1000427

research-article2021
WMR0010.1177/0734242X211000427Waste Management & ResearchAslam et al.

Original Article

Waste Management & Research

Application of material flow analysis for

1­–10
© The Author(s) 2021
Article reuse guidelines:
the assessment of current municipal solid sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0734242X211000427
https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X211000427

waste management in Karachi, Pakistan journals.sagepub.com/home/wmr

Shiza Aslam1 , Faizan Ali2, Amna Naseer2 and Zeshan Sheikh3

Abstract
This article assesses the status of the solid waste management system (SWMS) in Karachi, the largest city of Pakistan, using the
material flow analysis approach, a widely applied method in waste management (WM) studies. It involves a systematic assessment
of the material flows of solid waste under the current WM system. A material flow diagram is developed to visualize the input and
output waste flows. This study shows the quantification and identification of municipal solid waste (MSW) flow for the year 2019,
from the point of generation to the end-use and disposal. Results show that the MSW generation increased from 10,435 to 15,600
metric tonnes per day (TPD) between 2017 to 2019. Approximately, 75% of the waste generated is collected: formally (50%); and
informally (25%). The material recovery is low, accounting for only 26.28% of the total waste. There is no official material recovery
and recycling facility. Therefore, material recovery solely depends on the informal sector. Results show that 70% of the daily waste
ends up in landfills, which is 3120 TPD more than the formally collected waste. This estimated waste of 3120 TPD flows in either
due to disposal activities of the backlogged waste or informally collected waste. Overall, Karachi’s SWMS performs poorly with a
significant need for improvement. This study recommends adopting integrated WM approaches and inclusion of the informal sector
to ensure the affordability and sustainability of the WM system.

Keywords
Solid waste management, Karachi, material flow analysis, integrated waste management

Received 12th February 2021, accepted 13th February 2021 by Editor in Chief Arne Ragossnig.

Introduction
Waste accumulation is a growing concern globally due to unsus-
tainable production and consumption patterns, such as lifestyle
changes, reducing product lifespan, and linear economy. Studies
estimate that mismanagement and inadequate disposal of waste
introduce 8 million metric tonnes (Mt) of plastic into oceans
annually (Lau et al., 2020). Existing insufficiencies in the waste
management (WM) systems worldwide have given rise to ter-
restrial and aquatic debris pollution (Jambeck et al., 2015).
Reduction in the quantities of mismanaged waste is critical for
mitigation strategies; however, comprehensive data at the munic-
ipal level for many countries are lacking for adequate planning
and management (Lebreton and Andardy, 2019). The present
study aims at improving the granularity of city-level WM data.
Estimates indicate that 87,000 metric tonnes per day (TPD) of
municipal solid waste (MSW) is generated in Pakistan, with an
hinders the collaboration and compliance with informal and formal
agencies involved (Ferronato et al., 2019). Waste professionals
have raised concern for a lack of authentic and current data avail-
ability, as these are imperative in tackling WM issues (Hoornweg
and Bhada-Tata, 2012). Moreover, even if data are available
through independent organizations, agencies, and individuals,
these are often not comparable due to differences in scope and for-
mats (Masood et al., 2014). Above all, the absence of information
sharing neglects the ‘community’s right to know’, limiting and
restricting community awareness, public participation, and trans-
parency at various levels. It severely impacts the management
infrastructure in terms of planning, decision-making, policy
1International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics
(IIIEE), Lund University, Sweden
2Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Karachi, Pakistan

annual growth of 2.5% (World Wildlife Forum, 2019). Inadequate 3Institute of Environmental Sciences and Engineering (IESE), School

