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IlESIGN, MODELlNG AND EXPRIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WHEELED MOBILE ROBOTS

M. H. Korayem, T. Bani Rostam

Robotic Research Laboratory, College of Mechanical Engineering, Iran University of

Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran

Abstract: This paper presents the mech an ical design process of two wheeled mobile
robots. Each step of the final design process in two cases is described . Case I is related to
the omni-directional mobile robot and case II is a differential drive robot. In addition , the
kinematics equations of the final design are derived and their inverse .Iacobian matrix for
the designs are presented. The dynamic equations of motion for the final design are
derived in a symbolic form, assuming that no slip occurs on the wheels in the spin
direction. In order to validate the kinematics and dynamic equations, consequences of
s imulation in Maple and Visual Nastran softwa res are carried out. Finally, by using
kinematics equations and UMBmark test errors of an omni-directional robot and
differential drive robot are determined and corrected by applying correction factors.
Copyright © 2004 IFAC

Keywords: Omni-Directional, Differential Drive, Odometry Test, Systematic Error.

I. INTRODUCTION directional Sweden- wheeled vehicles that includes

One of the major tasks of autonomous robot
navigation is localization. For two wheel robot,
odometry remain s to be one of the most important
means of achieving this task. Odometry is the
measurement of wheel rotation as a function of time.
Odometric localization accumulates errors in an
unbounded fashion due to systematic and non-
sys tematic errors. A lot of research works have been
lIndergone for improving the reliability of odometry
errors (Chong and Kleeman, 1(98).
For autonomous robots, navigating and interacting
with their environment are fundamental skill.
Depending on their task, robots need different
tec hniques to work and survive in their environment.
Va rious navigati o n systems can provide robot with
its absolute position, like laser range finder (Wit.
1(98).
Choi and Sreenivasan ( 1999) have designed
articulated wheeled vehicles with variable-length
axles to eliminate kinematics wheel surface slipping.
Hamdy and Badreddin (1999) developed a tenth-
orde r nonlinear dynamic model for a wheeled mobile
robot that includes slip between the driven wheels
and the ground. Scheding et al. (1999) present
experimental evaluation of a navigation system that
han dles autonomous vehicle wheel slip. Dickerson
and Lapin (190 I) present a controller for omni-
wheel slip detection and compensation (Dickerson
and Lapin, 1(91).
Nomad, is a mobile robot designed for planetary
exploration. It was using two primary interfaces: the
Virtual Dashboard and the Telepresence Interface.
The Virtual Dashboard provided a real-time
visualization of Nomad's state including position on
aerial images . The Telepresence Interface used
panospheric camera images to create an immersive
forward-looking display (Marchler, 1(97).
CLAPPER, consisted of two TRC LabMates
connected by a compliant linkage, uses two rotary
encoders to measure the rotation of the LabMates
relative to the compliant linkage has the unique
ability to measure and correct non-sy stematic dead
reckoning errors during motion Borenstein and Feng,
1(96). Another drive configuration for mobile robots
uses tracks instead of wheels. This very special
implementation of a differential drive is known as
skid steering and is routinely implemented in track
form on bulldozers and armored vehicles
[Borenstein, Everett, and Feng, 19(6).
This paper presents a kinematics and dynamic
models for two differe nt mobile robots include an
omni-directionalmobile robot and a differential drive
robot. This article presents the robots design,
followed by kinematics and dynamic modeling,
simulation, and experimental results to demonstrate

