UCL History of Art MA 2017-18, HARTG008: Vision,

Tourism, Imperialism Tourism: Art and Travel in the

British Empire - Essay 2, WKYS5

Le Corbusier’s Chandigarh.
Seeking modernism in Post-Independence India.

Details of the entrance portal,

source:https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/apr/07/the-city-le-corbusier-built-inside-chandigarh-in-pictures ,
accessed 20 April 2018.

1
Introduction

The events from the 15th of August 1947, marking India’s independence from the United
Kingdom, transformed the subcontinent during the following decades. Before their departure
from the country, colonial leaders decided to separate the Muslim population from the Hindu
majority, therefore North-Western and Eastern territories were brutally divided and
geographically set aside.1 Around one million Muslims previously inhabiting Indian territories
were forced to relocate to the modern-day nations of Pakistan and Bangladesh. The borders of
the newly created countries were drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe and the state of Punjab was
placed between two nations: India and Pakistan.2 Pakistan claimed ownership over the state
capital of Lahore so, Punjab’s new capital had to be created. The capital was supposed to be a
symbol of the new image of India: an independent, prosperous, and modern country. The
Punjabi government decided to build a capital city that was to be located approximately 180
miles north of New Delhi.3 According to the Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, this
new city should reflect the modernity and progress of the nation.4 For the project, Nehru
appointed the American architect Albert Mayer and his Polish collaborator Maciej Nowicki.
The initial design was to resemble the Garden City model.5 However, Nowicki died
unexpectedly in an accident in August 1950 and Mayer decided to withdraw from the project.6
Subsequently, the Chandigarh government began their search for a replacement. The architect
responsible for the new project was Le Corbusier, who also hired his cousin Pierre Jeanneret as
a site architect. Le Corbusier decided to follow the preliminary plan sketched by Mayer and
Nowicki. The plan of the city placed an emphasis on the symbiosis between green spaces and
the industrial architecture. Le Corbusier did not only use the model of the Garden City but also
reused his own concept of the design of his French project Ville Radieuse, although in the case

1
See: Kaushik Roy, ​Partition of India: Why 1947? ​(Oxford: UOP India, 2011).
2
See: Peter Lyon, ​Conflict Between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia​ (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2008).
3
Jason Burke, ‘Le Corbusier's Indian masterpiece Chandigarh is stripped for parts’ in ​The Guardian​ (2011),
available on www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2011/mar/07/chandigarh-le-corbusier-heritage-site, accessed 21
April 2018.
4
Edward Mallot, ​Memory, Nationalism, and Narrative in Contemporary South Asia​ (New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2012), p.37.
5
David Gordon, ​Planning Twentieth Century Capital Cities​ (London: Routledge, 2006), p.230.
6
Ravi Kalia, ​Chandigarh: The Making of an Indian City​ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p.64.
2
of Chandigarh, the towering glass skyscrapers were replaced by sculptures reflecting
Chandigarh’s governmental purpose.7 Le Corbusier decided to apply the same principles of his
European architectural projects on previously untouched Punjabi territory. Interestingly,
Chandigarh’s system of grand boulevards resembles that of Le Corbusier’s architectural
aspirations for the urban planning of modern Paris.8 Le Corbusier also intended to apply his
concept of ​Unité d'Habitation by building residential high-rises for the city’s government
employees. However, his proposal wasn’t accepted by the government. Le Corbusier reused the
modernist archetypes from his previous European projects and applied them into the new,
non-Western environment.

Plan of Chandigarh, source:

www.architecturalmoleskine.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/chandigarh-and-le-corbusier-i.html, accessed 20
April 2018.