waste collection and the recovery of which pose adverse environ-
mental impacts and public health challenges (Aslam, 2020). Major
challenges for MSW management in Pakistan include improper
planning, outdated waste information, political rivalries, inade-
quate resource allocation, corruption, and incompetent manage-
ment. It not only restricts the municipalities’ self-capacity but also
of Civil and Environmental Engineering (SCEE), National University
of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
Corresponding author:
Shiza Aslam, International Institute for Industrial Environmental
Economics, Lund University, Bungalow 7, Street 1, Scheme 2,
Satellite Town, Mirpurkhas, Sindh, Pakistan.
Email: Shiza.aslam@mespom.eu
2 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
Figure 1.  Structure of local government managing municipal functions in Karachi.
development, and compliance with environmental regulations
(Godfrey, 2008).
This study conducts a baseline assessment of MSW manage-
ment in Karachi using material flow analysis (MFA) which is a
widely applied method in waste and resource management stud-
ies. Karachi is among the biggest and most populated urban
zones in the world. However, it severely lacks an efficient WM
system in place. Realizing the need for resource management
aspects in WM, the Government of Sindh (GoS) promoted the
concept of an integrated waste management system (IWMS) in
2014 under Act 4. Therefore, it is important to assess if this inter-
vention has improved WM in Karachi. Applying the MFA
approach, the study had comprehensively evaluated the waste
flows for 2019 to identify the extent of mismanaged waste flows
and potential gaps within the system needed to establish mitiga-
tion options. The study also utilizes background information and
major WM components in Karachi to analyse the current situa-
tion and to recommend solutions for improvement and adaptation
of the IWMS.
Background to solid waste management
(SWM) in Karachi
Karachi serves as the capital city of Sindh (a province of Pakistan)
and has an area of 3780 km2. Karachi, due to its favourable loca-
tion, acts as the hub of transport and centre for industrial and
commercial activities. Thus, it has become the ‘melting pot’ for
people across Asia, making it the world’s sixth most populous
city, with a population of around 15 million people (Pakistan
Bureau of Statistics, 2017). According to the 2017 census,
Karachi’s population is growing at a rate of 2.49%, with an aver-
age household size of 5.8 (Bajwa, 2018). It poses an ever-grow-
ing burden on the resources and carrying capacity of the city.
Karachi effectively adopted a decentralized governance structure
in 2011 to manage its affairs. Municipal functions of Karachi are
managed by the Karachi Metropolitan Corporation and six
District Municipal Corporations (DMCs) (see Figure 1). In 2014,
the “Integrated solid waste management’ act by the GoS revoked
these responsibilities and the authority of DMCs over waste and
subjugated it under the responsibility of the newly formed the
Sindh Solid Waste Management Board (SSWMB). Hence,
‘recentralizing’ the SWM system.
The municipality has made no updates in the database after
the survey conducted for the Karachi Strategic Development
Plan in 2006. It reflects a limited interest in promoting sustaina-
ble WM. Ahmed (2009) criticized the credibility of the data
shared in the baseline survey as nonscientific. Owing to the rapid
urbanization, population growth, and limited proficiency of the
municipality, Karachi faces serious public health and environ-
mental issues (Rodić and Wilson, 2017; Shahid et al., 2014).
Physical components of WM
Waste generation and composition.  Waste generation rate and
composition have a significant correlation with the population and
its lifestyle. Therefore, the waste generation rate in Karachi ranges
from 0.19 to 2.33 kg per capita per day, depending upon the income
per capita (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific et al., 2013). The average estimated waste
generation rate is 0.6 kg per capita per day (Japan International
Cooperation Agency and Pakistan Environmental Protection
Agency, 2005; Khan et al., 2018). Karachi, following the trends of
other developing countries, has organic waste (53–60%) as its
major waste fraction, while food waste is as high as 43% of total
organic waste (United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific et al., 2013). Table 1 provides waste gen-
eration and population data for various districts of Karachi.
The composition of waste generated in Karachi (Figure 2) was
presented at an expert meeting organized under the patronage of
the United Nations Office for Sustainable Development, at
Busan, Republic of Korea on 22–23 February 2018. The data
reported followed qualitative methodology (interview of con-
cerned personal) and was endorsed by the SSWMB (Ghauri,
2018). An estimate of waste produced in Mt for each fraction
varies since there is no official data for the average waste genera-
tion rate since 2006. Moreover, data related to waste significantly
varies in the literature – for instance, the average waste genera-
tion rate is reported between 0.4 and 0.65 kg per capita per day
(Ahmed, 2009; Ghauri, 2018; Japan International Cooperation
Agency and Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, 2005;
Khan et al., 2018).
Waste collection.  Waste collection and sweeping coverage are
the key indicators for public health in the ISWM as defined by
Aslam et al. 3

Table 1.  Waste generation and population data for various districts of Karachi.

District Area Population Population Waste generated

(km²) (in 2017) density (people (metric tonnes
per km²) per day) a
Karachi Central 62 2,972,639 48,336 1782
Karachi East 165 2,909,921 17,625 1745
Karachi South 85 1,791,751 21,079 1074
Karachi West 630 3,914,757 6212 2346
Korangi 95 2,457,019 25,918 1476
Malir 2635 2,008,901 762 1200
Total 3780 16,054,988 10,435

Note: a quantity of waste generated per day is estimated based upon the population and average waste generation rate per capita of 0.6 kg per
capita per day (Japan International Cooperation Agency and Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, 2005).

Figure 2.  Composition of waste generated in Karachi (Ghauri, 2018).

