SPE 126745

Oil Fields Scale Deposition Prediction Methodology

M. I. Refaei, I. A/Karim Al-Kandari, Kuwait Oil Company

Copyright 2009, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2009 Kuwait International Petroleum Conference and Exhibition held in Kuwait City, Kuwait, 14–16 December 2009.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been reviewed
by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or
members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is
restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
Oilfield scale costs are high because of drastic oil and gas production decline, frequent pulling of down-hole equipment for
replacement, re-perforation of the scaling producing intervals, reaming and re-drilling of the plugged oil wells, stimulation of the
plugged oil-bearing formation and other remedial work-over. As scale deposits around the well-bore, the porous formation
becomes plugged and may be rendered impermeable to any fluids.

In most of oil and gas fields scale deposition in surface and subsurface production equipment has been recognized to be one of
the major operational problem. Problem will be more critical in Water flooded fields where wells will suffered from flow
restriction because of scale deposition within the oil producing formation matrix and the down-hole equipment, as well as scale
deposits in the surface production equipment.

Some of the Oil Fields have been water-flooded with formation seawater. Compatibility tests have indicated probable
deposition of scale in surface and subsurface production equipment. This paper outlines the physical and theoretical prediction for
down-hole scale deposition in the water flooded fields.

Water is the main substance, which is responsible for scale build up problem. In order to study the circumstances behind the
scale build up problem, following the new methodology which can be applied to predict the different types of scale build up before
start to be precipitated. From the samples of the complete water analysis reports, Scale Indexes were calculated to define the
different scales that can be precipitated at different production nodes/conditions.

This paper showed that different types/amounts of scale accumulation can be precipitated from the selected water samples
since the super saturation conditions of water occurred. It also described the control of scale inhibition programs which could be
carried out to control down-hole scale deposition and scale inhibition treatment that could be implemented to overcome the scale
deposition, before scale problem will be occurred. Scale control can also been controlled/managed properly by continues
updating the new scale index calculations methodology described in the probable problematic water flooded reservoir.

Introduction
Some of the Oil Fields have been water-flooded with seawater. Compatibility tests have indicated probable deposition of scale on
surface and subsurface production equipment. This paper outlines the physical and theoretical prediction for down-hole scale
deposition in example OIL wells. It also describes the control of scale inhibition programs which carried out to control down-hole
scale deposition by using the formation squeeze technique.

Scale deposition on surface and subsurface oil and gas production equipment has been recognized to be a major operational
problem. Scale contributes to equipment wear and corrosion and flow restriction, thus resulting in a decrease in oil and gas
production. Experience in the oil industry has indicated that many oil wells have suffered flow restriction because of scale
deposition within the oil/gas-producing formation matrix and the down-hole equipment, as well as scale deposits in the surface
production equipment and, generally in primary, secondary, and tertiary oil recovery phase.
2 SPE 126745

Oilfield scale costs are high because of drastic oil and gas production decline, frequent pulling of down-hole equipment for
replacement, re-perforation of the scaling producing intervals, reaming and re-drilling of the plugged oil wells, stimulation of the
plugged oil-bearing formation and other remedial work-over.
As scale deposits around the well-bore, the porous formation becomes plugged and may be rendered impermeable to any
fluids. Many case histories of oil well scaling by calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, and barium sulfate have been reported(1).

Problems pertaining to oil well scaling in North sea fields have been recorded and are similar to case in the USSR where scale
has severity plugged wells, oil field scale problems have occurred as a results of water flowing in Algeria(1), South Sumatra oil
field(1) and Egypt, where calcium and strontium sulfate scales have been found in surface and subsurface production equipment.

Water is the main substance, which is responsible for scale build up problem.

In order to study the circumstances behind the scale build up problem, this paper summarizes a new methodology that can be
applied to predict the scale build up before start precipitation(1).

Background
The objective of this paper is to predict the amount and type of possible scale deposition that could be precipitated in oil and gas
fields through the following methodology:

• Determining the amount of different scale types precipitated (down hole / up-hole) in July and October fields.
• Predicting the future scale types that could be precipitated at different operations conditions.
• Recommending the optimum scale removal techniques.
• Recommending the optimum scale inhibition treatment.

Water Physical Properties

Since water is one of the most abundant and important substances on earth. Its chemical formula is H2O which signifies two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Water is unusual in that it exists in nature as a solid, liquid, and gas. At most ambient
temperatures, water is a liquid. Some physical constants of water are shown in the following Table. The chemical properties of
water are of interest since it is the solvent power of water that causes many oilfield problems. Chemists think of water as the
universal solvent. It will dissolve virtually all inorganic substances to some extent. The solvent power of water is great because of
the structure of the water molecule, its ability to act as an acid or a base, and the fact that it can function as either an oxidizing or a
reducing agent.

Physical Constants of Water Table

Heat of
Den. @ Critical Critical
Mol. Wt. M.P. (°C) B.P. °C Vaporization
4°C Temp. (°C) Press. (atm.)
(cal/m)

18.016 1.00 0 100 374.1 217.7 9.720

Theoretically the angle between the hydrogen bonds to the oxygen is 90°, but because of repulsive forces it is actually 105°.
This results in a polar molecule, with the oxygen end being partially negative and the end with the hydrogen partially positive.
Since inorganic compounds are ionic in nature, they tend to dissolve in polar solvents. The process of solution is the breakdown of
a crystal, which is only possible if the attraction of solvent molecules is nearly the same or greater than the forces holding the
crystal molecule together in the solid. Solvent action of water on sodium chloride is an example of this.

Water Chemical Reactions

Sodium chloride is an ionic compound. The negative end or oxygen atom of water attaches itself to the sodium atom, and the
hydrogen or positive end to the negative chlorides. This is termed hydration, and the energy of hydration must be sufficient to
overcome the crystal energy. Solubility is limited because as the amount of sodium chloride dissolved increases, the rate of
reforming the crystals increases. When the rate of re-crystallization equals the rate of solution, equilibrium exists and the solubility
limit is reached.
SPE 126745 3

The term water denotes a pure, inorganic chemical compound. When the solvent action of water dissolves a substance such as
sodium chloride, a solution is formed. Physical constants of the solution, such as its boiling point and freezing point, are different
from those of pure water. The substances water dissolves can contribute to the solvent power. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water
and hydrolyzes to carbonic acid. This gives a solution with acidic properties which attacks and dissolves substances such as
dolomite or limestone. As a result of its solvent power, liquid water does not exist pure in nature. Even dropping rain contains
some dissolved gases. Thus we use the term water to refer to naturally occurring aqueous solutions of various components and
concentrations.

