Magnetism

Lodestones
 Naturally-occurring magnetic rocks

Tesla
 The unit for the strength of a magnetic field
 B( vector) B = symbol for the strength

Galvanometer
 Device used to measure very small currents

I
Properties of Magnetism
1. Polarity
 Magnetic poles always come in pairs (dipole); a single magnetic pole has never been
found.

2. Unlike poles attract, like poles repel.

 North (N) attracts South (S)
 N repels N
 S attracts N
 S repels S

3. Compass
 Small magnet mounted so that it is free to turn; the end that points to the geographic
north-pole is the north-seeking pole (South Pole)* of the magnet.

4. Permanent Magnets
 Retain their magnetism for a long time; most are made of AlNiCo, an iron alloy
containing Aluminum, Nickel and Cobalt.
 3 Ferromagnetic elements
 Fe, Ni and Co (Iron, Nickel and Cobalt)
5. Magnetism by Induction
 Can cause temporary magnetism.

6. Magnetic Domains
 Groups of atoms magnetized in the same way. (Refer to notes on the diagrams)

II
Magnetic Fields around a permanent Magnet
 Magnetic forces can be described by the existence of magnetic fields around magnets
 Magnetic field lines help us visualize the magnetic fields around magnets

Magnetic Flux
 Number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface
 The flux per unit area is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field (Flux per X
units is proportional to the strength of a magnetic field.)
 Magnetic field lines come out of the N pole.
 Magnetic field lines come in at the S poles

Magnetic Field around the Earth

 The North geographic pole is actually a South* magnetic pole.

III
Electromagnetism
Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851)

 In 1820, he showed that any wire carrying an electric current has a magnetic field around
it. The magnetic field is in concentric circles
 Electric currents produce magnetic fields
 Conventional current- Positive
 Negative current- Negative
 Bw a Iw
Bw a 1/r

Bw-magnetic field of wire

Iw-current through wire
r- radial distance from wire
a-directly proportional to
 Coil carrying current acts like a magnet
 Electromagnets tend to align north face with iron magnet’s south face

Solenoid

 A long coil of wire consisting of many loops

 When carrying a current is called an electromagnet.
 Inserting an iron bar into the coil concentrates and strengthens the magnetic field

Three factors that affect the magnetic field for a Solenoid

 Current (Iw)
 Number of loops
 Core material

Right Hand Rules

First Right Hand Rule

Second Right Hand Rule

 V
Magnetic Materials
 Magnetism originates in the motion of the electrons in iron.
 Spinning electrons act like tiny magnets.
 Cancellation of this effect occurs in most materials. Iron, nickel and cobalt are
exceptions.

Magnetic Domains
 Arrows that describe orientation of iron atoms
 The magnetic north-south axes of groups of iron atoms line upe in the same direction.
 These groupings are called domains.
 In non-magnetized iron, the domains are randomly organized.
 An external magnetic field will twist the domains into alignment.
 In slightly magnetized iron, there is an incomplete alignment of domains
 In strongly magnetized iron, virtually all of the domains are aligned.

VI
Forces on currents in Magnetic Fields
 Force on wire is a right angle to the direction of current and right angle to direction of
external magnetic field- Faraday’s Law
 Magnetic field is what pushes the electricity- Lorentz Force
 Refer to 3rd Right hand rule

VIII
Galvanometers
 Device used to measure very small currents
 Used in most voltmeters and ammeters
 Spring in galvanometer resists tendency to twist- greater the current, greater the
deflection of the needle
 Voltmeter-measures volts
-Galvanometer in series with a high resistor value (high resistor value called
multiplier)
Ammeter-measures current
-Galvanometer parallel with a resistor with low value (low resistor value called
shunt)
 IX
Direct-Current Electric Motors
 Wire segments parallel to the axis of rotation are acted on by opposing forces, causing the
loop to rotate

 Parts of a DC motor
o Power Source – usually a battery
o Magnet – supplies the magnetic field
o Multiple loops – called the armature
o Brush – non-rotating; connected to the battery.
o Split ring commutator – in contact with the brush; connected to and rotates with
the armature