the United Nations-Habitat 2010 report (Velis et al., 2012). The
inadequate waste collection leads to the accumulation of waste in
nooks and corners of the streets, providing favourable conditions
for the proliferation of germs and disease-spreading vectors
(Rodić and Wilson, 2017). Furthermore, Karachi is still under
development and has an open drain system in many areas. There-
fore, uncollected waste causes blockage of drains and pollution
in water bodies, increasing the risk of water-borne diseases in
areas of the city (Shahid et al., 2014). A quantitative study con-
ducted by Coffey and Coad (2010) showed that cases of diar-
rhoea and acute respiratory infections were two and six times
higher, respectively, in the areas of low collection coverage than
that of higher collection coverage.
A 2006 baseline study indicated that the DMCs were
responsible for managing MSW in 80% of the city. However,
they could only serve 60% instead (Japan International
Cooperation Agency and Pakistan Environmental Protection
Agency, 2005). The remaining 40% is left unattended in the
streets, drains, illegal dumpsites, and water bodies. Therefore,
a private–public partnership and privatization of manage-
ment services were undertaken for better management
(Ahmed, 2009) and later the SSWMB was established.
Interestingly, at household level, the saleable part of the
waste is segregated by some house-members or maids at
source and sold directly to itinerant buyers. The remaining
part is effectively segregated for recyclable material by the
informal sector in the streets, at secondary collection points,
transfer stations, or at landfills (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata,
2012). Primary waste collection (door-to-door (D2D)) in
low–middle income areas is mostly carried out by the infor-
mal sector through handcarts, donkey-pull carts, or modified
motor vehicles, filling service gap and service provision
inequality, as the formal primary collection is mostly offered
in high-income areas. The formal sector uses relatively
sophisticated waste collection vehicles for their services. For
primary collection, the informal sector usually charges a
monthly fee from households for their services. The informal
sector, however, faces issues with the disposal of the waste
since the SSWMB does not allow them to dispose of waste at
official sites. The other major problem lies at secondary col-
lection points (communal bins). Most of these communal
bins at commercial areas are full and overloaded. The
4 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
inadequate management of communal bins results from the
inappropriate waste collection schedules and unpermitted
waste dumping by the informal sector (World Bank, 2019).
Furthermore, due to a lack of monitoring and strategic plan-
ning, secondary communal bins are not updated in terms of size
or number. Therefore, unattended waste is often scattered around
them (Masood et al., 2014). Due to a significant correlation of
poor waste collection with adverse environmental and health
effects, strategic planning and management of services are
needed to fulfil the basic sanitation needs of people.
Disposal.  Adequate disposal is regarded as the benchmark indi-
cator for environmental control (Masood et al., 2014; World
Bank, 2019). Abbasi et al. (2015) report that Karachi has 10 dis-
posal sites, namely: Jam Chakro; Gond Pass; Dhabeji; Mehm-
oodabad; Safari Park; Lines Area; Orangi; Meva Shah; Korangi
Graveyard; and Bilalabad – but none of the sites are engineered
or sanitary landfill. Municipal officials only acknowledge two
sites (Jam Chakro and Gond Pass) as landfills, while the rest
serve as illegal dumpsites. Municipal officials use the term ‘land-
fill’ to indicate that soil cover is maintained at sites to prevent
animals and birds from rummaging the waste. Both sites lack lin-
ing to avoid leachate penetration, pollution of soil, and under-
ground water contamination. Moreover, air quality at such sites is
also poor, exceeding the permissible limits of various chemicals
in the vicinity (Abbasi et al., 2015).
Waste is often burned illegally in crude form as an easy resort;
thus, inadequate waste collection, lack of space, and limited prac-
tice of alternative disposal methods result in piled-up heaps of
garbage. Organic fraction is neglected despite being the major
fraction of the waste (Kaza et al., 2018). It is neither picked by
scavengers nor does the municipality tend to utilize it through
composting, anaerobic digestion, or black soldier fly treatment.
Scavengers see no incentive as crude organic waste is not salea-
ble. The municipality and even private companies are reluctant to
opt for organic treatment due to a lack of vision and marketing
plans for the final compost product (Ricci-Jürgensen et al., 2020).
Inefficient disposal practices make MSW management of Karachi
perform poorly for environmental control, posing adverse and
detrimental effects on the environment, health, and ecological
system. Developing countries tend to allocate most of their
resources towards the collection of waste while investing very
little in its adequate disposal (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).
Karachi suffers from a similar tragedy.
Resource recovery.  Waste is a resource, and its recovery plays a
significant role in sustainable waste management. Resource
recovery substantially influences the process and strategic plan-
ning for disposal; it not only reduces the amount of waste sub-
jected to disposal, but also the resources put into monitoring
post-treatment and disposal activities. Resource recovery encom-
passes the concept of a circular economy and sustainable WM
since the Earth has limited carrying capacity and finite resources
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2015). Therefore, it not only
favours WM service providers financially by generating revenues
but also helps in coping with the global issue of resource scarcity
(Murray et al., 2017).
The existing MSW management system of Karachi signifi-
cantly undermines the resource recovery phase. Despite the
financial and environmental potential in the WM sector, Karachi
has no official material recovery facility. Most of the private
companies also stick to waste collection and transportation as per
their contracts, claiming that most recyclable and revenue poten-
tial waste are already hand-picked by scavengers. These factors
leave little incentive for private companies to invest in resource
recovery.
Nonetheless, the informal sector plays a vital role in the solid
waste management system (SWMS) in developing countries
from collection to resource recovery (Lau et al., 2020). The infor-
mal sector segregates potential waste from streets, communal
bins, households, and even legal and illegal dumpsites. Besides,
material recovery facilities (MRFs) have higher greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions due to their operational and electricity con-
sumption compared to the value of resources recovered by the
informal sector (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). However, an
MRF provides a better work environment and reduces the risk of