The hydrologic cycle is a term used to describe the circulation of water on earth. It consists of evaporation of water from the
sea into the atmosphere, the formation of clouds with the subsequent release of the water as a rain on the land, and the return of the
water to the sea by surface or subterranean routes. The hydrologic cycle is significant since it is the process by which necessary
water supplies are furnished to the land for consumption by men, animals, and plants. Water from rain or melting snow and ice
either sinks into the ground, collects and flows over the surface of the earth, or evaporates. Water collects and flows over the
surface as streams, creeks, or rivers, or which collects as lakes and ponds are termed surface water.

Water which sinks into the ground to be tapped by wells or to form springs is called ground water. Both ground and surface
waters come into contact with rocks, minerals, or organic matter. Surface water flowing over these substances may dissolve or
erode them. The species and concentration of impurities dissolved in water will represent the substances which the water has
contacted. Surface water may carry suspended mud, sand, bacteria, vegetable matter, and colloidal matter such as clays and silica
compounds. Ground water which collects in large enough quantities to be tapped by a well has been filtered by the soil and rock
formations during its downward seepage.

Consequently, this water usually contains little suspended or colloidal material. However, because of increased contact with
soil and rock formations, this water usually acquires a higher concentration of dissolved solids. In addition to dissolved solids,
ground water may contact and dissolve gases. In zones which contain both water and a gas, an equilibrium will be established
between the' gas in the atmosphere and the gas dissolved in the water.

The principal gases in contact with formation water are nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), helium (He), hydrogen (H2), and ammonia (NH3). Addition of oxygen or carbon dioxide to the
water may increase the solvent power of the water. Usually the water becomes saturated with oxygen at the surface or in the upper
soil strata. As the water filters down through the soil or rock formations, the oxygen is depleted by the oxidation of substances
such as sulfides, magnetite, or organic matter. This transforms these substances into compounds that are generally more soluble in
water. Carbon dioxide and water form carbonic acid, which in turn ionizes to give hydrogen ions according to the following
equations:

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

H2CO3 H+ + HCO-3

Whereas limestone is only very slightly soluble in pure water, the carbonic acid in water containing carbon dioxide increases
calcium carbonate solubility by the formation of calcium bicarbonate as illustrated by equation following.

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca (HCO3)2

Sulfuric acid, resulting from the oxidation of sulfides, may be present in the water, as may organic acids produced by bacterial
decomposition of vegetable matter. While carbonates, such as limestone and dolomite, are more readily attacked by the acid in
solution, this acid may also attack other minerals. Oxidation is an important process in the chemical attack of substances by water.
Surface waters in contact with air become saturated with oxygen. Ground waters may contain oxygen from respiration of the soil
or from infiltration of surface waters.

Oxygen present in the water is then available to oxidize some substances, changing their composition and chemical charac-
teristics. Oxidation of sulfides such as pyrites results in the formation of iron oxide and, under certain conditions, sulfuric acid.
Sulfides in solution can be oxidized to sulfates. Oxides, ferrous ions, and manganese ions may be oxidized. Organic matter or
compounds can be oxidized to carbon dioxide. Reduction, the reverse of oxidation, is more important in petroleum formation
waters that are not in contact with oxygen. The organic nature of petroleum produces a reducing atmosphere. Any required oxygen
4 SPE 126745

must be taken from oxygen containing oxides, nitrates, nitrites, or sulfates. Hydrogen sulfide or ammonia may result from these
reduction processes. The stability of dissolved substances in given oxidation states depends upon the oxidation reduction or redox
potential existing in the water. This is influenced by the pH of the water.

Compatibility of Waters
Waters that are compatible can be mixed without producing any undesirable chemical reactions between components dissolved in
the individual waters. Undesirable reactions are those that produce insoluble products such as calcium and carbonate ions, forming
calcium carbonate or barium, and sulfate ions, forming barium sulfate.

Insoluble products produced from these reactions can decrease flow in lines, plug injection wells, or reduce permeability.
Compatibility of waters used in secondary recovery operations is of primary importance in designing and operating water flood
systems. It is also important in some waste water disposal systems. Interstitial and injection waters should be compatible to prevent
permeability reduction caused by deposited solids(2). Waters mixed at the surface for injection should be .compatible; otherwise,
deposited solids can block flow lines or plug injection wells.

Produced waters and supply waters are sometimes scale forming. Mixing incompatible waters produces scale-forming water
that could have been avoided if good engineering practices had been observed. Damage from mixing waters that are not
compatible is caused by deposited solids. The amount of solids deposited depends upon the concentrations of reacting ions present
in the individual waters and other factors influencing solubility of the compound. The amount of mixing of the two or more waters
also influences the magnitude of deposits.

If waters are mixed in a tank or flow line before injection, total mixing will occur and the amount of slightly soluble
compound formed in excess of the solubility will deposit. When water that is not compatible with interstitial water is injected into
a reservoir, deposits will form only where the waters make contact and mix. If there is a small degree of mixing, deposits will form
in only a small volume of water; conversely, a large degree of mixing will result in deposits forming in a large volume of the
water. A breakthrough of injection water into the bore of a producing well would mix large amounts of the incompatible waters
and cause severe damage to the well.

When reactions occur between the chemical constituents of incompatible waters to form insoluble products, not all of the
reacting ionic species are precipitated-only enough to adjust the product of the reacting ion concentrations to the thermo-dynamic
solubility product or to provide a saturated solution. The amount precipitated represents that in "excess" of the saturated
concentration. The solubility of a compound is influenced by other ions in the water, temperature, and sometimes pressure. For
example, calcium sulfate solubility will vary depending upon temperature and concentration of foreign ions in the water.