7
​Jon T. Lang, ​A Concise History of Modern Architecture in India ​(Telengana: Orient Blackswan, 2002), p.62.
8
Ibid.
3
 The plan of Chandigarh brought to light discussion regarding the notion of modernity in
India, as many scholars argue, the idea of Indian modernism differentiates from the Western
understanding of the term. While European modernity rejected historicity, modernism in India
reuses the past to shape its present. It is interesting how a prominent modernist architect, Le
Corbusier applied European architectural modernity into a new, ‘other’ environment. He
blended the European notion of modernism with Indian cultural identity. However, is
Corbusier’s project a representation of the authentic Indianness or is it rather a projection of
Indianness perceived solely through the European gaze? The concept of modern and Indian
civilisation appears to be both in the clash and coalescence. Modernism in India is linked to the
process of archivisation - artists and architects appear as archaeologists, etnographs and
archivists. What is more, art and architecture in India is inseparable from ideological claims
and political implications. Thus, it is interesting to observe city such as Chandigarh, which is a
blend of Western and Indian modernity.
In his architecture, Le Corbusier tends to avoid historical referencing although, in the case of
Chandigarh, he made use of symbolism associated with the traditional Mughal paradise garden.
9
In this context, it can be argued that Chandigarh is perceived as an example of anachronism,
which appears to be a central part of Indian modernism.
This paper will discuss the idea of modernism in territory as complex as India, with a focus on
the city of Chandigarh. It will be examined how Chandigarh operates within the notion of
national identity in India, and specifically, whether the new capital evokes Indianness or is
another example of European hegemony, placed even after the era of colonialism, within
postcolonial reality.

9
David Wild,​ Fragments of utopia: collage reflections of heroic modernism​ (London: Hyphen, 1998), p.63.
4
Chandigarh and Indian ‘Modernism’

Le Corbusier’s architectural practice combined various, often contradictory elements that not
only generated a unique, characteristic, and recognisable style, but also manifested the notion
of identity by bringing together elements of diverse historical, socio-political, and cultural
backgrounds. In his architecture, Le Corbusier combined contradictories such as history and
modernity, male and female, vernacular and modern, colonial and postcolonial. Since his
formative period, Le Corbusier was interested in working between these polarities, significant
is the design of the Villa Schwob from 1916, in which his interests in juxtaposing various
contradictory forces became the most poignant.10 However, it was his late work conducted in
India, which brought to light his creative obsession for blending polarities: Chandigarh is a
representation of this obsession.
The city was described by the Prime Minister Nehru as ‘symbolic of the freedom of India,
unfettered by the traditions of the past… an expression of the nation’s faith in the future.’11
Chandigarh is viewed as a symbol of independence and the memory of the tragic events of the
Partition. The city is a representation of both exhilaration and tragedy. Yet the name of the
newly created capital evokes the past events that led to its establishment: Chandigarh derives
from the name Chandi, the Hindu goddess of power.12

10
​ ​Peter Serenyi, ‘Timeless but of Its Time: Le Corbusier's Architecture in India’ in ​Perspecta,​ Vol. 20 (1983), pp.
91-118 (3).
11
Gyanesh Kudaisya, Tan Tai Yong, ​The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia​ (London: Routledge, 2004), p.190.
12
Ravi Kalia, op.cit., p.210.
5
 Le Corbusier with the plan of Chandigarh, source: www.chandigarh.gov.in/knowchd_gen_plan.htm,
accessed 20 April 2018.

Since the decision of building a new capital city for East Punjab was finally confirmed, Prime
Minister Nehru had a plan of building a new city, which would be a completely new creation,
liberated from the painful history and the traditions of the past, but obviously there were also
practical reasons for the decision. None of the already existing towns were suitable to become
the capital and none of them were prepared for the expansion of the new government or to
house the increasing number of migrants from Pakistan.
The Indian government subsequently began their search for an appropriate city planner.
The decision was made to hire a foreign architect, because the colonial British government did
not support or train local architects.13 In August 1948, the Indian government began their

