7. Why is necessary to give a tolerance on an engineering dimension? Give an example of both the unilateral and bilateral tolerances 8. Explain the construction and use of (i) Vernier bevel protractor, (ii) Angle dekkor and (iii) Sine bar with suitable sketches 9. Explain with a neat sketch the elements of Surface Texture ? 10. Describe with a neat sketch, the principle and working of Johansson ‘Mikrokator’ 10. Describe a gear tooth vernier caliper and show how it is used for gears? u1.Briefly describe the various alignment tests that can be performed on a drilling Machine8. What is tolerance? Ans: The allowable variations / deviations in size or dimension are called tolerances, the permissible variation in size or dimension is called tolerance.© Unilateral Bilateral INGIGfaMmGs system 1. What are the two systems of tolerances? Page3 of 9 Ans: The two systems of tolerances are Unilateral tolerance system and Bilateral Tolerance system. 2. What is Unilateral tolerance ? Ans: If the variation is provided on one side of the basic size, then it is called unilateral tolerance. 3. Give examples of unilateral tolerance . Ans: Examples of Unilateral Tolerance $0.01 +002 0.01 0.00 25.00% , 25.00%, 25.00%, 25.00°Metc. t ; S = a a b 4 (a) Unilateral tolera + 0.000 = 0,004 ce (b) Bilateral tolerance. 4, What is Bilateral tolerance ? Ans: If the variation is provided on both sides of the basic size, the it is called bilateral tolerance. 5. Give examples of bilateral telerance. Ans: 40.01 40.02 25.00% , 25.00° etc.Q61. _———,,, protractor and its use? Ans61. vel protractor consists of (i) main body (ii) base plate stock (iii) adjustable blade (iv) circular plate containing vernier scale (v) acute angle attachment The body of the Verniér Bevel protractor is designed in such a way that its back is flat and there are no projections beyond its back. The flatness of the body is tested by checking the squareness of blade with respect to base plate when the blade is set at 90°.The base plate is attached to the main body, and an adjustable blade is attached to a circular plate containing vernier scale. The main scale is graduated in degrees provided on the main body which is marked as 0° to 90° in the first quadrant, 90° to 0° in the second quadrant, again 0° to 90° in the third quadrant and 90° to 0° in the fourth quadrant. The adjustable blade is capable of rotting freely about the centre of the main scale engraved on the body of the instrument can be locked in any position. An acute angle attachment is provided at the top as shown in the figure for measuring acute angles. The base of the base plate is made flat so that it could be laid flat upon the work and any type of angle measured. The blade can be moved along throughout its length and can also be reversed. It is about 150 or 300 mm long, 13 mm wide and 2 mm thick. Its ends are beveled at angles of 45° and 60°. The acute angle attachment can be readily fitted into the body and clamped in any position. The bevel protractors are tested for flatness, squareness, parallelism, straightness etc. The main scale is graduated in degrees of the arc. The Vernier scale has 12 divisions on each side of the centre zero. These are marked 0 - 60minutes of arc, so that each division equals 1/12 of 60, that is 5 minutes of the arc. These 12 divisions occupy the same space as 23 degrees on the main scale. Therefore, each division of the Vernier is equal to: 1/12 of 23° or 1.11/12°. Since two divisions on the main scale equals 2 degrees of arc, the difference between two divisions on the main scale and one division on the Vernier scale is 2°= 1.11/12° or 5 minutes of arc.‘Angle Dekkor Q79. Describe an angle dekkor and explain how the readings are taken? Ans. It is a type of autocollimator. It consists of microscope, objective lens {collimating lens) and two scales engraved on a glass screen which is placed in the focal plane of the objective lens. One of the scales, called datum scale, is horizontal and fixed. It is engraved across the centre of the screen and is always visible in the microscope eyepiece. Another scale is an illuminated vertical scale fixed across the centre of the screen, and the reflected image of the illuminated scale is received at right angles to this fixed scale, and the two scales, in position intersect each other. RAGHU INSTTUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Dept ofMECH Metrology vit -2 Fy ‘Thus the reading on the illuminated scale measures angular deviations from ‘one axis at 90° to the optical axis, and the reading on the fixed datum scale ‘measures the deviation about an axis mutually perpendicular to the other two. Thus the changes in the angular position of the reflector in the two planes are indicated by changes in the point of intersection of the two scales. Readings are read direct to 1’ without the use of a micrometer. ‘The whole of the optical system as shown