The volume of water in the mixing zone increases as the injection water formation water interface moves away from the well
bore of the water input well. Assume that, by the ionic diffusion process or by mixing caused by flow, the two incompatible waters
are mixed in a zone I foot wide in a formation of 25 percent porosity. Let this mixing zone represent the wall of a hollow cylinder,
10 feet high, of some average radius from the well bore.

Water-Sensitive Formations
Certain reservoir rocks are subject to permeability damage when infiltrated by fresh water. This damage, which is related to rock
properties, is caused by swelling of indigenous clays that constrict pores, and the dispersion of indigenous non-swelling particles
during fluid flow.

Many water injection projects have suffered reduced efficiency because reservoir rock was plugged by clay which swelled
when contacted with water(6). For this reason, when extraneous waters are used, it is advisable to determine the composition and
clay content of the reservoir rock before selecting a water source(3).

Water Quality
Water quality is a term applied to the suitability of water for injection into an underground reservoir. Standards of water quality
vary. The first standards of water quality for potable waters were that it tasted good, looked good, was odorless, and was not toxic.
The same type of standards have been established for injection waters; namely, that the water goes in the ground and does not
corrode the system. Some attempt has been made to establish more quantitative standards for injection waters, but this has not been
universally accepted(4).
SPE 126745 5

Water quality includes the amount of suspended solids in the water, number of bacteria present, and the corrosivity of the
water. All of these factors influence the ease of water injection into a formation. Suspended solids could plug the pore spaces in the
formation or build up an impermeable filter cake on the face of the reservoir rock that would impede water injection.

Bacteria may contribute to corrosion and corrosion products, resulting in plugging of the injection well. Bacterial growths
themselves can sometimes result in plugging. Corrosive water not only damages the system but may produce corrosion products
which can plug the well. A common example of this is iron sulfide formed from corrosion by hydrogen sulfide.

Water Problems
Problems involved with the use of water are caused by the dissolved constituents. For example, pure water is not very corrosive to
steel. Corrosion will proceed until the corrosion products stifle the reaction. The addition of salt to water increases conductivity
and corrosion.

Dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide increase the corrosivity of the water. Corrosion, then, is a problem with
certain waters. Corrosion is undesirable for several reasons. Foremost, of course, is that corrosion represents destruction of
equipment and replacement costs.

All types of oilfield equipment exposed to water are subject to corrosion. Corrosion can cause not only a shutdown in
production operations but also cause a safety hazard by weakening high-pressure equipment. Leaks in flow lines or pipelines can
also result in costly damages to a farmer's property.

Corrosion products removed by turbulent water flow can deposit in processing equipment or reduce permeability in water
injection wells. Damage caused by corrosion can, therefore, decrease the operational efficiency of a system. Chemical reactions
sometimes occur between some constituents dissolved in water to produce insoluble compounds.

These insoluble compounds deposited by the water are called scale. Scale formation is a major water problem. It not only
occurs in production tubing and flow lines, but in heater treaters, radiators, cooling towers, and every other piece of oilfield or
plant equipment that handles water. Scale build-up in tubing or flow lines reduces the pipe diameter and, consequently, the flow. In
heat exchangers, scale acts as insulation, decreasing their effectiveness. Prevention of scale formation often requires treatment of
the water to remove one of the constituents.

Softening water is an example of treatment to prevent scale deposition. Certain chemical compounds which act to prevent
scale formation by complexion one of the ions in the scale forming reaction are called scale inhibitors.

When practicable, these are added to scale-forming water to prevent scale deposition. Another water problem that is becoming
more serious as our population and industrial capacity grows is water pollution. In the early days of oil production, produced salt
water could be dumped into creeks and rivers. This sometimes resulted in fish kills and making the water unfit for animal or
human consumption.

Today, states and the federal government have laws regulating the disposal of waste brines in bodies of fresh water. Now the
field engineer must carefully consider the disposal of brine to avoid conflicts with pollution laws.

Disposal of brines or other wastes such as cooling tower blow-down water is a serious economic problem. The revenue from a
barrel of oil may be three dollars. Expense in producing this barrel of oil is justified, but a barrel of waste water produces no
revenue; the cost involved in its disposal must be deducted from the profit made in oil production. Disposal costs must, therefore,
be held to a minimum.

Operators have sometimes been forced to haul waste water, when any form of surface disposal would constitute pollution and
underground disposal was not available. Microorganisms are sometimes a problem in water-handling systems.

In potable waters, the chief concern with bacteria is as a health hazard. In water-flood projects and in some plant waters,
bacteria and other microorganisms can contribute to corrosion and fouling of systems. Sulfate reducing bacteria can generate
corrosive hydrogen sulfide, resulting in corrosion of metal equipment. Corrosion products from the sulfide attack can plug or
reduce permeability in injection wells. Algae growth can foul cooling towers, as well as presenting a problem in storage basins for
injection water(5).
6 SPE 126745

Water Treatment
Making water suitable for use by chemical or physical methods is termed water treatment. Suitability of water for a specific use is
governed by the quality of the water and the use requirements. Rain collected in a clean container is essentially pure water and is
suitable for nearly any use.

Sea water is too salty to serve as drinking water but is used as plant cooling water by many tideland industrial plants. Any
water can be treated to a designated quality for a specific use. An illustration would be treatment of sea water to provide potable
water. The mandatory permissible dissolved solids for potable water are 1,000 ppm. Table 3.2 shows sea water containing
approximately 34,292 ppm dissolved solids. The sea water must then be treated to remove a minimum of 33,292 ppm dissolved
solids.

Water Analysis
It has been previously stated that pure water is seldom, if ever, found in nature. Therefore the term water is generally interpreted to
mean naturally occurring water which contains impurities such as dissolved solids or gases. Pure water is usually referred to as
distilled water and, unless special precautions are taken, even this contains trace impurities. Thus, waters differ by the amount and
character of the impurities. The particular use intended for water determines the requirements for its chemical and physical
properties.

These properties are influenced greatly by the identities and amounts of the dissolved substances. The composition of the
water can only be determined by chemical analysis and the physical properties by actual measurements.