pollution and disease exposure – the informal sector does not per-
form any sort of precautionary or protective measures in this
regard. Therefore, it is essential to consider the role of the infor-
mal sector in the SWMS, and concerted efforts should be made to
integrate the informal and formal sectors (Rodić and Wilson,
2017).
Methodology
Study boundaries and data sources. The boundaries of the
conceptual MFA system and respective data sources are explained
below:
(a) The spatial boundary corresponds to the geographical area
of Karachi. It covers six main zones or districts, including
East Karachi, West Karachi, Central Karachi, South Karachi,
Malir, and Korangi district.
(b) The temporal boundary corresponds to the year 2019.
Assessment of the MFA for the year 2019 represents the cur-
rent situation, making it relevant to the contemporary issues
concerning WM in Karachi.
(c) The MFA targets MSW, including household and commer-
cial waste, green waste, bulky household waste, construc-
tion and demolition debris, waste from cleaning activities
and wet markets, and dry non-hazardous industrials.
(d) The MFA has three main flow components: MSW genera-
tion; MSW collection (formal and informal); and MSW end-
of-life management, that is, treatment and disposal (official
and unofficial).
(e) The functional unit is TPD of MSW.
The MFA presents material flows across the waste value chain in
Karachi, including processes and activities of both the informal
and formal sectors (see Figure 3). The quantities in Figure 3 are
Aslam et al. 5
Figure 3.  Flow of municipal solid waste in Karachi city.
Table 2.  List of interviews for primary data collection.
Number Category
1 Consultant
2 Non-governmental organization (NGO)
3 Government
4 Waste management company
5 NGO
sourced by systematically reviewing peer-reviewed, grey litera-
ture, and official reports. In some cases, estimates and extrapo-
lated values were used from relevant publications (Ahmed, 2009;
Asian Development Bank et al., 2006; Japan International
Cooperation Agency and Pakistan Environmental Protection
Agency, 2005; Shahid et al., 2014; United Nations Economic and
Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific et al., 2013; World
Bank, 2019). Pakistan lacks a waste data management base;
therefore, no official data exist on the recycling and material
recovery rates in the city. To fill this gap in data, five semi-struc-
tured interviews with municipal officials and private waste ser-
vice providers, were conducted (see Table 2). Field visits at major
informal waste activity hubs of Karachi (Sher Shah colony, Gizri,
Allahwala Town, and Korangi) were carried out to collect obser-
vation data from 12 February 2020 to 15 February 2020, includ-
ing communication with 23 informal workers, 10 waste pickers,
10 middlemen, and three recyclers – all were men between age
16 to 68. The collected data and information were then used to
validate secondary data obtained during desktop research. A
Interviewees
Principal consultant – Solid waste and resource management
Manager climate and energy programme
Ex-managing director
General manager
Chief executive officer
comparison of results with the data available in the literature for
other lower–middle-income countries was done as a means of
triangulation.
Calculations of MSW flows.  The MSW generation was calcu-
lated using the quantity of waste generated per day. The estimates
are based on the population and average waste generation rate per
capita of 0.6 kg per capita per day. Some data were retrieved from
the master plan compiled by the Pakistan Environmental Protec-
tion Agency and its international partner for the project: Japan
International Cooperation Agency and United Nations Develop-
ment Programme (Japan International Cooperation Agency and
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, 2005). Formal col-
lection rates are based on the same document, including estimates
for D2D collection, quantities of the waste left on streets
(17.29%), and waste collected by waste pickers. Recyclables that
are separated at source, given away to domestic servants, sold
directly to itinerant waste buyers, or given away to junk shops
were calculated to be 23.08%, a percentage extrapolated using
6 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
data from Asian Development Bank et al. (2006). Recyclable
items scavenged from storage containers, open dumps, streets,
and disposal sites by waste pickers are assumed to be 13%. A
similar percentage of data is reported by Ahmed (2009) and Shah
et al. (2019). Officially, no efforts have been reported to recover
organic waste. Since most of the waste ending up in landfills is
organic, it is assumed that 0% of MSW is composted. Addition-
ally, calculation details for subcomponent or process including
illegal dumping, burning, informal recycling, unattended waste,
along with their methods of calculations and sources used for
each estimation in the material flow diagram (MFD) are pre-
sented in Table 3.
Results and discussion
This study assesses the status of SWM in Karachi, using the MFA
approach. The estimates and calculations are based on the quanti-
ties sourced through a systematic literature review. In cases of
lack of data, estimates and extrapolated values were used. Figure
3 presents the MSW flows in 2019 in the MFD. The results and
discussions are presented in the following subsections.
MSW generation and reuse, recycle, and
recovery (3Rs) at source
The total quantity of generated MSW increased from 10,435
TPD in 2017 to 15,600 TPD in 2019, which is expected consid-
ering the average waste generation and population size along
with urbanization trends in Karachi. These estimates are still
modest when the Sindh Solid Waste Management Board (2017)
proposal report for a tender for 2018 to operate and maintain
Karachi landfills is considered. It was reported that MSW gen-
eration rates ranged from 12,000 to 15,000 TPD of MSW (Sindh
Solid Waste Management Board, 2017). Results for increment
in waste generation rate also correspond to the global trend,
correlating increased waste generation rate with population
growth, urbanization, and economic growth (Kaza et al., 2018).
Congruently, waste generation rate in each zone or district as
given in Table 1 is subjected to increase. However, a detailed
investigation is needed to present an accurate account of each
district. Since affluence variation and urbanization trends in
each zone differ, this influences the waste generation rates and
waste composition.
The MSW management was previously treated as a public
health notion at the national and local levels. In 2014, the GoS
realized the need for resource management and promoted the con-
cept of an IWMS under Act 4. However, Karachi’s municipal
authorities fail to provide adequate WM services due to the lack of
data, information, and monitoring. It also failed to comply with
the IWMS commitment under 2014 Act 4. The emphasis here is
the acquisition and maintenance of reliable and accurate data,
potentially through field surveys and composition studies. It sup-
ports adequate planning and development of the IWMS.
Concurrently, successful execution, enforcement, and perfor-