XI
Electromagnetic Induction
 Magnets moved near or even inside coils of wire induce (cause) a current in the coil.
 The more coils there are, the more current there is.
 Magnet moving inside coils induces a current; the current is proportional to the
number of loops.
 Applications:
o Metal detectors
o Traffic lights; embedded coils of wire
o Credit card; magnetic tape
o Recording Tape
 Faraday’s Law:
o The EMF induced in a loop of wire is proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the coil.
o EMF = change of flux/change of time
o EMF/Electromotive Force
 o Flux = number of magnetic field lines)
o The EMF is present even if the circuit resistance is infinite and the current is zero.
 Joseph Henry-Found that changing electric current in coil induces another current in
same coil. This is called self inductance
-Makes an initial and induced current

 Lenz’s Law-Direction of induced current has magnetic field that opposes the original
change in magnetic flux that induced the current
-Symbolized by the negative sign in EMF= - flux/ t
(The triangle means “change in”)
- Discovered by Heinrich Friedrich Lenz (1804-1865)

XII
Examples of Faraday’s Law
 If bar magnet moved in and out of solenoid, makes a current ( flux through coil
changes)
 Alternating Current-current in bottom coil makes changing magnetic field along iron
core
-Will not work for Direct Current
-Alternating Current causes alternating magnetic field

XIII
Generators
 Hand Powered Electrical Generator- Moving a wire in a magnetic field causes
current in the wire
Provides Direct Current- always travels in the same direction through the filament
 Electormagnetic Induction is the bases for generators
 Steam Powered Electrical Generator-Steam drives turbine which turns armature
of generator

XIV
Principles of Transformers
 Primary coil produces magnetic field to reach secondary coil
- Alternating Current in primary coil causes North and South polarity of
electromagnet to change (roughly the same as flipping permanent magnet)
 XV
Applications of Transformers
 Power transmission and Transformers-step up transformer- more coils in second

 Output power= I*V

 Automobile Ignition System- When breaker point is open, current drops to zero

- Magnetic Field in primary collapses leading to a large voltage in secondary coil

 Transformer Station- Steps down from 240000 volts to 8000 volts
 Telephone Pole Transformer- Steps down from 8000 volts to 240 volts

Electromagnetic Waves/Spectrum
ROY G. BIV
 Wavelengths of visible light
 Red = highest wavelength
 Violet = lowest wave length
 Long wavelength = low frequency and low energy
 Short wavelength = high frequency and high energy

Common Properties
 Carry energy from one place to another
 Do not require a medium to travel
 Can travel in a vacuum at a speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s (speed of light)
 Speed of Light = c
 Obey the wave equation( c=f*lambda)
 Show reflection, refraction, absorbtion and interference
 Are transverse waves-vibrates up and down

Radio Waves
 Sources : Oscillating circuits
 Uses : Telecommunication, broadcasting
 Effects : Migraine/headache, harms body cells
 Gadget for Detection : Aerial Antenna, earphones,

Microwaves

 Sources : Oscillating circuits

 Uses : locating objects through radar system, cooling

 Effects : Internal heating of body tissue

 Gadget for Detection : Satellite dish

Infrared
 Sources : Sun, Heater, any body
 Uses : Night Vision Equipment, thermography, cooking, short-range communications
 Effects : Sunburn
 Gadget for Detection : Blackened bulb, thermometer, thermopile

Visible Light
 Sources : Sun, flame, incandescent
 Uses : Allows for seeing the world, used in photosynthesis, photography
 Effects : Skin Cancer
 Gadget for Detection : Eye, photo film

Ultraviolet
 Sources : Sun, electric lamps, discharge tube, mercury vapor lamp
 Uses : Identification of counterfeit notes, energy-efficient lamps, kill bacteria in food and
surgical instruments
 Effects : Risk of getting skin cancer, blindness, can cause premature aging of the skin,
sunburn
 Gadget for Detection : fluorescence photographic film

X-Rays
 Sources: X ray tube, stars
 Uses- Radiotherapy, radiography
 Effect-May damage central nervous system, damages cells
 Gadget for Detection: Fluorescence, Photographic film

Gamma Rays
 Sources : Cobalt-60
 Uses : Sterilization of medical instruments, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases such as
cancer.
 Effects : Can kill healthy cells, can cause genes to mutate
 Gadgets for Detection : Geiger-Muller tube, photo film.