For a given use, the applicability of water, as well as any treatment required, is determined by its chemical composition and
physical properties. This point up the importance of water analysis data, like any chemical analysis, the extent and degree of
accuracy of a water analysis is determined by its purpose. For most applications in the petroleum industry, a routine water analysis
is sufficient.

Determination of Major Components of Water

Elements that are found in natural waters are shown in Table 3.6. These elements may be divided into three groups: major
components, minor components, and trace components(6 , 7).

Elements Found In Natural Water table

A. Elements Commonly Present in Natural Waters

Boron as borate ion (BO---3)
Calcium as calcium ion (Ca++ )
Carbon as carbonate ion (CO--3)
Chlorine as chloride ion (CI-)
Fluorine as fluoride ion (F-) or
fluosilicate ion (Si F--6)
Iron as ferrous ion (Fe++)
or ferric ion (Fe+++)
or colloidal Lithium ion (Li+)
Magnesium as magnesium ion (Mg++)
Manganese as manganous ion (Mn++)
or colloidal Mn2O3
Nitrogen as nitrate ion (NO-3)
nitrite ion (NO-2)
or dissolved nitrogen (N2)
Oxygen as NO3,SO4,O3
or dissolved oxygen (O2)
Silicon as dissolved silicates or colloidal silica
Sodium as sodium ion (Na+)
Sulfur as sulfate ion (SO--4) or sulfide ion (S--) or colloidal sulfur
SPE 126745 7

B. Elements Occasionally Found in Natural Waters

Aluminum (AI+++or AIO2)

Copper (Cu++)
Arsenic (As+++or asO--4
Iodine (I-)
Antimony (Sb+++)
Phosphorus (PO--4)
Barium (Ba++)
Potassium (K+)
Bromine (Br-)
Strontium (Sr++)
Cadmium (Cd++)
Rubidium (Rb+)
Cesium (Cs+)
Zinc (Zn++)
Cobalt (Co++)

Physical Measurements
It is important to study the physical as well as chemical properties of the water. Some of the physical properties can be calculated
from the water analysis data. Sometimes physical measurements are used to estimate the chemical properties(8).

1. Microorganisms
2. Specific Gravity
3. Water Resistivity
4. Water Temperature
5. Total Dissolved Solids
6. Turbidity

Miscellaneous Measurements
There are three other de terminations which are made on water samples. These are alkalinity and acidity, hardness, and pH or
hydrogen ion concentration.

1. Alkalinity and Acidity

2. Hardness
3. pH Value

Scales and Sludge Deposited from Water

The formation of scales and sludge deposited from waters is troublesome. These deposits may form in distribution lines, domestic
hot-water heaters, heater treaters, various types of cooling equipment, boilers, heat exchangers, or on nearly any surface which
water contacts. These deposits often prove expensive due to shutdown of equipment for removal of deposits or replacement of the
equipment.

Scale and sludge are differentiated on the basis that scale is a deposit formed in place on surfaces in contact with water, while
sludge may form in one place and be deposited in another. Sludge may collect in areas of a system where the flow rate is low or
where there are bends in the lines, and thus build up a deposit which will reduce the flow. Sludge is usually less adhering than
scales and more easily removed by mechanical methods.

Scales, by the nature of their formation, are usually harder and more impermeable than sludge. One method of combating
corrosion in water distribution lines utilizes the deposition of a thin layer of calcium carbonate scale on the metal surface as a
protective coating. Usually, the deposition of scale is undesirable because it is uncontrolled. Scale may build up to such an extent
that flow through a pipe is reduced to a trickle. Figure 3.1 shows a section of flow line, from a secondary recovery water supply
well, which was filled with deposited gypsum scale in a matter of days(9).
8 SPE 126745

The heat transfer properties of scale are generally less than those for metals. A build-up of scale on metal surfaces may act as
insulation in cooling systems and boilers, causing decreased efficiency. Scale build-up in boilers can cause hot spots, in which the
temperature of the metal will exceed the safe operating temperature and cause equipment failure. Uneven scale deposition may
cause pitting corrosion. If the deposited scale is particularly impermeable and the system contains dissolved oxygen, it is possible
that an oxygen concentration cell may form between the scale-covered iron and the uncovered iron, resulting in pitting type
corrosion beneath the scale. There are several different kinds of scales deposited from water, and these may be formed in various
ways.

Gypsum deposit in flow line figure

Boiler waters which contain calcium sulfate may form a scale of this composition, as steam is evaporated from the boiler. The
dissolved salts are concentrated in the water until the water becomes oversaturated with calcium sulfate, which precipitates as a
scale on the metal surface. Silica scale, and other scales, can be formed in boilers by the same process.

The solubility of calcium carbonate decreases with increased temperature. Cooling water which is nearly saturated with
calcium carbonate at room temperature may come in contact with a hot surface and, if the temperature of the water is increased to
a point where the water is oversaturated, calcium carbonate may precipitate in the form of scale on the metal surface. Scale may
also form on hot surfaces from evaporation. Hot spots on the surface may form bubbles. Evaporation of the water to form the
bubble leaves the salts deposited on the surface.

Carbonates do not always form scale but sometimes form sludge. This sludge may bake on a hot surface to form a scale.
Substances such as oil or other organic matter may act as a binder and transform sludge to scale. Scales and sludge are formed
from waters, as the waters adjust to changes in equilibrium.

Calcium and magnesium carbonates exhibit a negative solubility characteristic. This is the characteristic of a decreasing
solubility with increasing temperature.

Therefore, water saturated with either of these salts at a given temperature would precipitate these salts in adjusting to
equilibrium, if the temperature were increased. Chemical changes in the system can also cause scale to form. For example, the
solubility of calcium carbonate is dependent on the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. Decrease in carbon dioxide.

Partial pressure will often cause calcium carbonate scale to form in tubing and flow lines. Calcium sulfate scale often forms
when two chemically stable waters are mixed. Water may be high in sulfate content, and the other water high in calcium.
Individually, the waters may be in equilibrium, but when mixed, the solubility product of calcium sulfate is exceeded and
equilibrium regained by precipitation of some calcium sulfate.