13
​Jon T. Lang, Madhavi Desai, Miki Desai, ​Architecture & Independence​ (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1997), p.191.
6
search for a planner who would design ‘an administrative centre accommodating half a million
people and expandable to one million.’14 The government decided to offer the role to the New
York architect Albert Meyer who, interestingly, had been lieutenant colonel in India during
World War II.15
Mayer’s architectural practice was based on the garden city movement and ‘its reaction
against... the sterility and monotony of the classical-geometric approach to planning’.16 For the
project of Chandigarh, Meyer proposed a fan-shaped outline spreading across two rivers. He
located provincial government buildings in the upper edge of the city on one of the riversides,
and placed the central business district in the centre of the city. Then, according to his plan, the
system of main roads would surround the residential buildings, each containing a green space
located in the centre. Albert Mayer decided to involve his partner, Nowicki who was
responsible for the architectural control. However, after the tragic events in 1950 when
Nowicki died in a plane crash, Mayer withdrew from the project. Therefore, a new architectural
team had to be found for the realisation of Mayer’s plan. The Indian government subsequently
selected a new team: an English architect couple, Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry, and French
architect Le Corbusier and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. Le Corbusier was appointed as the
‘architectural advisor’ while Drew, Fry and Jeanneret became ‘senior architects’.17
‘Le Corbusier took charge of developing the master plan, designing the capitol complex, and
establishing architectural control. Jeanneret and Fry concerned themselves with directing the
actual construction of the city and designing the remainder of the city's buildings’.18

14
Norma Evenson, ​Chandigarh​ (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), p. 8.
15
Ravi Kalia, op.cit., p.25.
16
Norma Evenson, op.cit., p.13.
17
Ibid., p.26.
18
Ibid., p.27.
7
Le Corbusier at The High Court, 1955, source:
www.grahamfoundation.org/grantees/5050-casablanca-chandigarh-a-report-on-modernization, accessed 20 April
2018.

Le Corbusier then began his biannual trips to India, starting on the 18th of February 1951.19
This date is written in Le Corbusier’s sketchbook which he carried with him during his trips to
India. Le Corbusier’s diaries also include many architectural sketches of the buildings in their
formative stages. 20
Le Corbusier was primarily appointed to create the master plan of the city and the capitol
complex. However, later he also undertook a project of designing the city’s business centre and
several additional buildings. However, most significant buildings designed by Corbusier in
Chandigarh are the governmental buildings placed within the capitol complex: The Secretariat,
the Assembly Building, and the High Court.
The construction of the new capital took several years, and it was fully completed by
September 1953 when all the governmental departments finally moved from the city of Simla
to the new buildings in Chandigarh.21

19
​Peter Serenyi, op.cit., p. 4.
20
Ibid.
21
​S. C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava, ​Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories​ (New Delhi: Gyan
Publishing House, 2006), p.20.
8
As Norma Evenson noticed, Le Corbusier’s plan differed from the one proposed by Mayer’s
team. To her, ‘it is in the emphasis on a monumental axial composition that the second plan of
Chandigarh differs most noticeably from the initial scheme. Although in both designs the
capitol area was planned to stand against the mountains, only in Le Corbusier's plan was there
an effort to provide a single monumental approach linking the body of the city to its symbolic
head and relating along a single axis the two main public areas of the city, the capitol complex
and the civic centre’.22

The Capitol Complex, source:

https://www.dezeen.com/2016/08/07/le-corbusier-capitol-complex-unesco-world-heritage-listing-chandigarh-india
-benjamin-hosking/, accessed 20 April 2018.

Le Corbusier’s plan is recognisable mostly because of its monumental Capitol Complex.

However, also worth mentioning are the 240 acres of the city itself, which were designed to
function as a place to live and work. Le Corbusier designed the Northern zones of the city as an

22
​Norma Evenson, op.cit., p.32.
9
area for civic administration, while the Southern zone was meant to serve the district’s
administration. All areas of the city, i.e. the Capitol Complex, the university, and the industrial
area, are connected by a network of fast traffic roads.23
At central point of the city centre, Le Corbusier placed a central chowk which in its cross
shape, congregates two pedestrian ways: North-East to South-West and North-West to
South-East. The chowk is designed to be vehicle-free and ‘is ideally suited for religious
activities and other festive congregations that are so important to the Indian way of life. The
chowk is connected to other spaces of the City Centre by a network of pedestrian ways’.24

Chandigarh’s chowk, source: www.dronestagr.am/chandigarh-the-city-beautful/, accessed 20 April 2018.