mance of the waste-related policies are measured through certain
proxies, such as waste collection rate and waste stream diversion
rate, depending upon the availability of waste data (Aslam, 2020).
This helps ensure the sustainability of the programmes and poli-
cies. Whereas new policies and their ex-ante analysis are highly
dependent on the identification of problem areas and their root
causes, waste generation and composition data contribute to both.
Waste data signifies sustainable WM practices by supporting the
decision-making process to implement the IWMS and predicting
associated environmental and financial performance of the SWM
at local and national levels. Secondly, linking waste to sources
helps define the target of the policies to be considered.
Material under 3Rs activities at source resulted in 1950 TPD,
that is, 12.5% of value recovered at source from total waste gen-
erated. Since the data are retrieved from a joint project of three
international organizations (Asian Development Bank, United
Nations Environmental Programme, and Institute for Global
Environmental Strategies), the input values and results are
assumed to be relatively reliable. However, since the study was
conducted in 2006, the estimates were based on mathematical
predictions following the trends that factored in population
growth, lifestyle changes, and economic factors. Some values
closely matched certain estimates from literature studies (Ahmed,
2009; Shah et al, 2019). Waste generation and composition stud-
ies can offer important insights that potentially relate to the trends
in market stability current scenarios in the absence of official
data. Such data would also allow us to model future business as
usual scenarios and interventions that are critical to planning and
programme development. This can also help to estimate offsets
needed to compensate for GHG emissions associated with prod-
uct disposal methods to meet sustainability targets.
Material recovery market.  Material recovery of MSW primarily
depends on the informal economy. As demonstrated in the results,
not a single project for waste recovery has been initiated. Typically,
across Pakistan, the recyclable stream other than organic waste
(kitchen, green, and wet) is recovered by the informal waste sector
by sorting, valorizing, recycling, and using it as fuel. Small-scale
compost pilot projects have been introduced by the municipality of
Lahore (Masood et al., 2014). However, no such initiative has been
undertaken by the DMCs and SSWMB in the past 20 years. A com-
posting plant in the 1980s initiated as Farooq Compost Fertilizer
Corporation Plant in Karachi, produced 1000 TPD; however, it
ceased for failing to procure estimated waste quantum (Ahmed and
Zurbrugg, 2002). Irrespective of the official schemes and initia-
tives, the informal sector produced 4100.36 TPD, that is, 26.28%
of the total waste to recovery. It is important to note that 26.28%
includes recovery at source (12.5%) and material diverted by waste
pickers (13.78%). A small portion (678.19 TPD) of the waste for
recovery due to process limitations/inefficiencies is diverted back
to landfill/dumping. These estimates are based on the findings
from a systematic literature review and not officially reported data.
This figure is subjected to have a standard deviation, signifying the
need for accurate data. The justification for the standard deviation
is the increase or decrease in the number of informal workers,
hence the varying recovery rates. If the dualists’ school of thought
Table 3.  Details of the flows of the material flow diagram (Figure 3).
Waste flows Description
F1 Overall quantity of solid waste generated in Karachi
every day
F2 Waste collected from door-to-door (D2D) or lifted
by contractors on behalf of Karachi solid waste
management (KSWM) at 50% capacity
F3 Collection by the informal workers who provide D2D
and then take it to communal/secondary storage
containers. The informal workers also sort recyclables
from the waste, which are shown in the separate waste
flow streams (waste pickers: F7, F8, and F12]
F4 Waste that is left on the streets or open places and is
not formally collected
F5 This includes recyclables separated at source and
given away to domestic servants or sold directly to
itinerant waste buyers per junkshops
F6 Total amount of waste dumped at the two disposal
sites of the city
Waste Waste pickers collect recyclable items from storage
pickers containers, open dumps, streets, and disposal sites
F7
F8
F12
F9 Waste not removed by waste pickers or formally
remains either in the open spaces or streets
F10 Uncollected waste is burnt locally to reduce its
quantity (volume) or to eliminate the odour. The
informal sector also burns waste to recover metals
F11 Waste dumped in water bodies or drains in the city
F13 Recyclable materials procured by the recycling sector
F14 Materials that could not be recovered from recycling
stream
E Endpoint
Note: composting is not done by officials or government bodies. However, a very small fraction of waste is composted by the industry under the umbrella of corporate social responsibility, not included
in the material flow analysis due to a lack of data.
Method of estimation
Calculated as the function of estimated waste
generation rate (0.61 kg per capita) and population of
Karachi in 2019
Figure from KSWM data
Calculated by the authors.
F3 = F1 – (F2 + F4 + F5)
Figure from KSWM data
1000 metric tonnes per day (TPD) out of 8000 TPD
waste generated that is, 12.5%
70% of waste collected = 70% of (F2+ F3)
212.2 TPD estimated as the backlogged waste
transferred to landfill
1500 TPD when waste generated was 7000 TPD
that is 21.43% of total waste, including F5 (Asian
Development Bank et al, 2006). Ahmed (2009)
reports recovery rates of 23.75%. So, this figure
is extrapolated with a small increment based on
personal communication with waste service providers
in Karachi, observations, and literature review
This figure is estimated based on literature,
observations
The authors estimate this figure with the observation
of waste container sites and illegal dumpsites
This figure is estimated based on the literature, and
observations
This figure is estimated based on the literature, and
observations
The authors estimate this figure with the observation
of the informal recycling hubs
The authors estimate that much of the backlogged
waste is disseminated into these endpoints,
particularly landfill
Source of information
Japan International Cooperation Agency and
Aslam et al.
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency
(2005); Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (2017)
Japan International Cooperation Agency and
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (2005)
Authors’ estimate
Japan International Cooperation Agency and
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (2005)
(Asian Development Bank et al. (2006); Ahmed
(2009); Shah et al. (2019)
Sindh Solid Waste Management Board, (2017);
United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific et al. (2013)
Estimate by authors; Asian Development Bank
et al. (2006); Ahmed (2009); Masood et al. (2014)
Authors’ estimate
Authors’ estimate
Authors’ estimate
Authors’ estimate
Authors’ estimate
 