In addition to scales formed from substances deposited from water, scale may form as a result of a chemical reaction between
the water or some impurity in the water and the pipe itself. Corrosion products may be scales of this type.
SPE 126745 9

Sulfate-reducing bacteria under anaerobic conditions can cause iron scale in flow lines. The bacteria reduce sulfate and
liberate hydrogen sulfide, which reacts with iron to form ferrous sulfide scale. Scales deposited on a surface or collected sludge is
seldom pure. These usually are a mixture of any sparingly soluble salts present in the water, plus any corrosion products formed on
the pipe surface(9).

This often makes it difficult to classify deposits according to a specific acid radical. The deposits may be classified generally
as scale, sludge, corrosion products, and biological deposits.

Locations of Scale Precipitations

An overview of the above showed possible scale precipitation environments for seawater aquifer, natural depletion and
produced water injection is presented in the following the following Figure(10, 11).

Fig. 3.2. Locations throughout the flow system where scale deposition may occur.

a) Prior to injection, for example if seawater injection is supplemented by produced water re-injection.
b) Around the injection well, as injected brine enters the reservoir, contacting the formation brine(10) .
c) Deep in the formation, due to displacement of formation brine by injected brine, or due to converging flow paths(11).
d) As injection brine and formation brine converge towards the production well, but beyond the radius of a squeeze treatment(11).
e) As injection brine and formation brine converge towards the production well, and within the radius of a squeeze treatment(11).
f) In the completed interval of a production well, as one brine inters the completion, while another brine is flowing up from a
lower zone(11).
g) At the junction of a multilateral well, where one
h) branch is producing one brine and the other branches are producing another brines(11).
i) At a sub-sea manifold, where one well is producing one brine and other wells are producing another brines(11).
j) At the surface facilities, where one production stream is flowing one brine and the another production stream flowing another
brine(11).
k) Aquifer water production and processing for re-injection could lead to scale precipitation within a self-scaling brine or mixing
with an incompatible formation brine(11).
l) Pressure reduction and/or an increase in temperature within processing equipment can lead to the evolution of CO2 and to the
generation of carbonate and sulfide scale if the appropriate ions are present. Temperature reduction could lead to the formation
of halite scales if the brine was close to saturation under reservoir conditions.

Calcium Sulfate Scale (Gypsum Type, CaSO4 2H2O Anhydrite and CaSO4)
The most common form of calcium deposited down-hole is hydrous calcium gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O). A reduction in pressure
decreases solubility that causes scaling. Pressure drop from 2000 atmospheric values, may precipitate 900 ppm (0.3 Ib. / bbl. of
water) calcium sulfate(13).
10 SPE 126745

Data Collection and Analysis

The studied oil fields is producing oil from many offshore oil fields. This work covers the scale problems in the two major oil
fields. To control the scale problem in the onshore process plant, we initiated a scale inhibitor injected at the inlet of the onshore
processing plant.

The efficiency of the scale inhibitor was analyzed for the calcium and sulfate content of the inlet and outlet streams of the
heaters. Statistical analysis of the data showed that average scale inhibition efficiency is less than 100%. Therefore, we decided to
conduct a semiannual heater-cleaning maintenance program to remove the uninhibited scale inside the heater tubes.

The scale problems encountered in the onshore processing plant have drawn attention to the possibility of scale deposition
down-hole, especially if they have been water flooded. To predict theoretically the scaling of the oil wells, we analyzed samples
from different formation waters and investigated them for their compatibility with the injection water (seawater).

The mineral – analysis results are given in the following Table From the theoretical investigations of the phenomenon of scale
deposition, the physical observation of scale deposition in surface and subsurface production equipment and collected data for well
productivity and skin effects, the following observations were reported,

1. The main area of CaSO4 scale deposition is around the well-bore region owing to large pressure drop. The pressure drop is a
major factor influencing CaSO4 scaling the two studied fields.
2. In one of the studied field cases, scaling occurs in the formation even though there is no evidence of scale in the tubular .
Inversely, scale-free tubules may reflect serious scale deposition in well-bore region. “Asl Zone” .
3. Even after removal from tubular, scale may redeposit, thus, scale prevention is the most practical and economical means for
handling the problem.
4. Chemical and / or mechanical cleaning affect only the tubular, not the well-bore region. Continued well-bore scaling may
eventually lead to incurable well plugging.
5. Scale deposition in the well-bore region of the formation seems to be a self-promoting process, as scale deposition increases,
the pressure drop increases, and vice verse.

Water Analysis for The studied Oil Fields*

Gulf Water
Ion (Nubia) (Rudeis) (Nukhul)
Injection Water

Sodium, 32,547 30,434 56,147 13,162

Calcium 20,800 20,980 25,900 512
Magnesium 3,270 2,690 10,300 1,490
Chloride 96,400 100,180 162,000 23,100
Bicarbonate, 5 580 327 134
Sulfate, 190 160 370 3,200
Carbonate, 0 0 0 12
Barium, 2 15 200 0
Strontium, 1,050 0 1,500 0
Total Diss.
157,480 0 254,640 43,300
Solids
PH 4.6 5.7 5.4 8.3
Specific GR. At
1.112 1.108 1.181 1.031
70o F
*Expressed as mg/I.
SPE 126745 11

Consequently, scale inhibition in an oil well requires the continuous presence of scale inhibitor at the point where scale
deposits (e.g., inside the matrix). Therefore, formation squeeze treatment is considered the best method to solve the problem
through both laboratory and field experimentation. Another method can be used to present the scale accumulation tendency from
the collected data. These data are represented graphically to reflect the view of the scale problem.

Steps be Taken in Solving Scale Problems

1. Identify the scale and the reasons for its deposition.
The main reason for scale buildup accumulated at studied oil fields, is the existence of water flood systems in addition to the
high production recovery produced from these fields.
2. Remove deposits by chemical or mechanical Methods.
All kinds of mechanical scale removal techniques has been applied to remove the accumulated scale build up down hole, such
as periodical wire line gauging and scale removal using coiled tubing equipment, especially when the accumulated scale will
be belonging to sulfate group. In case of having calcium carbonate scale, tubing cleaning using hydraulic acid with different
concentrations based on the severity of scale accumulation, has been applied extensively in both the studied oil fields.