629
the accuracy of the data obtained ti'om experimental
test of robots.
2. DESING OF MOBILE ROBOTS
There were several factors influencing the design of
mobi le robot such as : weight of robot, type and
material of wheels and rollers and control devices.
The mechanical design process starts by knowing the
robot parts and environment.
:!. I. Cuse I: OIl//1I-Directi onal Robot
A computer controller consists of three drivers with
its own DC motor is used as shown in Fig. I. Three
DC motors with built-in reduction gears and
incremental encoders drive three wheels constituting
the front axle of the vehicle. The mechanical
mechani sm consists of three gear boxes, three belt-
pulley system s and six shafts for transmitting the
angular velocities of gear boxes to the wheel s. The
angle between the motor shaft and the wheel shaft is
<)() degrees. No change in angular velocity is
observed in the belt-pulley system and torque is
tran smitted to the wheel. The gearbox is located
between the upper shaft and motor shaft.
Fig. I. Manufactured Omni-dircctional robot
The robot consists of three drive wheels with its own
controlled DC motors and encoders. The resolution
of encoders is 0.98 mm/pulse. This robot uses a
rentium Ill , 1.2 GHz for path detection and vision
algorithm. One ivlicrocontroller (89C51) control the
wheels speed ..1\ webcam provides images connected
tll system. Sensors obtain environm ent data and send
it to inference engine and processor. Control block
diagram of robot is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Block Diagram of robot
630
1.1. Case 11. DijiCrential Dril'e Robut
The construction of differential drive robot is consist
of some components such as two light wheels. two
pulley-belt systems. two shafts that connect the
wheels to pulleys. a micro controller and a processo r
for data processing transmitted to the robot as shown
in Fig. 3.
Two empowered castor wheels provide the
equilibrium of system at the ends of the robot. The
castors cause slipping during direction changes. The
drive has the advantages of simplicity and a very
tight turning radius.
The motors are coupled to the wheel shafts through a
50.1: I gear ratio. Two stepping 1110tors are controlled
by a Penti um III computer. The data are sent as
pulses through LPT I port for each motor. These parts
are shown in manufactured model of robot in Fig. 3.
t..Y ''______
Fi g. 3. Manufa ctured differential cirive robot
3. KINEMATICS MODELl NG
In this modelling redundancy condition are delivered.
In thi s conciition we must create some additional
constraints for so lving the kinematics and dynamic
equations. Some of these constrains are obtained
from non-slipping assumption and others are created
by considering the logical and sufficient constraint in
robot motion.
The angular and linear velocities are calculated from
Equation (I) and (:2). respectively.
;+'W H1 =R;+' Cw,+ ' Q ,+,) ( I)
'+'v,+ , =R;+'( v;+ 'w; x~ ~ ,+ ' v,+,) (2)
3.1. Case I: Omni-Direclional Rohot
t
The mobile frame [X,' I' Y.'I is located at the centre
of gravity of the robot as shown in Fig. 4. The
velocity vectors generated by each wheel are offset
from the XII axis by same angles, These angles are:
(0, +~)for I, (0 , +~)for 2. and (0 , +~)for 3.
Given that the velocity vector for wheel i is given by
Re ,. it is simple to compute the necessary wheel
speed for a desired Cartesian velocity as can be see n
in Equation (3), It can be calculated from
transformation matrixes that obtained from Denavit-
Hartenberg notations (Meier, Fong. Thorpe, and
Bauer, 1998).
The inverse kinematics equation is as foll ows:
R8 cosy - _>;,\/ cos(<j> +a, +y)-
(3 )
,v,,, sin(<j> +a, +y) - 1',8, cosy = 0
Where R refers to the distance from the centre of
gravity of the robot to the centre of the wheels along
a radial path . [X" )~,] is the fixed world frame, ~ is
.J=~[COS(8+~) - sin(8+'1i) -I] (8)
the orientation of the robot with respect to the fixed
I' COS(s -'1i) - sin(8 -'1i) - I

world frame, r l is the radiu s of the wheel s, and e is

4. DYNAMI C MODE LING OF MOBILE ROBOTS
the angular position of each wheel. The
co nstant 8 i refers to the wheel orientation with Mobile robot dynamics refer to the relationship
respect to the mobi le robot frame. between forces, torques and acceleration. Although
/. /.-----~~" there was an exi stin g derivati on for a similar model,
/ "(~".., .., the lack of sy mmetry in this wheel design introduced
// 'Y"" complications. The derivation began using the
1 '" , iy/ '-. ">'\ Lagrangian approach as follows :
om \ / '" I d al al '-11
- ( - ) - - = ( ) + 2). ;: 1- ,~ , ... ,
\ - 1" N (9)
(,, -\ 1 !.--Xj-'"' , ail, aq, -,
\
\ (,-"~ \ ,) ) dl ,=1 f'f

Where I is the Lagrangian functi on, q i and qi are the

\ \S1 '\ I
... f\ I , \ / ; . "" / general coordinates and velocities, Q, is the external
~'<~.. (/:::':-~:'/'
r\" ~:/ forces or torques act on each wheel, A, is the
b- Lagrange coefficient and the Ii is the constraint
yn•