23
​Ravi Kalia, op.cit., p.11.
24
Ibid, p.111.
10
 Le Corbusier’s project of the city appears as a peculiar blend of various aspects, such as
modernism, vernacular, and an established Corbusian style, all projected and studied within
different context, i.e. postcolonialism and non-Western.
Le Corbusier, one of the most canonical architects of the twentieth century, designed the city
that defines him as a ‘visionary iconoclast’.25 Although, considered as a great architect of
modernism, he was disappointed with the products of industrial revolution, one of the key
elements of the establishment of modernism in Europe, and became interested in the
juxtaposition of the aesthetics of industrialism with vernacular architectural practices,
specifically popular in non-Western environments.26 Since an early age, Le Corbusier was
fascinated with vernacular as opposed to Western aesthetics.27 His trip to the Balkans in 1911
was significant in the development of his future recognisable architectural style, during which,
23 year old Le Corbusier, had the opportunity to discover local folklore and vernacular styles,
distinct in relation to Western architecture.28 However, it was the master plan of Chandigarh
that allowed him to pursue his interest in combining the architectural vocabularies, of the East
and the West.
William Curtis described Chandigarh as a ‘prodigious feat of abstraction in which devices from
the classical tradition - the grand order and the portico - were fused with Le Corbusier’s own
system of forms in concrete and in turn cross-bred with Indian devices like the 'chattrť (a dome
on slender supports), trabeated terraces, balconies, and loggias of Fatehpur Sikri’.29 In creating
the plan of Chandigarh, Le Corbusier referred to the archetype of Mughal gardens. He then
used the traditional Indian elements and ‘reworked [them] into a new orchestration of urban
spaces’.30  ​To Curtis, Chandigarh represents the synthesis of ‘the East and the West, the ancient
and the modern’.31
Chandigarh uses Western concrete building materials, and architectural structures that resemble
their Western archetypes. As noted by Peter Serenyi, the construction of the High Court can be

25
Shaun Fynn, ​Chandigarh Revealed: Le Corbusier's City Today​ (New York: Princeton Architectural Press,
2017), p.7.
26
Francesco Passanti, ‘The Vernacular, Modernism, and Le Corbusier’ in ​Journal of the Society of Architectural
Historians​, vol.556 (1997), pp. 438-451.
27
Ibid.
28
Ibid.
29
​William J. Curtis, ​Le Corbusier: Ideas and Forms​ (London: Phaidon, 1986), p.200.
30
Puteri Shireen Jahnkassim, Norwina Mohd Nawawi, ‘Allusions to Mughal urban forms in the monumentality of
Chandigarh’s capitol complex’ in ​Journal of Architecture and Urbanism,​ vol. 40 (2016), pp. 177-190 (183).
31
​William J. Curtis, op.cit.
11
compared to the Basilica of Constantine.32 To Serenyi, the construction that ‘provided the point
of departure for the design of the building [in Chandigarh].’33 In his early sketches of the High
Court, Le Corbusier used Basilica’s great barrel vaults as the most dominant element of the
design.34 However, eventually, he replaced the Roman vaults with sun breakers, the inspiration
for which was de Stijl architecture.35
Because of this, Chandigarh might appear as an eclectic city, combining elements from both
occidental and oriental tradition. However, to Norma Evenson, Le Corbusier’s Master Plan
appeared as a mere and direct importation of Western styles in non-Western context.
According to her, the fact that Le Corbusier applied the Western ‘modernist’ forms to still
largely agrarian and semi-industrialised areas of India, resulted in the emphasis and
representation of India still being a pre-modern and pre-industrial country.36
Nevertheless, as it was accurately noted by Atreyee Gupta, modernism remains a Western
imperative and it has a different notion in non-Western environments.37
According to Vikramaditya Prakash, modernism in India was shaped by its decolonisation and
independence.38 Chandigarh is a representation of this national desire for ‘modern’ and
‘independent’ but it is also Le Corbusier’s own, European interpretation of what modernism is.
Chandigarh is therefore a combination of the elements deriving from two opposite worlds - the
East and the West.
Interestingly, modernism was the first ‘international style’ of architecture. The term first
appeared in the book ​The International Style: Architecture Since 1922 written in 1932 by
architectural historian Henry Russell Hitchcock and architect Philip Johnson.39 The adjective
‘international’ signifies something occurring, pertaining between nations. In terms of
architecture, ‘international’ would then be something universal, which can be applied into
different political and geographical contexts. Surprisingly, for their case studies, Hitchcock and
Johnson provided examples of architecture exclusively, except for Japan, from Western