below is enclosed in a tube which is mounted on a bracket. ‘There is a lapped flat and reflective base on which all these things are placed. Q80. What angle dekkor is used for? ‘Ans. It is mostly used as a comparator. The instrument measures by comparing the readings obtained from a standard, a sine bar or combination of angle ‘gauges with that from the work under test. It has a wide field of application for general angular measurement. In this instrument, angular variations are read direct without the operation of a micrometer. ‘Angle dekkor can be used in combination with angle gauges.Q88, Describe sine bar Ans. Sine bar consists of a steel bar and two rollers. They are made from high carbon, high chromium, and corrosion resistant steel, hardened and ground and stabilized. Two cylinders of equal diameters are attached at the ends. The axes of these two cylinders must be mutually parallel to each other. The axes of these two cylinders should be parallel to the upper surface of the sine bar. And axes of these two cylinders should be at equal distance from the upper surface of the sine bar.Q5. Explain with a neat sketch the elements of Surface Texture ? ‘Ans : The various elements of surface texture are as follows Surface : The surface of a part is confined by the boundary which separates that part from another part, substance or space. ‘Actual Surface : This refers to the surface of a part which is actually obtained after 2 manufacturing process. Nominal Surface : A nominal surface is a theoretical, geometrically perfect surface which does not exist in practice, but it is an average of the irregularities that are superimposed on it. Profile : Profile is defined as the contour of any section through a surface. Roughness : Roughness refers to relatively finely spaced micro geometrical Irregularities. itis also called as primary texture and constitutes third and fourth order irregularities. Roughness Height : This is defined as the arithmetical average deviation expressed in micro meters normal to an imaginary centre line, running through the roughness profile. Roughness Width : Roughness width is defined as the distance parallel to the Normal surface between successive peak or ridges that constitutes the predominant pattern of the roughness. Roughness width cutoff : This is the maximum width of the surface irregularities that is included in the measurement of roughness height. This is always greater than the roughness width and is rated in centimeters ‘Waviness : Waviness consists of those surface irregularities which are of greater spacing than roughness and it occurs in the form of waves. These are also termed as macro geometrical errors and constitute irregularities of first and second order. These are caused due to misalignment of centers, vibrations, machine or work deflections, warping etc. Effective Profile : Its the real contour of a surface obtained by using instrument. Flaws : Flaws are surface irregularities or imperfections which occur at infrequent Intervals and at random intervals. Examples are scratches, holes, cracks, porosity etc. These may be observed directly with the aid of penetrating dye, magnetic particle or any other material which makes them visible for examination and evaluation. ‘Surface texture : Repetitive or random deviations from the nominal surface which forms the pattern on the surface. Surface texture includes roughness, waviness, lays and flaws.Surface texture : Repetitive or random deviations from the nominal surface which forms the pattern on the surface. Surface texture includes roughness, waviness, lays and flaws. Surface Texture-Relation of symbols to surface characteristics Waviness eight {ay Direction Roughness width Roughness-Width Cutott Waviness width Roughness. Width Cutott Roughness Height (Arithmical Average) Surface characteristics (Courtesy, ANSI B46.1 - 1962) _Q 32. Describe with a neat sketch, the principle and working of Johansson “Mikrokator’ ‘Ans: The Johansson ‘Mikrokator’. This instrument uses the simplest and most ingenious method for obtaining the mechanical magnification. It works on the principle of a button spinning on a loop of string. A twisted thin metal strip carries at the centre of its length a very light pointer made of thin glass. a One end of the strip is fixed to the adjustable cantilever strip. The other end is fixed to the spring elbob, one arm of which is carried on measuring plunger. The spring elbow acts as a bell crank lever. The construction of such a comparator is shown in fig below. Aslight upward movement of plunger will make the bell crank lever to rotate. ‘As the measuring plunger moves either upwards or downwards, the elbow acts as a bell crank lever and causes twisted strip to change its length thus making it further twist or untwist. Thus the pointer at the centre of the twisted strip rotates by an amount proportional to the change in length of strip and hence proportional to the plunger movement. The bell crank lever is formed of flexible strips with a diagonal which is relatively stiff The length of cantilever can be varied to adjust the magnification of the instrument. Since the centre line of the strip is straight even when twisted, therefore, itis directly stretched by the tension applied to the strip. Thus in order to prevent excessive stress on the central portion, the strip is perforated along the centre line by perforations as shown in Fig. below. ‘The rate of change of pointer movement to rate of change in length of the strip ‘Magnification of the instrument Q.