Term 2 Lesson 6 A Secrets : Listen and Repeat As before Does the ‘shepherd ‘sleep in 'that Tittle thurs ee ~ ae HDoes the shepherd sleep in that little hut? Special ao a Does the shepherd sleep in zthat little buty Special stress on f* sDoes the shepherd sleep in that little hut? ; leep: i F 3 ses on shepherd: “Does the shepherd sleep in that litle hut? Practise As before Practise and Test . “Does the shepherd sleep in that little hut ? Say these words to your neighbour in such a way as to suggest: (a) ‘Who sleeps there - the shepherd or somebody else? (b) ‘Does he just use it as a store, or does he sleep there too” (©) ‘Is it the big hut or the little one?” (d) ‘Is it this hut or that one?’ This exercise can be repeated several times, varying the order of (a) to (d). B The Coming of the Age of Science Science Fact The goal of research scientists is not merely to find ‘something that works’, a temporary solution to just a single problem. Instead they look for facts that suggest a general theory. Then they test the theory by trying many experi- ments to see whether it works in all cases to which it applies. If it passes the tests, they throw away earlier theories that conflict with it. Sometimes the triumph of a new theory destroys not one but a whole set of wrong ideas. The most famous example of this in the history of science was the long, bitter struggle 400 years ago over the solar system. Men believed, quite naturally, that the earth was the biggest thing in the universe. The stars looked small to them, and although the sun and moon were important in their way, they did not compare with the great, solid earth. So it was normal, they said, 126the heavenly bodies to revolve around the earth, and bes: (ot ne doing it. A few ancient Greek scientists believed, y ago, that the earth and the Planets revolve around the sun, but most ople of their time considered this idea to be against common sense, Until the sixteenth century, nearly everybody in Europe took the ‘common se’ view of ‘the solar system, and it became a serious offence against the established religion to doubt that the earth is the centre of the universe, By this time Europe had astronomers, and some of them may have felt some doubts, but if they did, they wisely kept quiet. The first one to proclaim openly that the earth is not the centre of the universe was the Polish astronomer Copernicus. He published a book on the subject just before his death in 1543, put his ideas had been known at least twenty years earlier. The Copernican system claimed that the earth and the planets revolve around the sun; it is the earth's daily rotation that makes the sun, stars and the planets appear to revolve around the earth, It is hard for modern people to realise what a jolt this simple and correct description was to the people of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, They had always believed that man, the master of the earth, is also master of the universe. When the earth, under this new theory, became a small planet revolving around the enormous sun, it lost dignity, and many people felt that they, inhabitants of the earth, had lost dignity too, They reacted by persecuting, sometimes burning alive, men who believed in the Copernican system. The struggle went on for more than a century, but at last the followers of Copernicus won, and their victory did a great deal not only for astronomy, but for other branches of science as well. An enormous amount of nonsense was disproved. It had been taught for 2,000 years, for instance, that objects fall to the ground because they are trying to get to the centre of the universe. If the earth was not the centre, they must fall for some other reason. Sir Isaac Newton wondered about this, and as a result discovered the law of gravitation. Other astronomers attacked the unscientific idea that freely moving bodies try to move in circles because circles are ‘perfect’. Close observation proved that the planets do not move in circles, They move in ellipses that are almost but not quite circular. So the ancient, trouble-making idea that nature favours some things merely because they are perfect was destroyed at a blow, The victory of the astronomers was proof that European science was slowly awakening from its long sleep. It was also an encouragement to other scientists, who began to copy the method that Copernicus had used so successfully. They looked at nature with their own eyes, contradicting long-established ideas whenever they felt there was reason to do so, Gradually the thinking habits of Europe changed. Men were no longer burned alive for believing the evidence of their eyes and the reasoning of their brains. ides, you could More than 2,000 127what tests? | 1 Iie passes the — on conclude that research scientists 2 From Paar encores te ie au thay bave tried 8 out in ong — ; ' ‘ha b. be dort i ine she theory until it has been tested ang Proves c Wil d, are more interested in theories than in facts. i it quite natural for m , 3 Give the ae res the ra hing inthe Universe, oo Daley the . sa oa for balving that the heavenly Poales Tevolved round ty, 4 iven { h 2, What are they ragrap ae i oe head view of the solar system a é They wisely kept quiet, Wise in what sense? What might have happeney if they had not been so ‘wise’? _ ' 7 role clearly how the world /ost dignity under the Copernican System, 8 Paragraph § contains concrete illustrations for an idea in paragraph What is the idea and in which sentence in paragraph Lisit to be found? 9 What two new discoveries are mentioned in paragraph 5? : 10 ... the method that Copernicus had used so successfully, Explain from the last paragraph what this method must have been, 11 Summarise cach of the six paragraphs in one sentence orally, as before, 4 Word Study Study the words and expressions in italics in the passage. Note the pattern of tenses in: ‘Men believed that the earth was the biggest thing...” ‘They said it was normal for the heavenly bodies to revolve . . Ae But in the following cases the normal Tule of the sequence of tenses is broken. Can you explain why? ‘Greek scientists believed that the earth and planets revolve cae ‘The Copernican system claimed that the earth and planets revolve...’ ‘They had always believed that man is master of ,, .’ ‘Close observation Proved that the planets do not move...’ C -ing Words as Subjects What part of Speech is the word t oe — hi . : 1 Teaching is not an easy tak, a. following sentence to be a verb. But it is : ah and it indicates a kind of action, so it seems noun, A; i So the subject of the Statement, so it also seems to be# + AS a verb, it can take its own object : . * See Book 2, page in, ject, e.g.: 128y en... ning young children is not an easy task, 31 it can be described by an adjective, ¢, ‘ a 0 aching is not an easy task, ees fore both a verb and a now "ig there! in. Ine: ae noun as follows: i Xample No, 2 it can be made isto P teaching of young children is not an easy task ater than No. 4. Note that in No, a, 4 5 : No. 2/8 ne} A a ja Since there i; ens there can be no of after it, This is important, S NO the before tice Exercise lowing exercise will help you to practise sentences |i! fol moh The lo in which the subject is an -ing word with its ow ike Example No, 2 ve i D obj : weit with books closed.) Here is an example: object. (Do this TeACHING YOUNG CHILDREN . . . is not an easy task./.., Tequires great patience./ . . + deserves a good salary./ . . . is very tiring, cher: Teaching young children. ea Pel Teaching young children, Teacher: .. . is not an easy task, Pupil: Teaching young children is not an easy task, Teacher; . . . requires great patience. Pupil: Teaching young children requires great patience, Teacher: ... deserves a good salary. Pyil: Teaching young children deserves a good salary. Teacher: .. . is very tiring. Pupil: Teaching young children is very tiring. | WRITING A LETTER . . . will take too long,/ . . . is better than talking,/ ... costs nothing./ . .. would do no good at all. : 2 BUILDING NEW ROADS .. . Will take a long time... . is very expensive./ ... is the responsibility of the government./ . . « will make travel much easier. J READING NOVELS. . . is forbidden,/ . . . is strongly encouraged,].- helps you to learn English./ . . . gives me great pleasure. . 4 MENDING THE ROOF... took us the whole day,/.. . is a dangerous 7. ... has made the house more comfortable./ . « vis inpooi S BRINGING UP CHILDREN . . . is a woman's responsibility./ +» + xe mely important./ . . . is the main purpose of marr 8 requires both love and wisdom. i is 6 Lear i education, «+ NING ENGL! i jal./... is part of our edu Ish... is essential./ P an interest in books. the work of a lifetime./ . .. gave him 1297 KILLING MOSQUITOES . . . Will get rid of malaria./ . . . can be done in various ways./.. . is not easy./... is the duty of the Public Health Officer. 8 EXPLORING THE SOLAR SYSTEM just beginning./ . . . .. Fequires great courage./ . . . is op), . is extremely expensive./ . , , may help mankind. : i : : 9 BREAKING A PROMISE . « « is like telling a lie./ . . . is a serious matter, / .. means that you cannot be trusted./. .. often loses a friend, 10 SWEEPING THE COMPOUND... doesn’t take long,/. .. makes it look neat and clean,/. . . is a daily task./. .. has made me all dusty, Letter-writing, story-telling, etc. a Instead of saying Writing letters is an art, we may say Letter-writing is an art, The object of the -ing word (letter) now comes first, and must be in the si ingular, The -ing word itself is joined to it by a hyphen, thus forming a compound noun, The stress of this compound noun falls on the first part, not the second: This: “letter-writing Not this; 'letter-\. writing We cannot form similar compound nouns in all cases. For example, for Killing mosquitoes we would not normally say ‘mosquito-killing’. A compound noun can only be used for recognised activities and occupations. Here is a list of examples: letter-writing cloth-weaving shoe-repairing essay-writing cotton-spinning Tice-growing story-telling bread-making stamp-collecting horse-riding (-racing) road-making grass-cutting cycle-riding (-racing) bridge-building coal-mining Watchmaking, dressmaking, haircutting and hairdressing are such familiar trades that they are usually written as single words, with no hyphen, Note also similar compounds used as adjectives, e.g. English-speaking people (i.e. people who speak English) a God-fearing man (i.e. a man who fears God) peace-loving nations a man-eating lion. Composition Exercise Make statements about each of the compound nouns listed above. Here is an example: letter-writing Letter-writing is carried on as a paid profession for people who cannot read or write, Note that some of the material in the Practice Exercise may be found helpful. 130eit Eaten from the following pairs, starti for™ le italics. Here is an example: » Starting with the sing form o i Vee ig driven. This does not require much intelligence iving @ 47 does not require much intelligence, : pri yestions are asked. This helps us to increase ou; photographs are taken. This is not allowed, 2 anid ani looked after i isi wild animals are in z008, This is both di 3% difficult and expen. it knowledge, sive car door can be opened while the car is sti . : qngetout ae Still moving, This can be The corn is ground. s is easily done with the h § Aneedle is thréaded. This is very difficult for a motor, 7 Lions were hunted with bows and arrows. This used to bere eyesight, test of manhood. garded as a g Heavy clothes are worn. This is not really necessary i : g The car had to be pushed out of the ditch, This cen could manage. y 10 The meaning of a word should be understood. This does not alwa' enable you to use it properly. ys In two of the above ten sentences, we could easily use a compound noun (like letter-writing) as the subject. Find these two cases and rewrite them completely in this form. D Business Letters—1 In Book 1, we studied personal letters. Now we are going to study business letters, We shall see later on that it is possible for a letter to be both business- like and personal at the same time, but for the moment let us consider the example of an almost purely business letter given on the next page. This letter isnot a personal letter, because it is from the manager of a firm to the head of aschool department and it does not matter whether they know each other or not, The writer uses we instead of J, because he is writing on behalf of a whole organisation, and not just for himself, Notice these points particularly: _ 1. The address of the sender This appears in the top right-hand corner, as in other kinds of letters, and is followed by the date. 2. The reference In an office they keep a carbon copy of every letter they write, When you reply to one of their letters, they have to find the te Copy from among all the other hundreds of letters that various people in we office have written, so that they will know exactly what it is about. In ‘0 ake this easier, they give every one of their letters a references and baat is Sopy this reference on your own letter. The reference of our specimen Ie 131