7
8 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
is applied to this issue, informal workers are ‘counter-cyclical’ to
the economy, that is, their number expands when the economy
contracts, and contracts if the gross domestic product (GDP)
improves. However, the structuralist school of thought argues that
informal workers have a ‘pro-cyclical’ relationship with the econ-
omy, that is, their number should increase with the increase in GDP
and market demand. Alternatively, voluntarist, legalists, and co-
production schools of thought suggest a combination of the ‘coun-
ter-cyclical’ and ‘pro-cyclical’ relationship (Navarrete-Hernandez
and Navarrete-Hernandez, 2018). However, to prove these hypoth-
eses in the case of the Karachi WM system, quantitative studies are
required. Results were produced without increasing and decreas-
ing the population of informal workers, as reported in the litera-
ture. Fergutz et al. (2011) report that in 2006, the global rate of
urban waste recycling in Brazil was 11% (identical to that in 2003).
In volume terms, recycling increased from 5 million Mt to 5.76 mil-
lion Mt per year. In the case of Brazil, the percentage remained the
same; however, the corresponding quantity of waste and popula-
tion has increased while GDP growth (annual percentage) grew
from 1.41% to 3.96% from 2003 to 2006 (World Bank, 2018). The
increment in the waste recovered by waste pickers in our estimates
is based on the anecdotal evidence received by waste service pro-
viders referring to relatively industrialized informal waste in Paki-
stan (Aslam, 2020). Nonetheless, the lack of accurate data and
quantities studies concerning the informal economy adds to the
difficulty in the triangulation of the data, compromising the confi-
dence level of the results.
In countries such as Pakistan, the informal sector is the major
contributor to material recovery and often the only one (Kaza
et al., 2018). While the informal sector is reported to be very
efficient in terms of collection and informal recycling of the
waste, as this analysis conforms to, the issue with the quality of
the material recovery and recycled remains critical. Due to the
lack of source segregation and inclusion of the informal sector,
material collected is heavily soiled and cross-contaminated,
which contributes to the downgrading of products and range of
potential end-uses. Inclusion of the informal sector is needed for
improved recovery, job creation, and equal gains in the value
chain (Dias, 2016; Fergutz et al., 2011; Velis et al., 2012).
MSW collection and final disposal.  Overall, in Karachi, it is
estimated that approximately 70% of the waste generated is col-
lected formally (50%) and informally (20%). The informal sector
and small-scale enterprises also contribute to filling the gap left
due to inequality in service provision. Presently, two official
landfill sites, that is, Jam Chakro (Near Surjani Town) and Gond
Pass (Hub River Road), each of 500 acres, are available for the
disposal of MSW generated in Karachi. However, the informal
sector, besides its efforts to provide affordable D2D waste collec-
tion services is not allotted any designated site to dispose of the
waste (after sorting recyclables). Therefore, the waste to be dis-
posed of by the informal sector and the unattended waste accu-
mulate under bridges and along roads. It is often openly burnt and
thrown into the drainage system, causing flood and adverse envi-
ronmental and health effects.
The results show that 70% of the daily waste ends up in land-
fills, which is 3120 TPD more than that is formally collected.
This estimated waste of 3120 TPD flows in either due to disposal
activities of the backlogged waste (unattended and accumulated
over time) or informally collected waste. The Gond Pass receives
around 3000 TPD, whereas Jam Chakro receives 8000 TPD of
waste, both, with quantities varying as much as 25% (Sindh Solid
Waste Management Board, 2017). However, despite its efforts to
provide affordable D2D waste collection services, the informal
sector is not allotted any designated site for waste disposal (after
sorting recyclables). Therefore, the unwanted waste that is,
wastes with little or no market value are disposed of in the com-
munal bins or openly dumped, corresponding to added waste
flows at the landfills. Overall, the MFD shows a discrepancy in
the waste flow due, that is, adding up end points (landfill mate-
rial, recyclables, open burning, dumping, and leakage to drains)
shows an additional 666.65 TPD of waste (total 16,266.65 TPD)
than waste generated on daily basis (15,600 TPD). This discrep-
ancy is due to lack of sources for data triangulation and high
standard deviation in the estimates related to stock build-up.
Further data and information are needed to make accurate esti-
mates and material flow calculations.
To date, the system of selective collection of MSW as a two-bin
system, source segregation, and material recovery facility has not
been established due to limited capacities, corruption, and politics
involved in the municipalities together with the institutional frag-
mentation of the involved bodies. The inadequate performance of