Fig. 4. Kinematics diagram of mobile robot coefficient. I, can be obtained frOI11 constraint
equations (5) to (7) and A, from equation of moti on.
e quation (3) allows us to form the inverse Jacobian
matrix of the system as follows:
-I. I. Cose r Oll/l7i- Directiol7al Robot
[
S ill(IiI+ ~+Y) COS(O , +4>+y) Ij COSY] (4)
.r' = _ 1- sill(o: + ~+y) cos(o , +~+y) Ij COSY
Ncos y .
s lIl (8 , + ~+y) cos(8 , +~+y) I',COSY
Substituting the kinetic and potential term s into
equations (9) derives the equations of motion in the
Where y angle for thi s design is taken zero and standard format. The torques are influenced from the
shows the structure of wheel s. effect of potential and energy terllls and calculated
either so lving these equations using Maple software
3. I. DifFerential f)rive Robots (Korayelll, Maddahi, Bani Rostam,
Figure 5 shows the inertial coordinate system for a 2004).
differential drive mobile robot. The inertial
coordinates of the robot are given by (x, y{. The -1.2. Case //.. Differential Drive Mobile Robot
angle that the velocity vector makes with the inel1ial
Consider the differential drive mobile robot shown in
.raxis is given bye . (i) /( and (i) I. that are related to
Figure 3. 't I is the torque exerted on the robot by
the angular velocity of robot wheels. To get the robot
position and orientation, the velocity constraints right wheel. l' 2 is the torque exerted on the robot by
should sati sfY the following non-holonomic the left wheel and I is the distance frolll the centre of
con straint : mass to the wheels and is equal to -T I that the
1'0) , -\-cos(8 +~ )+ j'sin(8 +~ )+/o) =0 (5)
positive is relative to't I and negative expressed 1:' 2 .
,.0)/1 -'/i) + ysin(8 -'/i) +/0) = 0 (6)
- .i'cos(S The torques of actuator is cal cul ated by solving the
dynamic equations. As shown in equations (10) the
.-I-cos(8 +~) + ) ' sin(e + '/i) = 0 (7) torque of right \-"heel has a small di fference with the
1f torque of right wheel.
•. i'
y ./ /.~/ T= ~r (M + 3111 )eo,S + -':' 1'(,1/ + 3111 )sinS
2 2 (10)
". ~,.",, \-;,,:;1~
t:i • '~-' ~. (I.. 'I
Er ~+ .'111 +-II1
± -r I (".,r· +h'' ))
Ir-r---->.,;,'-/--:/~Z!f 2 I 61

5. SIrvlULATION STUDY OF WHEELED

I I
I
ROBOTS
I It is possible to simulate the system kinematics and
i x
.,. dynamic using Working Model software for a given
Fig. 5. Coordinate system for a differential drive equations of moti on.
mobile robot
5. 1. Case /. Umni-Direcfional Robot
The robot kinematics associated with the lacobian The responses of the system to a simple step-input
matrix is defined by: for orientation with maintaining a fixed position of

631
bJse (0") are presented. Thi s simulation deals only 5.2. Case II. Differential Drive robot
with mechani ca l factors and ignores any electrical The responses of the robot to the same input with
components and slippage. difference direction for orientation with maintaining
a fi xed position of base are presented. The additional
objects such as motors are not shown in this mode l.
Fig. 10 presents the schemat ic mode l of analyzed
-M_ vehicle. The overshoot is approx imatel y 4.52% for
the X position and 0.8% for the Y position as can be
seen from Fig. I L In Fig. 12 the to rques of motor I
are shown. As show n the predicted torques in
Working Model has some difference with theatri ca l
condit ion. The source of these errors is that in
theoretical models the friction is negligible but in
Working Model and manufactured plans the fri cti on
plays an essential role. In thi s model the coefficient
of friction is considered too large therefore the
Fig. 6. Compari son between the positions in two Fig. 1'2 have jumps with high amplitude.
si lllul ati ons

---Map le

" .... 1 - - - -. - -
.. u
Fig. 10. The schematic model of differentiJI drive
Fig. 7. Co mpar ison of torque in Illotor I robot

.-- 1

.,
r

.1
·''' .. ·· 1..-·1
Fig. 11 . Comparison between the positi ons in two
Fig. 8. Compari son of torque in motor '2 si mulati ons