3. In perforated completions, it may be more satisfactory to bypass scaled perforations by re-perforating

Opening new perforations across the same producing zone, sometime will be the solution not just to avoid the scaling problem
that reduces the well productivity but also to increase the number of opening perforations as performed in one of the studied
field.

4. Inhibit against further scale deposition.

To prevent the deposition of scale from scale forming water, this requires the removal of the anion or cation of the scale or the
prevention of scale formation by periodically injecting the chemical scale inhibitor down hole. The addition of chemicals as
scale inhibitors prevent scale formation by tying up the scale-forming cation (usually calcium, iron, or barium) in solution.
This can be accomplished by using a chemical capable of chelating, complexing, or otherwise inhibiting the scale-forming
cation (12). This process is generally referred to as sequestration, defined as the formation of soluble complex of metal ions in
the presence of anions that would normally cause the cation to precipitate.

Many chemicals are known to form soluble complexes with iron, calcium, magnesium, and barium. In addition, the extent of
scaling in the formation around the well is virtually unknown, since only secondary effects can be recorded downhole or/and
at the surface. Better understanding of scaling in the porous matrix of a formation is therefore requested. The most performing
inhibitor formulation can be designed and its durability under dynamic reservoir flow conditions analyzed. The cost and
effectiveness of a sequestering agent ultimately determines its applicability for large-scale use in preventing scale formation.

New Methodology to Predict the Scale Precipitation

A. Initiating Data Base for the Available Water Analyses.

Total dissolved solids in a water sample includes all solid material in solution. Theoretically, if all dissolved solids are determined
accurately by chemical tests, total dissolved solids would be the numerical sum of these constituents.

Examining literally huge amount of reports on water analyses for numerous operations revealed that hardly any of these
analyses are correct. The common errors in these analyses will not allow a precise calculation of the correct precipitations
throughout an oil field. A recent research study has shown that even well-equipped laboratories using very sophisticated analytical
techniques are quite error prone if these laboratories do not specialize in water analysis. However, experience in many fields has
shown that water analyses are sometimes difficult to perform and quite often the reported data show extreme inconsistencies.

The accuracy of the selected data shown in following table as an example for calculating the scale prediction was depends up
on:
• Accuracy of the water analysis
• History match of the past scaling precipitation

B. Determining the In-situ Down-Hole Conditions (Pressure and Temperature).

Solubility product is a number which varies with temperature, pressure and concentration of uncommon ions in the water.
Therefore an accurate detection of the temperature and pressure gradients change down hole is essential to calculate the accurate
different scale deposition types.
12 SPE 126745

Detection of the specific pressure and temperature values are used to calculate the scale deposition for each water sample
collected from each individual well. In-order to identify the actual values of temperature and pressure gradients down hole,
bottom hole measurements (pressure and temperature surveys, PLT) were used.

The used measurements were collected exactly at the depth of three down-hole positions (nodes) in measured depth, which
reflect three positions of the well at the top, bottom of the well and in between. In order to calculate the scale tendency at similar
formation conditions, the selected pressure and temperature date was very close to the date of the used water sample analysis
which presented in following table.

C. Scale Index Calculation for Each Available Water Analysis

Using scale program software that it is available, scale index for the water analysis reports, shown in tables 4.2, has been
calculated. Software calculation results predicted the different scale types, which could be precipitated from the water analysis
reports. The calculations ran at every selected pressure and temperature node. However the output program reports included the
scale index for different scale types (carbonate and sulfate) which could be precipitated for every calculation node.

A positive scale index indicates that scale precipitation can occur with the magnitude of the scale index indicating the
maximum amount which could be precipitated.

A negative scale index indicates that the water is under-saturated and scale precipitation will not occur. The calculated
positive or negative values were expressed in milligram per liter and presented in attached table

Results and Analysis

The values of different scale types that were predicted to be precipitated at different operating conditions (temperature, pressure
and depth) were presented in MG/L (PPM) against depth in the attached figures 4.14 through 4.24 for Asl producing wells and
4.26 through 4.29 for field producing from Nezzazat formation both field monitored about two years.

The presented figures show the scale tendency values which could be precipitated down-hole on X-Y plot, where "Y" axis
represents the well measured depth in feet, and "X" axis represents the different values of scale that could be precipitated in
milligram per liter (PPM). The graphical representation for the obtained different types of scale precipitation through the wells
shows the different scale types that could be precipitated and the intensity of each type. The scale type and amount determine the
proper chemical type and amount required to remove the predicted scale accumulations. Detection of scale inhibitor treatment
effect before and after implementing the inhibition squeeze treatment can be monitored by continues updating of scaling tendency
graph. Scale precipitation can be occurred even there is no water injection system, where super-saturation for water exists, as
shown in the field producing from Asl formation.

To control the calcium carbonate scale predicted for the studied wells producing from Asl formation, an acid treatment
solution of different concentrations need to be applied. Following the acid treatment solution, a scale inhibition treatment needs to
be applied to inhibit the scaled Asl formation as shown in the attached figures 4.14 through 4.24.

Calcium carbonate scale decreased with the increase of water flood volume, while calcium sulfate scale increased with the
increase of water flood volume as shown from the scale prediction of wells producing Nezzzat formation which has been shown in
the attached figures 4.26 through 4.29.

Scale precipitation can be occurred also at very low water cut percentages, where supper-saturation conditions for water exist,
as shown in wells which producing from Nezzazat formation as shown in the attached figures 4.26 through 4.29.

From the output result analysis which has been shown throughout the studied wells. the following conclusion has been
reached. The figures were classified as per the tendency of scale prediction for:

A. Wells which does not have any tendency to precipitate any kind of scale.
B. Wells which have the tendency to precipitate calcium carbonate scale.
C. Wells which have the tendency to precipitate calcium sulfate scale.
D. Wells which have the tendency to precipitate all kinds of scales.
SPE 126745 13

Results Discussion
The reasons behind the actual and predicted calcium carbonate scale and sulfate group scale precipitations in the studied fields
wells attributed to one of the following reasons:

• The difference of the formation mineralogy at a specific reservoir location is containing deferent kinds of minerals. Due to
The formation heterogeneity and mineralogy changes, the brine constituent will be changed and dissolve cretin ions in some
areas of the reservoir that will be different from another part of the reservoir
• The volume of the injected water in the reservoir will cause different produced brine composition as a season of the different
mixing ratios achieved over time between the injected water and the formation water.
• The reservoir pressure changes compared by the initial reservoir pressure can drastically contribute to precipitate different
kind of scales, specially calcium carbonate scale .

