structures 1 and 2 have 0 formal charge.

For carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4

For oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

All the other atoms in structure 3 have 0 formal charge.

152 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

For phosphorus: Isolated phosphorus valence electrons 5

For top oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For right oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For fluorine: Isolated fluorine valence electrons 7

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. 153

For carbon: Isolated carbon valence electrons 4

For fluorine: Isolated fluorine valence electrons 7

For phosphorus: Isolated phosphorus valence electrons 5

For top oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For right oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

154 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

For fluorine: Isolated fluorine valence electrons 7

For phosphorus: Isolated phosphorus valence electrons 5

For top oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For right oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

For fluorine: Isolated fluorine valence electrons 7

For phosphorus: Isolated phosphorus valence electrons 5

For top oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd. 155

For right oxygen: Isolated oxygen valence electrons 6

7.29 (a) A (b) D (c) B (d) C

7.30 C–D is the stronger bond. A–B is the longer bond.

7.32 (a) fluoroethane (b) ethane (c) ethanol (d) acetaldehyde

7.33 (a) is ionic; (b) and (c) are covalent.