In order to communicate and perceive information successfully we need have a grasp of the language,

the context and have some prior knowledge of the world

All these skills involve the use and understanding of:

- Vocabulary
- Grammar
- Language functions

RECEPTIVE SKILLS

LISTENING

It’s a receptive skill

They are based on your previous knowledge

Reasons for reading and listening – instrumental (intensive) and pleasurable (extensive)

Features:

- Stress and intonation help indicate meaningful groups of words and sentences
- The speaker uses facial expressions and body language
- Normally, not very well organized: contains interruptions, hesitations, repetitions, frequent
changes of topic, incomplete sentences and utterances
- Often uses rather general vocabulary and simple grammar

Listening has different text types (conversations, lectures, ads, stories etc.). They are characterized by:

- Ways of organizing the language

- Grammatical patterns
- A particular range of vocabulary
- Interaction patterns
- The number of participants

Expose learners to different speeds of speech and different accents. Teach them to understand features
of connected speech

Subskills. Listening for:

- gist/global understanding
- Specific information
- Detail
- Attitude

There is also extensive and intensive listening.

Authentic listening materials help learners develop strategies for dealing with the challenge of the real
language. Simplified texts allow them to build up their confidence.

Stages of listening in the classroom.

Introductory:

- A lead-in
- Pre-teaching key words
- Setting pre-listening tasks
Main activities:

- Playing the recording and focusing initially on gist listening to establish context
- Playing it multiple times
- Asking students to listen to a recording without any tasks and give them the opportunity to
enjoy the experience

Post-task activities:

- Activities that show learners’ understanding of what they have listened to: completing tables,
true/false, ticking correct answers in lists, putting events in order
- Activities which ask learners to talk about how the topic of the text relates to their own lives or
give their opinions about the text while also asking them to use the target language

Ways to focus on features of connected speech:

- Focusing on them through a listening text

- Do short activities focusing on one of these aspects: a 5-minute activity on minimal pairs, word
stress, sentence stress, dictation

Listening

1. Два вида Listening:

 Подготовленное. Для начальных уровней подготовка к Listening (аудио или видео)
должна начаться за несколько уроков до самого урока с Listening. В видео/аудио
должна быть лексика, непосредственно связанная с темой. Необходимо ввести
лексические единицы и грамматические структуры. Аудио/видео выбирать исходя
из темы
 Неподготовленное. На более высоких уровнях, в качестве редкого исключения на
низких, посмотреть на реакцию ученика. Разбор материала проходит либо перед
непосредственным просмотром/прослушиванием, либо после (зависит от уровня
ученика)
2. Listening for specific information
3. Teach learners to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from context. It helps learners with
listening and reading.
It’s extremely important, especially when preparing students for exams (search for activities) (How to
teach vocabulary p. 148, 149)
4. На начальных уровнях проводить короткие диктанты по аудио/видео. Лексика и структуры
должны быть подготовлены.

Для развития навыка аудирования можно делать простое упражнение – слушать, глядя в скрипт,
или смотреть видео, одновременно читая субтитры.

Decoding – убирать слова и коллокации из текста, а ученик должен послушать и заполнить

пропуски (как видео, так и аудио)
READING

Статья Малининой (скриншот)

Developing reading skills by F. Grellet

Reading aloud: a useful learning tool? Салли Гибсон

Teaching and developing reading skills Peter Watkins

Как обучить чтению взрослого или ребенка?

Intensive and extensive reading (these two types should be combined)

Coherence – the sense connection between sentences.

Cohesion – the grammatical links between sentences

SUBSKILLS

Scanning – reading for specific information

Skimming – reading for gist
Reading for detail (getting the meaning out of every word and out of the links between them)
Deducing meaning from context
Understanding text structure (understanding how certain types of text usually develop)
Inferring (what the writer’s opinion on the topic is, what their feeling is. We notice words, register,
grammar, style)
Predicting (using clues to guess what a text may be about)

In the classroom

Introductory activities:
- Lead-in – looking at and discussing a picture, brainstorming vocabulary or ideas
- Pre-teach vocabulary
- Ask to predict text content
Main activities: a series of comprehension activities
Post-task: talking about how the topic of the text relates to their own lives, giving their opinions, all
this while using vocabulary from the text

Graded readers (not really sure whether to use them)

Give learners different types of text to read

Things to consider before giving your students a text:

What text type is it?

What reading subskills do its exercises and activities focus on?

Is it interesting and at the right level for the learners?

Reading aloud

Use it after other work on comprehension of the text has been completed.

Чтение вслух может быть полезно только если текст знаком ученику для тренировки
произношения.