= Twist of mid-point of strip with respect to the end length of twisted strip measured along its neutral axis we Is the width of twisted strip 1n = is the number of turns. | It is thus obvious that in order to increase the amplification of the instrument a very thin rectangular strip must be used. Thus this instrument has no mechanical points or slides at which wear can take place. The magnification of the instrument is of the order of x 5000,Fig. JGhansson Mikrocator.(1)Measurement of tooth thickness by Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper. The tooth thickness can be very conveniently measured by a gear tooth vernier. Since the gear tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the tooth, Raghu Institute of Technology Dept. of MECH Metrology unit 5 the instrument must be capable of measuring the tooth thickness at a specified position on the tooth. The tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch circle and is, therefore, referred to as ine thickness of tooth. The FERCRESUEHNT nas two vernier scales and they are set for the width (w) of the tooth and the depth (d) from the top, at which w occurs. Considering one gear tooth, the theoretical values of w and d can be found out which may be verified by the instrument. In Fig. belaw,it may be noted that w is a chord ADB, but tooth thickness is specified as an arc distance AEB. Also the distance d adjusted on instrument Is slightly greater than the addendum CE, wis. therefore called chordal thickness and d is called the chordal addendum. InFig. below, w= AB = 2AD Now, angle AOD = @ = 360°/4N, where N is the number of teeth, w= 24D =2xA0 sin @ = 2R sin 360/4N (N= pitch circle radius) moudule m= —““2_ = 28 J pe Me Nooj tee ~ hm hwe 220 sinf 2 Je Ni. im. Sinf 2) Also from Fig. 15.14, a= C-OD But OC = OF + addendum = R+ m= (Nm/2)+m N. 90 And OD =RCos © = a Cosy? nae em cost = yas Bie Cost CI ¥ In the case of helical gears, the above expressions have to be modified to take into account the change in curvature along the pitch line. The virtual number of teeth Ne for helical gear = N/cos? a (a. = helix angle) These formulae apply when backlash is ignored. On mating gears having equal tooth thickness and without addendum modifications, the circular tooth thickness equals half the circular pitch minus half the backlash.FIG : Gear Tooth Vernier CaliperDescription : thes ‘gear tooth Vemier consists of two Vernier callipers fixed at right angles to each other as a one unit for the measurement. The vertical vernier scale measures the chordal addendum or the chordal depth of the gear teeth. Similarly the horizontal vernier scale measures the chordal width or chordal thickness of the gear teeth. Tooth thickness is defined as the length of the arc on the pitch circle between opposite faces at the same tooth, Arc ADC. Chordal tooth thickness is defined as the segment AEC. While PD is the tooth addendum, PE is the chordal tooth addendum and tooth height is defined as PQ.MACHINE TOOL “ALIGNMENT TEST ON THE MILLING MACHINE” Test for levelling of milling machine: It is essential that a machine tool should be installed truly horizontal and vertical plane and this accuracy must be maintained. If milling base is not installed truly horizontal then bed will undergo a deflection and produce a simple bend. True Running of spindle:- A mandrel placed in the spindle and test is conducted on the surface of mandrel. A dial gauge is fixed on the machine table and feeler of the dial gauge is made to touch the lower surface of it clearance is noted then it is said that the table is not flat otherwise it is flat. Parallelism of spindle Axis with its vertical moment:- For this test the manderal is placed in the spindle and dial indicator is fixed on the table. The feeler of dial gauge is made to touch the surface of mandrel also moved up and down, the mandrel also moved up and down observe any direction in the reading of dial gauge is noted then that is said that it is not running in proper way mandrel. Axis slip of main spindle is developed due to the error in bearing support for this test feeler of the dial gauge is placed on the face of main spindle and the dial gauge. Parallelism (or) Table Surface with longitudinal surface:- RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Dept. of