32
Peter Serenyi, op.cit.
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid.
35
Ibid.
36
Norma Evenson, op.cit.
37
Atreyee Gupta, ‘Dwelling in Abstraction. Post-Partition Segues into Post-War Art’ in ​Third Text​, vol.31 (2017),
pp. 433-457.
38
​Vikramaditya Prakash​,​ Chandigarh's Le Corbusier: The Struggle for Modernity in Postcolonial India​ (Seattle:
University of Washington Press, 2002).
39
Henry Russell Hitchcock, Philip Johnson, ​The International Style: Architecture Since 1922​ (New York: W. W.
Norton, Incorporated), 1932.
12
European and American countries. It is worth noting that in 1932 around 80% percent of the
existing countries were colonies or commonwealths belonging to major European imperialist
nations.40 None of those countries were mentioned in the book. Therefore, in this context, ‘the
international style’ does not really percolate between the nations but rather between colonial
empires. The book omits all the other many different culturally and historically countries
which, even by adjusting to the colonial force and adapting the ‘modernist’ Western inventions,
they still managed to preserve their own ‘modes of building and shelter; modes that today we
would call vernacular architecture’.41

The High Court,

source: www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/apr/07/the-city-le-corbusier-built-inside-chandigarh-in-pictures
, accessed 20 April 2018.

40
Anthony D. King, ‘Internationalism, Imperialism, Postcolonialism, Globalization: Frameworks for Vernacular
Architecture’ in ​Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture​, vol.13, no.2 (2006/2007), pp. 64 - 75.
41
Ibid, p.4.
13
In his ​Modern Architecture and the End of Empire​, Mark Crinson discussed the adaption of
modern architecture to Persia, Iraq, Ghana, Malaya and Hong Kong.42 Zeynep Celik, among
other scholars, wrote about how French colonial authorities in Algeria employed Le Corbusier
to develop his modernist experiments there.43 Finally, Jon Lang, Norma Evenson, and in
particular, Peter Scriver and Vikram Prakash argued that modernist design was part of the
colonial and capitalist force that contributed to the construction of major cities in India.44 All of
the mentioned examples prove that the implementation of modernism in colonial countries was
dependent extensively on colonial power.
The introduction of modernism in those countries had an effect on imposing certain
architectural styles, ‘being modern required, for the bourgeoisie, a modern and even modernist
architectural environment’45, but it also increased an awareness of being ‘the other’ which,
furthermore, led to the establishment of new, simultaneous architectural practices: the
‘vernacular’.
As noted by James Holston, modernism in the colonial countries was also tightly associated
with the complex social, cultural and political aspects.46 In Chandigarh, modernism as the one
claiming to be opposed to history, supposed to be the liberation from the oppressions of
colonial past.
However, does the choice of hiring the European, modernist architect stand in favor of moving
away from the past? Maybe it was, in fact, a return to it? Chandigarh represents a struggle
between being independent and Indian, and being ‘modern’ that is ‘in time’ with already
‘developed’ modernist and Western countries.
Drawing on Homi Bhabha’s ‘mimic men’ theory, Chandigarh appears as a product of mimicry.
However, in this case, the mimicry is reversed. It is performed not by the ‘colonised’ but by the
Western architect, Le Corbusier.47 It can be argued that Le Corbusier mimics ‘native’ styles by
applying them to the plan for Chandigarh, i.e. chattri or loggias and balconies, and he