-I
,,,I -----. _.. _ - - - - --
,I --_._---

Fig. 12. Compariso n of to rque in motor I

Fig. 9. Comparison of torque in motor 3
~'Iathelll a tical
analysis of trajecto ry simulati on shows
rhJt the overshoot is approximately 2.1 % for the X
position and LS% for the Y pos iti on (F ig. 6). In the
Figs. 7-9. the to rques of Illotor I" 2. and 3 flu ctuate
hriefly while the robot moves to th e desired position .
6. EXPR IMENTAL TEST
Odo metl), is based on simpl e equation s that are
eas ily impl emented and that utili zed datJ from
inexpensive incrementa l wheel encoder. However.
odometry is based on the ass umpti on that wheel
revo luti ons can be trans lated into linear disp lacement
relative to the floor. If the three wheels of the robot

632
are joined to a common axle, the posItIon and
orientation of the centre of the axle relative to the
previolls position and orientation can be determined
from odometry measurements on all of wheels. In
practice. incremental encoders are mounted onto
three drive wheels.
61 . C({se I: Oml1i-directional Mobile Robot
III this paper a simple method was selected to test an
ollllli-directional mobile robot. The robot is moved in
special trajectories such as straight or self-rotational
paths. In this Section the results of test are shown in
Figure 13. The test was carried out ten times for
every trajectory.
In Figure 13 the robot is rotated around its central
nominal wheelbase of the vehicle (Borenstein,
Everett, and Feng, 1998).
6.2.2. !v/easlIrement and correction o(systematic
odomet,y
One of the methods for measuring odometry errors is
UMBmark test. In this test robot is programmed to
traverse the four legs of a square path in C. W. and
c.c. W. directions but because of some errors not
precisely return to the starting position (Borenstein,
and Feng, 1996). Simulation of a differential drive
robot with effect of two different odometry errors in
motion of robot is shown in Figs. 14 and 15.
7: " . ~ ,·!l
,, ~. ,:. ' ;

axis in C.W. direction. The points show the final

I~:1;
location of robot's centre of gravity in work plane.
I he UMHmark
Two O(Jop\€>lry

fo!:ilChFd
,E bano

Sqll ,H~
err~:~
l con<'ee' ,
otner

Palh
:.
~
":}
l' ,,'

')
10 2ll 30 10 m 60 ! 0 !Il 90 100 110 120 1

Fig. 14 Simulation of UMBmark in C.C. W direction

-10

x(Cml
Fig. 13 . The robot rotates along its central axis The UM 3 matk l e'sl
Two o doffl€:fry Nrors
(C.W.)
1[ b a nd £: d) ampl i ~y
e.] ch oUwr

Square P,,)lh
6] LJifjerential Drive r:.',
'V

6] I. Il1l'esti{!ati()11 of error/actors in mobile robot

1""') '1'"
Systematic errors are usually caused by ~7 ", ..)

imperfections In the design and mechanical Fig. 15. Simulation ofUMBmark in C.W direction
implementation of a mobile robot and caused by
resources that some of them are listed in below. Upon completion of the square path in each direction
a. Unequal wheel diameters absolute position of the vehicle is measured. These
b. Average of both wheel diameters differs from absolute measurements are then compared to the
nominal diameter position and orientation of the vehicle as computed
c. Misalignment of wheels from odometry data.
d. Uncertainty about the effective wheelbase (due to The amount of erroneous rotation in each nominal 90
non-point wheel contact with the floor) turn is denoted as a in radian.
e. Limited encoder resolution Because of the ratio between wheel diameters robot
f. Limited encoder sampling rate moved on curved path instead of straight path. The
Lac k of exact method for measurement amount of robot will have gained an incremental orientation
odometry errors cause mobile robot calibration error p ,at the end of each straight leg in curved
doesn ' t have enough accuracy. Error categorizations
are used for measurement odometry systematic error. motion cases.
• Unequal wheel diameters. a. and p can be found from simple geometric
relations.
E =~ (11) (Xc,g-,cw-Xc,g-,ccw) 180
" D, a = '. , x-- ( 13)
-4L IT
• Uncertainty about the wheel base.
h ( 12)
p = (Yc,g,cw+ Yc,g.ccw) x 180 ( 14)
r ·. = ~
~., h ll" llIrnal -4L IT
Where XC , {!,cw / CCH' and Yc,g,cw / cclI' are tow
\Vhere Du, D, are the actual right and left wheel
centre of gravity and L is straight leg of the square
diameters and bu c lllu " b'''''"ill ,,/ are the actual and path.

633
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634