MECH 20 ‘A machine is placed in the spindle and test is conducted on the surface of mandrel. If any degration is noted then it is noted then it is said that spindle is not parallel to the table.Parallelism of Table Surface with main spindle:- A mandrel is placed in the spindle and test is conducted on the surface of mandrel. A dial gauge is fixed on the table and feeler is touched to the spindle. If any deviation takes place the spindle is not machine to the table. Parallelism of Table Surface with Arbor:- Arbor is placed in the spindle and test is conducted on the surface of order. If any degration is noted than it is said that arbor is not parallel to the table. Procedure: (1) Flatness of work table (a) In longitudinal direction. (b) In transverse direction. Measuring instruments: - Spirit level. Procedure: - A spirit level is placed directly on the table at points about 25 to 30 cm apart, at A, B, C for longitudinal tests and D, E and F for the transverse test. The readings are noted. fe mee}(2) Parallelism of the work table surface to the main spindle Measuring instruments: Dial indicator, test mandrel 300 mm long, spirit level. Procedure: The table is adjusted in the horizontal plane by spirit level and is then set in its mean position longitudinally. The mandrel is fixed in the spindle taper. The dial gauge is set on the machine table, RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Dept. of MECH 2 and the feeder adjusted to touch the lower surface of the mandrel. The dial gauge readings at (A) and (B) are observed, the stand of the dial gauge being moved while the machine table remains stationary’.(3) Parallelism of the clamping surface of the work table in its longitudinal motion: Instruments: Dial gauge, straight edge. Procedure: A dial gauge is fixed to the spindle. The dial gauge spindle is adjusted to touch the table surface. The table is then moved in longitudinal direction and readings are noted. If the table surface is uneven it is necessary to place a straight edge on its surface and the dial gauge feeder is made to rest on the top surface of the straight edge.(4) Parallelism of the cross (transverse) movement of the worktable to the main spindle :( a) In vertical plane (b) In horizontal plane Instruments: Dial gauge, test mandrel with taper shank. RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Dept. of MECH 22 Procedure: The work table is set in its mean position. The mandrel is held in the spindle. A dial gauge fixed to the table is adjusted so that its spindle touches the surface of the mandrel. The table is moved cross-wise and the error is measured in the vertical plane and also in the horizontal plane. go(5) True running of internal taper of the spindle: Instruments: 300 mm long test mandrel, dial gauge. Procedure: The test mandrel with its taper shank is held in the main spindle. Dial gauge is kept scanning the periphery of the mandrel. Spindle is rotated and dial gauge readings are noted at different points say A and B as shown.(6) Square nests of the centre T-slot of worktable with main spindle Instruments: Dial gauge, special bracket. Procedure: To check the perpendicularity of the locating slot and the axis of the main spindle. The table should be arranged in the middle position of its longitudinal movement, and a bracket with a tenon at least 150 mm long inserted in the locating slot as shown in figure. A dial gauge should be fixed in the taper, the feeder being adjusted to touch the vertical face of the bracket. RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Dept. of MECH 2B Observe the reading on the dial gauge when the bracket is near one end of the table, the swing over the dial gauge and move the bracket so that the corresponding readings can be taken near the other end of the table.(7) Parallelism of the T-slot with the longitudinal movement of the table: Instruments: Dial gauge, special bracket. Procedure: The general parallelism of the T-slot with the longitudinal movement of the table is checked by using 150 mm long braked having a tenon which enters the slot, the dial gauge is fixed to the spindle taper and adjusted so that its feeder touches the upper surface of the bracket. The table is then moved longitudinally while the bracket is held stationary by the hand of the operator and dial gauge deviations from parallelism are note down.(8) Parallelism between the main spindle and guiding surface of the overhanging arm Instruments: Dial gauge, mandrel. RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Dept. of MECH 24 Procedure: The overhanging arm is clamped in its extreme extended position. The dial gauge is fixed to the arbor support. The feeder of the dial gauge is adjusted to touch the top or ride of the test mandrel. The arbor can then be moved along the overhanging arm and the deviations from parallelism observed on the dial gauge.