Reflection Of Light and Mirrors&

Refraction
Reflection of Lights and mirrors
 Pulsating sphere generates spheric wafefronts
 Similar to point source generated by light
 Circles 2d cross sections of spherical wavefronts- points of some pressure
 Further from source, wavefronts more flat

Law of Reflection
 Angle of Reflection=Angle of Incidence
 Angles measured with respect to normal line
 Incident ray goes to the mirror
Reflected ray goes away from the mirror
 θ i-angle of incidence
θ r- angle of reflection
θ i= θ r
 normal line, incident ray, and reflected ray lie on same plane

Light and Reflection

 Specular reflection- Light reflected on smooth surface
Diffuse reflection- Light reflect on rough/irregular surface
-light scattered when reflected
- still follows law of reflection (each individual
ray’s incident and reflected ray are still equal)

Flat mirror- reflects in some order as they approach

- made from plate glass coated with reflecting material
at the back
Plane Mirror Geometry- We see things because countless atoms
scatters on the surface of objects
- Light rays reflect everywhere- reason
why everyone can see the same thing
-images formed by flat mirror are
reflections of real objects
- Image not real because no light passes
- Virtual images- images that appear by rays of light
- don’t’ actually exist
Virtual Image in Plane Mirrors
 If light energy does not flow through image, image is virtual ( no
electromagnetic wave from image)
 Light rays come from actual objects and not the virtual image
 Left Right Reversal- What is shown in the mirror is inverted
Spherical Concave Mirrors
 C- Center of Curvatures
- Center of sphere
 R-Radial distance from center to side
 V-Vertex
-Where light comes from
 F- Focal Point
- between C and V
 Principal axis- Where C, F, and V lie

Paraxial rays
 Reflect and intersect at focal point
 Parallel and close to axis
 Upon reflection, passes through focal point
 Assume that all rays are paraxial unless stated otherwise
Spherical Mirrors
 Does not always hit the focal point- lessens when further from axis
 Aberration-Departure from normal
-Does not hit the focal point
Concave Mirror Focus on Colors
 Ex. White formed when red, blue, and green colors overlap
 Path of rays determined by angle law
Concave Mirrors Laws
 Ray parallel to mirror axis, upon reflection, passes through the focal point
 Ray passes thru C is reflected back to the same path- called radial rays
 Ray passing thru the focal point reflected parallel to mirror axis
 Where rays intersect is where image will be (needs at least 2 rays to find out
where they intersect)


Convex Spherical mirros

 Ray parallel to mirror axis seems to come from focal point
 Ray that proceeds along a radius of convex mirror reflected back on the same path
 Ray passes through of concave and proceeds to F reflects parallel to mirror axis
 C, F, and V are behind the mirror

Refraction
 Ray of light bends when passing from one medium to another
 Going to dense- bends to normal line
Going to less dense- bends away from normal line
 Usually happens when something is reflected
 Speed of light in material is less than free space velocity of 3x108
Index of Refraction
 Ratio of velocity C in vacuum to velocity in light in particular medium
 Uses eqatuon n(refraction)-c/v
Plane Mirror
 Original object same distance behind mirror
 Object is inverted
Thin Lenses
 Lens usually made of glass or transparent plastic
 Lens used in optical instruments
 Converging lens-thick in center and thin at edges
- AKA convex lens