the WM system has left a large portion of waste at general transfer
stations and many areas of Karachi are backlogged.
Conclusion
The current SWM system in Karachi has significant management
inefficiencies. Efforts made by the legislative body towards
improving the SWMS fail to translate the concepts of integrated
WM approaches into practice. Since its establishment, the
SWMB did not establish a single material facility and focused on
collection and disposal only. Increased waste flows due to infor-
mal disposal is a major contributor to the inadequate state and
performance of the SWMS. Waste collection by the informal sec-
tor emphasizes the service inequity within Karachi – preference
by the municipality is given to medium–high income areas.
The absence of material recovery facilities and reliance on the
informal sector without due recognition and integration, ques-
tions the context and evidence-based planning and decision-mak-
ing of the SWMB. The informal sector’s role in material recovery
should not be ignored as it is fundamental to the IWMS. Efforts
should be dedicated to their legal recognition, inclusion, and
capacity building. The issues of unattended and backlogged
waste need immediate attention and adequate planning on a long-
term basis.
The methodology utilized for this study is appropriate for
assessing the sustainability of WM systems and planning pro-
cesses. MFA produces structures and patterns in WM when
applied to a case.
Aslam et al. 9
In conclusion, Karachi’s SWMS performs poorly with a sig-
nificant need for improvement. Qualitative improvement of
SWM requires active participation of local authorities and all
population groups. Waste reduction strategies need to be pro-
moted together with the inclusion of the informal sector to ensure
the affordability and sustainability of the WM system. Karachi’s
SWMS should aim at reducing the flows of MSW to landfill and
other inadequate disposal methods by investing in the material
recovery facilities and capacity building of the informal sector.
Baseline data are required to be made available by authorities.
Authorities can use the services of researchers in the city for data
collection and publication.
Recent history tells us that policy and regulation enforce-
ment has not been a useful tool to regulate Karachi’s WM sec-
tor, that is, brief bans on plastic and polythene bags.
Alternatively, semi-privatization of the sector could be an effec-
tive way to counteract the waste mafia monopoly in Karachi, as
the government sector has not performed adequately. Past expe-
riences show that a practical approach to many significant prob-
lems in the city is needed. Integration of information technology
and mobile application for the collection, segregation, and dis-
posal of solid waste can assist Karachi residents and encourage
privatization and ‘Uberization’ of the SWM system in Karachi.
This will open employment and business opportunities and help
reduce the waste flows into the landfills. Finally, sustainable
WM that utilizes public–private partnerships for service deliv-
ery is recommended. New towns, housing societies, and hous-
ing schemes are being introduced regularly due to the growing
population of the city. These builders should follow the stand-
ard guidelines for the building and integration of material
recovery sites in Karachi. The SWMS can integrate district-
wise material recovery units in the city to reduce distance and
expenses. Karachi has the capacity and infrastructure to imple-
ment waste recovery, but the lack of commitment and motiva-
tion must be addressed.
Declaration of conflicting interests Khan S, Alvarez LCM and Wei Y (2018) Sustainable management of munici-
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Shiza Aslam https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6491-1346
References
Abbasi HN, Lu X and Zhao G (2015) An overview of Karachi solid waste
disposal sites and environs. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports
6: 294–303.
Ahmed N (2009) Sustainable community waste collection in Karachi
Pakistan. Engineering Sustainability 162: 169–176.
Ahmed N and Zurbrugg C (2002) Urban organic waste management in
Karachi Pakistan. In: Reed B (ed.) Sustainable environmental sanita-
tion and water services: Proceedings of the 28th WEDC international
conference, Kolkata, India, 18–22 November 2002. Loughborough, UK:
Water, Engineering and Development Centre, 3.
Asian Development Bank, United Nations Environmental Programme, and
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (2006) Promoting reduce
reuse and recycle in South Asia. Available at: www.iges.or.jp/en/ltp/
activity08.html.www.adb.org (accessed 5 May 2020).
Aslam S (2020) Sustainable Collaboration; Transforming Alliances for
EPR in non-OECD Context A case of Pakistan. Lund, Sweden: The
International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics, Lund
University.
Bajwa A (2018) 6th population and housing census provisional results and
issues. In: Proceedings of the city dialogue, Lahore, Pakistan, 27 April
2018, Lahore, Pakistan: Punjab Urban Unit.