42
Mark Crinson, ​Modern Architecture and the End of Empire​ (London: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2003).
43
Zeynep Celik, ‘Le Corbusier, Orientalism, Colonialism’ in ​Assemblage,​ no.17 (1992), pp. 58-77.
44
Jon Lang, ​Concise History of Modern Architecture In India​ (New Delhi: Permanent Black 2010); Norma
Evenson, ​The Indian Metropolis: A View Toward the West​ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989);​ ​Peter
Scriver, ​ Amit Srivastava, ​India: Modern Architectures in History​ (London: Reaktion Books, 2015); Vikram
Prakash, op.cit.
45
Anthony D. King, op.cit., p.5.
46
​James Holston, ​The Modernist City: An Anthropological Critique of Brazilia ​(Chicago: Chicago University
Press, 1989).
47
​Homi K. Bhabha,​ The Location of Culture​ (London: Routledge, 2004).
14
juxtaposes them with elements of ‘modern’ which, in turn, indicates Chandigarh's Indian
Government desire to mimic the West.
Chandigarh was created not only for strictly practical and political reasons, but also to stand as
a symbol of national healing from the trauma of the colonial past and the Partition. To Nehru,
the new capital represented the new nation of India, ‘unfettered by traditions of the past’.48 The
city therefore projects a national atmosphere of ‘memory and forgetting, trauma and recovery’.
49
This is probably why Nehru was so keen to create a city that will be necessarily ‘modern’,
and detached from history.

The Capitol Complex,

source: www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/apr/07/the-city-le-corbusier-built-inside-chandigarh-in-pictures
, accessed 20 April 2018.

48
See: The Official Website of Chandigarh Administration, www.chandigarh.gov.in/knowchd_gen_historical.htm,
accessed 22 April 2018.
49
​Edward Mallot, op.cit., p.32.
15
 Referring to Henri Lefebvre’s claim that ‘(social) space is a (social) product’ meaning that a
change within society creates and organises new patterns of physical environments,
Chandigarh appears as a physical consequence of change within the Indian nation.50 To
Lefebvre, ‘A revolution that does not produce a new space has not released its new potential;
indeed it has failed in that it has not changed life itself’.51 Therefore, the project of Chandigarh
is not only a symbolic representation of the new, rebuilding sense of India’s national identity
but it also helps ‘usher in a new Indian age’.52 Therefore, as noted by Nihal Perera, ‘The
modernist city… became a dehistoricised, decontextualised and unfamiliar space employed to
transform society’.53 Chandigarh is then ‘dehistoricised’, but at the same time its building
structure helps to ‘transform society’. Srirupa Roy discusses the establishment of the new
towns in independent India: she writes, ‘They [towns] were described as entirely new kinds of
places inhabited by new kinds of people who would directly participate in the grand project of
building the nation’.54
Chandigarh is therefore something more than just a physical space; it is a projection of the
nationalist self-definition.

50
Henri Lefebvre, ​The Production of Space,​ translated by ​Donald Nicholson-Smith (Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley-Blackwell, 1991).
51
Ibid., p.54.
52
Edward Mallot, op.cit., p.33.
53
​Nihal Perera, ‘Contesting visions: hybridity, liminality and authorship of the Chandigarh plan.’ in ​Planning
Perspectives​, vol.19 (2004), pp. 175 -199 (186).
54
Srirupa Roy, ​Beyond Belief: India and the Politics of Postcolonial Nationalism ​(Durham: Duke University
Press, 2007), p.133.
16
Conclusion

The Punjab legislative assembly chamber., source:

www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/apr/07/the-city-le-corbusier-built-inside-chandigarh-in-pictures ,
accessed 20 April 2018.

The purpose behind the creation of Chandigarh was to relocate all the governmental
buildings to the new capital, which would represent the spirit of the independent nation of
India. The reasons for designing the project of the new city were not only practical, such as the
lack of an existing city that would make a decent location for the new capital, but mostly
metaphorical. Chandigarh was created as a city that would help the Indian nation recover from
the painful events of colonialism. Its seemingly ahistorical design was created as a tribute to
the new, modern nation, liberated from its traumas. However, Nehru’s desire for the creation of
a city completely detached from its national history, was not entirely fulfilled. Chandigarh,
although designed as ‘modern’, still resembles the past. In his project, Le Corbusier applied

17
modernist designs, but he blended them with Indian history and tradition. Moreover, in the
design of Chandigarh he also applied Western histories, i.e. Basilica of Constantine. Therefore,
Chandigarh can not be perceived as entirely ‘modern’, as understood through Western
discourse. Chandigarh appears as a heterotopic location which does not belong to the East nor
the West, and neither to the present nor the past.

18
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