To identify the main reason of scale precipitation predicted from each well, further detailed studies can be made to identify
each reason precisely. Studying the geological information collected during the drilling of the wells will lead to identify the
formation mineralogy composition changes throughout the reservoir.

Periodical water analysis at different produced water cut percentage, will help to identify the brine composition changes over
time, and help to identify the effect of mixing ratios between the injected water and the formation water.

Continuous measurement of the bottom hole reservoir pressure in both static and dynamic well conditions, will show the
draw-down change during the well life, that can be contribute to precipitate different kind of scales due to the sudden pressure drop
across the perforations, taking into consideration the calculated value of skin factor.

Conclusions
1. There are some wells sometimes have the tendency to precipitate calcium carbonate scale only as shown in the attached
figures 4.14 and 4-18.

2. There are wells have the tendency to precipitate both calcium carbonate and all sulfate scale group shown in the attached
figures 4.17, 4.19, 4.23and 4.24.

3. The wells in the field of Asl formation have the tendency to precipitate calcium carbonate scale that decreased with time as
shown in the attached figures 4.14 through 4.24.

4. The three wells in the field of Asl formation have the tendency to precipitate sulfate group (calcium, strontium and barium)
that increased with time as shown in the attached figures 4.14 through 4.24.

5. Both two wells K and L – in the field which producing from Nezzazat formation, have the tendency to precipitate calcium
carbonate that increased with time, and there is a possibility to precipitate barium sulfate scale with time as shown in the
attached figures 4.29 through 4.29.

Recommendations
1. Continue implementing the complete water analysis for all water flooded wells every quarter/semi annual.

2. Periodical complete water analysis for all wells at least once a y ear.

3. It is recommended to continue updating the scale index calculation periodically for water samples obtained for each specific
well.

4. Optimum treatment design to remove the calcium carbonate acid soluble scale build up need to be implemented periodically
to control the scale build up.

5. Continue the acid stimulation (HCl) treatment for wells which has the tendency to form calcium carbonate scale.
14 SPE 126745

6. Continue scale inhibition squeeze treatment for wells which has the tendency to form calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate
scale.

7. Apply acid stimulation treatment (HCl) followed by scale inhibition squeeze treatment for wells in Asl formation to remove
the remaining calcium carbonate scale and inhibit the formation against forming sulfate scale.

8. Continue monitoring the scale tendency before and after acid stimulation and scale inhibition squeeze treatment to optimize
the time for next treatment.

9. Periodical cleaning for the surface facilities of the producing fields need to be implemented to identify and remove any scale
accumulation inside the process vessels.

10. Scale inhibitor should be injected inside the process vessels to control the scale precipitation for all process facilities in case it
is required.

11. Heaters should be opened periodically for identifying and removing any scale accumulation could be precipitated internally.

12. To assess the scale risk and the control options an integrated team approach is the viable way to optimize and reduce the total
cost of scale management during the life cycle of oilfields(53).

Acknowledgements:
The author(s) would like to acknowledge the management of KPC and KOC who approved the presentation of this paper.

Reference
1. Cowan, J. C. and Weintritt, D. J.: “Water Formed Scale Deposits” Gulf Publishing Co. Houston (1976).
2. Laird R.W. and Cogbill A.F.," Incompatible Waters Can Plug Oil Sands," World Oil, 146, No. 6 (1958), P. 188.
3. Hewitt C. H., " Analytical Techniques for Recognizing Water Sensitive Reservoir Rocks," J. Petrol. Technol., 15, No. 8
(1963), P. 813.
4. Wright, C.C. “Rating Water Quality and corrosion control in Water Floods” Oil Gas J., 61, No. 20 (1963), P. 154.
5. Connel C. H. and Berg E. J. M., "Industrial Utilization of Municipal waste Water," Sewage Ind. Wastes, 31 (1959),
212.
6. Manual on Industrial Water and Industrial Waste Water (2nd. Ed.) (Philadelphia: American Society for Testing
Materials, 1960)
7. Collins A. G., Pearson C., Attaway D. H. and Watkins J. W., "Methods of Analytical Oil Field Waters," Bureau of
Mines Report of Investigation 5819 (Washington, D. C.: Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 1961).
8. Hem J. D., Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural Water, Geological Survey Water-
Supply Paper 1473 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1959), P. 120.
9. Cowan, J. C. and Weintritt, D. J. "Water-Formed Scale Deposits, Gulf Published Co., Houston, Texas", (1976).
10. Vetter, O.J., Kandarpa, and Phillips, R.C.: “Prediction of Deposition of Calcium Sulfate Scale under Down-Hole
Conditions” JPT (Oct. 1970) 273-2841299-1308.
11. Sorbie, K.S. and Mackay, E.J.: “Mixing of Injected, Connate and Aquifer Brines in Water-flooding and its Relevance
to Oilfield Scaling” Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering (July 2000) 27 (1-2) 85-106.
12. Cameron F. K., "Solubility of Gypsum in Aqueous Solutions of Sodium Chloride," J. Phys. Chem., 5 (1901), P. 562.