 Divering Lens- thin at center and thin at edges

-AKA concave lens
Image Formation by lenses
 Ray 1- Parallel to axis thru 2nd focal point- Converging Lens
-Appears to come out of 1st focal point –Diverging Lens
 Ray 2- Ray through center will not be deviated
- Called vertex (center of mirror)
 Ray 3- Ray which passes thru 1st focal point refracted parallel to axis-
Converging
-Ray which proceeds to 2nd focal point refracted parallel to axis-
Diverging

 Check p.195 of the book for cases for convex lens

 Concave Lens forms diminished, virtual, upright, and between F’ and V
 Ray 1 will always hit F’ no matter where obj is(concave)
 If obj closer to V’, obj will be slighty bigger but still dimished(concave)

Application of Mirros and Lenses

 Refer to handout given by sir


Carbon
Carbon Properties
 The formation and function of molecules depend on chemical bondage between
atoms
 Covalent
 Share electrons
  Ionic
 Transferal of electrons
 Covalent Bond in Carbon
 Showing of two valence electrons by two atoms
 Valence of Carbon : 4 (Tetravalency)
 Ionic Bond
 Attraction between cation and an anion
 Cation= + ion
 Anion = - ion
 Electronic Configuration of Carbon : 1s22s22p2
 The valences of carbon and its most frequent partners (H,O,N) are the “building
code” that governs the “architecture of living molecules”.

Organic Compounds
 Contain carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms to form C-H bonds.

Inorganic Compounds
 Pertains to compounds without C-H bonds.

Jon Jakob Berzilius

 Defined organic compounds as anything produced by living organisms

Friedrich Wohler
 Provided the definition of organic compounds
 “C-H bonds containing compounds”

 Examples
 Sugar
 Protein
 Petroleum
 DNA
 Isopropyl Alcohol
 Omega-3 Fatty Acid
Inorganic Compounds Organic Compounds
Mostly solids at room temp Liquids or gas at room temp
High melting and boiling point Low melting and boiling points
Generally soluble in water Generally soluble in nonpolar
Conduct electric current Do not conduct current
Generally nonflammable Usually flammable
 Biomolecules

Carbon Atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four atoms

 A dehydration reaction occurs when two monomers bond together to form a polymer
through the loss of a water molecule
 A hydrolysis reaction is a reverse of the dehydration reaction.
o Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis

Polysaccharides provide energy storage and structural support

Energy Storage
o Starch
o Glycogen

Structural Support
o Cellulose
o Chitin

Starch
 Storage polysaccharide of plants
 Consists entirely of glucose monomers
 Plants store surplus starch as gramles within chloroplasts.

Glycogen
 Storage polysaccharide in animals
 Humans and other vertebrae store glycogen mainly in muscle cells and liver.
 Provide energy storage and structural support

Cellulose
 Major component of the cell wall in plant.

Chitin
 Used by insects, spiders, and crustaceans to build their exoskeletons.

Role of Carbohydrates
 Serve as main source of energy
 Any excess is body fat

Organic Chemistry
 Chemistry of carbon and carbon-based compounds in everyday life.

Hydrocarbons
 Simplified class of organic compounds
 Consists entirely of carbon and hydrogen

1. Alkanes – contain only C-H and C-C bonds

2. Alkenes – contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond
3. Alkynes – contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond
4. Aromatics – contain rings of six carbon atoms that can be drawn with alternating single
and double.

Carbohydrates
 Serve as fuel and building material
 Group of molecules that all contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

 Sources:
o Bread

o Potato

o Chocolate

o Candy

o Fruits

o Sweets

3 main clauses
 Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
o Monomers from which more complex carbohydrates are constructed
o Examples: Glyceraldine, Ribose, Deoxyribose, Fructose, Glucose (digested to
produce ATP/energy molecules through the process of cell respiration ),
Galactose

 Disaccharides (double sugars)

o Consist of two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond
o Are effective reservoirs of glucose
 Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose
 Glucose + Galactose = Lactose
 Glucose + Glucose = Maltose
o Transports molecules in plants and nutrients in animals

 Polysaccharides
o Polymers composed of many sugar building blocks.