Для детей и подростков можно проводить reading circles

Нужно больше читать вслух jazz chants, limericks, poems, чтобы познакомить учеников с stressed
timed patterns (Underhill and Celce-Murcia)

Чтение вслух может сопровождаться упражнениями – irrelevant words (с лишними словами) и

missing vowels, когда ученики должны вставить пропущенные гласные. Rethinking reading aloud
Simon Mumford

1. Teach learners to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from context. It helps learners with
listening and reading.
It’s extremely important, especially when preparing students for exams (search for activities) (How to
teach vocabulary p. 148, 149)

Упражнение для развития навыка понимания слов из контекста

Nonsensical words. Сначала дайте ученику текст с несуществующими словами (их можно
выделить). Сначала можно дать на русском, чтобы ученик понял задание. Попросить ученика
угадать значение придуманных слов.
PRODUCTIVE SKILLS

When we speak or write we should constantly have in mind a person we are communicating with

Speaking

ЛИТЕРАТУРА

Assessing speaking Сари Лоума

Discover conversation Andy Boon, David Harrington

DON’T ASK LEARNERS TO COME UP WITH RANDOM SENTENCES OR PHRASES. ALWAYS GIVE THEM A
REASON TO WRITE OR SPEAK ABOUT SOMETHING, ASK THEM TO USE LEXICAL ITEMS IN CONTEXT.
ALWAYS KEEP IN MIND THE WAY PEOPLE COMMUNICATE OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM. ASK YOURSELF
“WHY SHOULD THEY DO IT?”

It’s a productive skill

Subskills:

- Making use of grammar, vocabulary, functions, production of individual sounds(accuracy)

- Making use of register to speak appropriately (appropriacy)
- Using body language
- Producing different text types
- Oral fluency (speaking at a normal speed, with little hesitation, repetition or self-correction, and
with smooth use of connected speech)
- Using interactive strategies (ways of keeping people interested and involved in what we are saying),
such as:
 Gestures, eye contact, facial expressions, movement
 Clarifying our meaning
 Asking for opinions
 Agreeing/disagreeing
 Turn-taking
 Paraphrasing
- Making use of features of connected speech

Speaking also involves dealing with different text types

Classroom implications:

- Help learners practice a range of speaking subskills by focusing regularly on particular aspects of
speaking (fluency, pronunciation, register, etc.)
- Focus on accuracy with the help of controlled practice activities (drills, repetition, saying things
they learnt by heart). They focus on grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. It’s a preparation for
speaking. A teacher should correct learners’ accuracy because it’s the purpose of such activities.
- Focus on fluency, communication and interaction (information-gap activities, problem solving,
project work, discussions, explaining solutions). A teacher shouldn’t correct learners immediately.
Let them focus on communicating their message. Note down the mistakes and work on them after
the activity
- If you’re teaching a class you should use pair and group work extensively to increase the
opportunity for communication
- Ways of organizing speaking practice:
  With a lot of preparation (vocabulary practice, time to organize their ideas, practice in
pronunciation, practice in carrying out a task)
 Without preparation (focus on language problems after the task). It may be useful as it
helps the learners see the purpose of focusing on the language

The structure of a speaking lesson:

1. Lead-in: an introduction on the topic of the lesson plus activities including a focus on the new
language or structures
2. Practice activities which give learners the opportunity to use the new language (from controlled
to freer activities or vice versa)
3. Post-task activities: learners do free speaking activities on the topic and/or work on the
newlanguage

Teach students STRESS-TIMED PATTERNS

Говорение может быть спонтанное и контролируемое (по теме, с использованием определенных

лексических единиц). Как вставить спонтанное говорение в процесс обучения. Каково должно
быть его соотношение с контролируемым говорением?

Speaking activities делятся на Controlled, guided and independent.

Говорение с визуальными опорами

1. Teach students to use lexical words (fixed phrases, fillers, hesitation markers)
2. Teach them to cope with gaps in their vocabulary.
Paraphrasing is the best way to get around the problem of not knowing a word.
Rough synonyms
Vague language is the last resort if you cannot paraphrase (but it’s better than silence). A thing,
stuff, a sort of, a machine, a tool, a powder whatsitcalled etc.
(search for activities and examples)
1. Don’t come to their rescue if learners don’t know some words, encourage them to use coping
strategies.
2. Tricks we use to keep the conversation going:
- stress the syllables containing the most important information
- repeat what people said to us
- use intonation patterns (so that people understand the logic of what we are saying)
- use words like you know, well, erm as spoken punctuation
- use contractions
- miss out words we don’t need (ellipsis)
- not always careful with grammar (There’s two people – is instead of are)
3. Register is a combination of a kind of activity and topic we are speaking about (field), the tone
which we use (formal/informal) and the mode of the communication (a novel, an
announcement, a tweet). Make sure students understand what kind of language is appropriate
in different situations
 4. Как разговорить класс