Coffey M and Coad A (2010) Collection of Municipal Solid Waste in
Developing Countries, 2nd edition. Nairobi: UN-Habitat. .
Dias SM (2016) Waste pickers and cities. Environment and Urbanization
28: 375–390.
Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2015) Circular economy report: Delivering
the circular economy – A toolkit for policymakers. Available at: https://
www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/
EllenMacArthurFoundation_PolicymakerToolkit.pdf (accesseed 18 June
2020).
Fergutz O, Dias S and Mitlin D (2011) Developing urban waste management
in Brazil with waste picker organizations. Environment and Urbanization
23: 597–608.
Ferronato N, Rada EC, Gorritty MA, et al. (2019) Introduction of the circular
economy within developing regions: A comparative analysis of advan-
tages and opportunities for waste valorization. Journal of Environmental
Management 230: 366–378.
Ghauri WU (2018) Waste to energy potential in Pakistan. In: Proceeding of
the group meeting on sustainable application of waste-to-energy in Asian
region, Busan, South-Korea, 22–23 November 2018, United Nations
Office for Sustainable Development.
Godfrey L (2008) Facilitating the improved management of waste in South
Africa through a national waste information system. Waste Management
28: 1660–1671.
Hoornweg D and Bhada-Tata P (2012) What a Waste: A Global Review
of Solid Waste Management. Urban Development Series Knowledge
Papers. World Bank.
Jambeck JR, Geyer R, Wilcox C, et al. (2015) Plastic waste input from land
into the ocean. Science 347: 768–771.
Japan International Cooperation Agency and Pakistan Environmental
Protection Agency (2005) Guidelines for Solid Waste Management.
Pakistan: Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency.
Kaza S, Yao L, Bhada-Tata P, et al. (2018) What a Waste 2.0: A Global
Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Urban Development
Series Knowledge Papers. World Bank.
pal solid waste under changing climate: A case study of Karachi, Pakistan.
Asian Journal of Environmental Technology 2: 23–32.
Lau WWY, Shiran Y, Bailey RM, et al. (2020) Evaluating scenarios toward
zero plastic pollution. Science 369: 1455–1461.
Lebreton L and Andardy A (2019) Future scenarios of global plastic waste
generation and disposal. Palgrave Communication 5: 1–11.
Masood M, Barlow CY and Wilson DC (2014) An assessment of the current
municipal solid waste management system in Lahore, Pakistan. Waste
Management & Research 32: 834–847.
Murray A, Skene K and Haynes K (2017) The circular economy: An interdis-
ciplinary exploration of the concept and application in a global context.
Journal of Business Ethics 140: 369–380.
Navarrete-Hernandez P and Navarrete-Hernandez N (2018) Unleashing
waste-pickers’ potential: Supporting recycling cooperatives in Santiago
de Chile. World Development 101: 293–310.
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (2017) Provisional summary results of 6th pop-
ulation and housing census. Available at: http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/
provisional-summary-results-6th-population-and-housing-census-2017-0
(accessed 15 June 2020).
Ricci-Jürgensen M, Gilbert J and Ramola A (2020) Global Assessment of
Municipal Organic Waste Production and Recycling. International Solid
Waste Association (ISWA)
10 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
Rodić L and Wilson D (2017) Resolving governance issues to achieve prior-
ity sustainable development goals related to solid waste management in
developing countries. Sustainability 9: 404.
Shah SZA, Nawaz Z, Nawaz S, et al. (2019) The role and welfare of cart
donkeys used in waste management in Karachi Pakistan. Animals 9:
159.
Shahid M, Nergis Y, Siddiqui SA, et al. (2014) Environmental impact of
municipal solid waste in Karachi city. World Applied Sciences Journal
29: 1516–1526.
Sindh Solid Waste Management Board (2017) Tender document: Operation/
maintenance of SSWMB landfill site at Deh Jam Chakro (near Surjani
town) Karachi. Available at: http://www.sswmb.gos.pk/data/nit-re3-4-
17-18/31-12-17-4.1RFPO-MLFSJC.pdf (accessed 10 July 2020).
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific,
International Union for Conservation of Nature, and UN-Habitat (2013)
Baseline Study for Solid Waste Management – Karachi. Bangkok, Thailand:
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific.
Velis CA, Wilson DC, Rocca O, et al. (2012) An analytical framework and
tool (‘InteRa’) for integrating the informal recycling sector in waste
and resource management systems in developing countries. Waste
Management & Research 30: 43–66.
World Bank (2018) GDP growth (annual %) – Brazil. Available at: https://
data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=BR
(accessed 25 July 2020).
World Bank) (2019) Transforming Karachi into a Livable and Competitive
Megacity: A City Diagnostic and Transformation Strategy. Directions in
Development-Infrastructure. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Wildlife Forum (2019 September) Tackling plastic pollution in
Pakistan. Plastic Waste Worldwide Fund. Available at: https://www.
wwfpak.org/issues/plastic_waste_/ (accessed 29 May 2020).