13. Thomas, O. A. and Alan, P. R.: “Production Operations – Well Completions Workover and Stimulation” Chapter 9,
Vol. no. 2.
SPE 126745 15

Attachments

Water Analysis Report table for example Well

pH @ 20o C : 6.6
Sp. Gr. @ 20o C : 1.0787
Resistivity @ 20o C : 0.0471 Ohm m

CATIONS:
SODIUM Na+ : 26620 PPM
CALCIUM Ca++ : 9218 PPM
MAGNESIUM Mg++ : 851 PPM

ANIONS:
CHLORIDE Cl- : 59463 PPM
SULFATE SO4- - : 477 PPM
CARBONATE CO3- - : 0 PPM
BICARBONATE HCO3- : 146 PPM

TOTLA DISSOLVED SOLIDS : 106250 PPM

Down - Hole Conditions table for example Well

Well Name Depth (ft) MD Pressure (psi) Temperature oF

0 240 170
1 4525 1619 220
9600 3714 230
16 SPE 126745

Scale Index Results table for example Well

WATER COMPOSITION (Mg/L)

(Na+) = 26620 (Cl-) = 59463

(Ca++) = 9218 (SO4- -) = 477

(Mg++) = 851 (HCO3-) = 146

(Ba++) = 0 (CO3- -) = 0

(Sr++) = 0 (pH) = 6.6

MOLAL IONIC STRENGTH = 2.018

SPECIFIC GRAVITY = 1.067

NODE CONDITIONS SCALING INDEX (Mg/L)

TEMP.
P (psi) CO2 (psi) CaSO4 BaSO4 SrSO4 CaCO3
(F)
170 240 0.0 58 -2 -412 98

220 1619 0.0 156 -4 -398 98

230 3714 0.0 83 -5 -424 94

SCALE INDEX = ANALYZED CONCENTRATION - EQUILIBRIUM SOLUBILITY

* A positive scale index indicates scale precipitation can occur with the magnitude of the scale index
indicating the maximum amount which could precipitate

* A negative scale index indicates the water is under saturated and no scale precipitation will occur
SPE 126745 17

1. Scale Prediction for Asl Producing Formation

Fig (4.13) shows the structure contour map for top of Asl formation, including the studied wells (A, B and C).

Figure 4.13: Structure Contour Map for Asl Formation

18 SPE 126745

Figure 4.14 – 4.17 Showing The Scale Tendency Concentrations for Well No. (A) for About Two Years.
The following scale prediction calculations cover about two years monitoring for another Gulf of Suez oil field "October field",
producing from Asl formation.

Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3 Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3

Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 0
Depth (ft) MD

Depth (ft) MD
6365 6365

10500 10500

Fig. No. (4.14) Well no. (A) Sample no. (1) Fig. No. (4.15) Well no. (A) Sample no. (2)

Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3 Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3

Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800

0 0
Depth (ft) MD

Depth (ft) MD

6365 6365

10500
10500

Fig. No. (4.16) Well no. (A) Sample no. (3)

Fig. No. (4.17) Well no. (A) Sample no. (4)
SPE 126745 19

Figure 4.18 – 4.20 Scale Tendency Concentrations for Well No. (B) During About Two Years
Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3 Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3

Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM

Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 0

Depth (ft) MD
Depth (ft) MD

9980 9980

11070
11070

Fig. No. (4.19) Well No. (B) Sample no. (2)

Fig. No. (4.18) Well (B) Sample no. (1)

Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3

Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0
Depth(ft) MD

9980

11070

Fig. No. (4.20) Well No. (B) Sample no. (3)

20 SPE 126745

Figure 4.21 – 4.24 Scale Tendency Concentrations for Well No. (C) During About Two Years
Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3 Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3
Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM
Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0
0

Depth (ft) MD
Depth (ft) MD

5420 6365

11760 10500

Fig. No. (4.21) Well no. (C) Sample no. (1)

Fig. No. (4.22) Well no. (C) Sample no. (2)

Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3 Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3

Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 0
Depth (ft) MD

Depth (ft) MD

5420 5420

11760 11760

Fig. No. (4.23) Well no. (C) Sample no. (3) Fig. No. (4.24) Well no. (C) Sample no. (4)

The above figures (4.14 – 4.24) confirmed the actual scale in wells (A, B and C) during about two years and predicted the degree
of scale problem severity for these wells. The scale precipitation in wells A, B and C for the presented figures, confirmed that
calcium carbonate scale precipitation will not cause a severe problem in future in these wells, since the amount of calcium
carbonate scale precipitation decreased from about 800 Mg/L in well B (sample no. 1) to about 200 Mg/L in well C (sample no. 4).

The presented figures (4.14 – 4.24) also confirmed that the tendency to precipitate sulfate scale group (calcium and barium) in
wells B and C increased with time, while the three studied wells A, B and C have the tendency to precipitate strontium sulfate
scale up to 200 Mg/L.
SPE 126745 21

2. Scale Prediction For Nezzazat Producing Formation

Fig (4.25) shows the structure contour map for top of Nezzazat formation, including the studied wells
(K and L).

Figure 4.25: Structure Contour Map for Nazzazat Formation

22 SPE 126745

Figure 4.26 – 4.29 Scale Tendency Concentrations for Well No. (K & L) During About Two Years
The following scale prediction calculations cover about three years monitoring for one of the oil fields which producing from
Nezzazat formation. The obtained results confirm almost identical scale precipitation build up trend from the two studied wells K
and L as shown in figures 4.26 through 4.29.
Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3 Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3

Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 0

Depth(ft) MD
Depth(ft) MD

6300 6300

10690 10690

Fig. No. (26) Well No. (K) Sample no. (1) Fig. No. (4.27) Well no. (K) Sample no. (2)

Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3 Ba SO4 Ca SO4 Sr SO4 Ca CO3

Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM Scale Tendency Concentration In PPM

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 0
Depth (ft) MD
Depth (ft) MD

5935
5935

11550
11550

Fig. No. (4.28) Well no. (L) Sample no. (1) Fig. No. (4.29) Well no. (L) Sample no. (2)

Figure 4.26 – 4.29 Scale Tendency Concentrations for Well No. (K & L) During About Two Years
The above figures (4.26 – 4.29) confirmed the actual scale in wells (K and L) during about three years and predicted the degree of
scale problem severity for these wells in future.
The scale precipitation in wells K and L form the presented figures, confirmed that calcium carbonate scale precipitation will not
cause a severe problem in future in these wells. The amount of calcium carbonate scale precipitation decreased with time from
about 900 Mg/L to about 400 Mg/L in well K and decreased from 900 Mg/L to 800 Mg/L in well L.
The presented figures (4.26 – 4.29) also confirmed that the tendency to precipitate barium sulfate scale increased with time in well
L to about 100 Mg/L.