Урок по видео
1. Дать видео с новой лексикой, относящейся к конкретной теме
2. Подготовиться к просмотру видео заранее на предыдущих уроках. Видео должно
включать лексику, непосредственно относящуюся к теме. Не говорить ученику, что
итогом станет просмотр видео, прорабатывать как обычно

 PRE-TEACHING – соотношение слов и картинок. Обсудить слова, коллокации,

граммат. структуры. Ввести лексику картинками и примерами, если ученик слабый
и не может сразу же начать их обсуждение
 далее дать упражнения типа matching, multiple choice или что-то еще для отработки
 PREDICTION с опциями. Cпросить ученика какие у него есть предположения насчет
содержания видео, если исходить из названия. Дать написанные варианты
развития событий. Пусть выберет наиболее вероятные
 остановить видео посередине и спросить: что произойдет дальше? Дать варианты
развития событий с sentence frames.
 Обсудить после просмотра. Promote thinking opportunities. Допустим, если видео о
благотворительности, дать им инфографику со статистикой благотворительности в
России и задать им наводящие вопросы для ее обсуждения, ответы на которые
будут провоцировать использование target vocabulary

Ask a student to select an object a random from a bag (или использовать колесо) and ask them to
talk about it for 1 or 2 minutes straight.

Writing

DON’T ASK LEARNERS TO COME UP WITH RANDOM SENTENCES OR PHRASES. ALWAYS GIVE THEM A
REASON TO WRITE OR SPEAK ABOUT SOMETHING, ASK THEM TO USE LEXICAL ITEMS IN CONTEXT.
ALWAYS KEEP IN MIND THE WAY PEOPLE COMMUNICATE OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM. ASK YOURSELF
“WHY SHOULD THEY DO IT?”

It’s a productive skill

Как научить писать детей либо взрослых? (в смысле писать буквы)(Primary level)

Always give learners a reason for writing

Coherence

Cohesion

Cohesive devices:

- Linkers
- Reference words (pronouns etc.)
- Logical organization of the information
- Paragraphs
- Topic sentences (gives the subject or the main point of a paragraph)
Characteristics of text types:

- function
- Text structure (use or non-use of paragraphs etc)
- Degree of formality
- Layout
- Vocabulary we use
- Complexity of grammar
- register

SUBSKILLS (focus both on accuracy and on communication)

Accuracy (spelling, forming and joining letters, writing legibly, punctuating, correct layouts, choosing the
right vocabulary, using grammar correctly, joining sentences, using paragraphs). A paragraph usually
focuses on one idea)

Activities to practice accuracy:

- labeling
- copying
- sentence completion
- gap-filling
- sentence transformation
- dividing text into paragraphs
- putting punctuation into a text
- proofreading exercises

Communicating your ideas (appropriate style and register, organizing ideas in a helpful way, using the
features typical of the text type we are writing, joining words and sentences clearly, using appropriate
functions to express meaning, developing ideas, narrating, complaining, thanking, summarizing,
concluding)

Activities to practice communication of ideas:

- story completion
- jumbled picture stories
- writing for a specific purpose

Provide learners with models of writing. They are used in guided/product writing

A process writing approach (guiding the learners through all the stages)

It’s a good idea to provide learners with a plan, useful vocabulary and sentence frames.

Writing activities should take place after the learners have done some reading, listening and speaking on
the topic.

Stages of writing:

- getting and developing ideas

- planning
- drafting
- editing
 - proofreading
- re-drafting

- complete sentences
- punctuation (EXPLORE RULES OF PUNCTUATION)
- use linguistic devices to ensure coherence and cohesion
- writing can be formal and informal
- there are different genres and sub-genres of writing and they all have their conventions
Show your students several examples of a particular genre, analyze them together and only
after that ask them to write their own example

Cohesion – the use of certain stylistic devices to guide readers and show how different parts of a
text relate to one another. They ‘glue’ a text together
1. lexical cohesion
- repetitions (teacher, teach)
- semantic fields (words related to one topic)
2. consistent tense usage
3. use of anaphoric (refer back), cataphoric (refer forward) and exophoric (refer to things
outside a text) pronoun references (it, she, he, they this, that)
4. time adverbials (then, today, after that)
5. ellipsis (The first instead of the first presentation)
6. linkers (after that, so, then, on the other hand, all in all)
7. substitution words one, kind (The last one I went to)

Coherence – a clear and logical relationship between parts of a text. We say that a text is
coherent if people are able to understand our purpose for writing or speaking

1. Sequencing (putting your ideas in a logical order)

2. Making sure people understand the purpose of a text (clear ideas and arguments,
comprehensible content)
3. Considering your audience (people you write or talk to) to avoid nay confusions (information
gaps, irrelevant content and so on)

Important notions:

- Thesis statement
- Paragraph structure
- Style and tone
- Syntax and sentence variety
- Paraphrasing
- Explanations and details
- Hedging
- Citation
- Text reconstruction and deconstruction