Dedicated To My Wife and Keir, lan and Quintin Power Plant Performance AB Gill CENG, MIEE, MI Mech. E Site Efficiency Engineer Drakelow Power Stations JINDAL INSTITUTE C” ONE Link Butterworth-HeinemannPower Plant Performa cin Butterworth-Heinemann ‘An Imprint of Elsevier Linacre House, Jordan Hill ‘Oxford OX2 SDP © Butterworth and Co (Publishers) Lid, 1984 All rights reserved. [No pat of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any rmeans—electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system-—without permission in writing from the publisher. First Printed in India 2003 Indian Reprint ISBN : 81-8147-027-3 “This edition is manufactured in India and is authorized forsale only in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and any other county as authorized by the publisher. Published by Elsevier India, a division of Reed Elsevier India Private Limited, 17-A/1. Main Ring Road, Lajpat Nagar-IV, New Dethi - 110 024, INDIA. Printed and bound at Saurabh Print-O-Pack, A-16, Sector 1V, NOIDA 201 30. Preface ‘The considerable rise in electricity demand throughout the world has resulted in an enormous increase in the size of power plant installations. The capacity of a typical turbo-alternator thirty-five yearsago was about 30MW. “Today, machines rated at 1300 MW are in service and the capacity of boiler and ancillary plant has kept pace with this rapid growth. This expansion, coupled with the escalating cost of fuel, has imposed an increasingly urgent need to ensure that the plant is operated and maintained as near to optimum conditions as possible. At current UK fuel prices, if@ large unit is operated at an efficiency one percentage point lower than design it will incur an additional fuel cost of over two million pounds per year. 18 clear that it is of great importance that all power engineers should be aware ‘of the causes of poor efficiency and the means to rectify such trends. That is the purpose of the book. Although written primarily for power engineers. others, such as marine engineers and engineering students, will find the material of interest 'As far as possible mathematics and thermodynamic theory have been kept toa minimum, the aim being to stress the practical application of the subject matter. Each chapter contains self-test questions, exercises and projects ‘The exercises are quite straightforward and should present litte difficulty. whereas the projects are more demanding. ‘ST units have been standard within the CEGB for several years now so itis appropriate that they are used throughout the book: Also. the CEGB publications Steam Tabies in S/ Units and Abridged Steam Tables in SI Units have been used. ‘The basic model used isa British coal-fired station but, of course. much of the material is also applicable to other stations, whether nuclear or fired by oil or gas and ro matter what the country. British practice may differ from that in other ccuntries somewhat in particular aspects of design and, where this isso, reference is made to it ‘The “Performance” referred to, in the title is thermal. as opposed to mechanical. performance. Thus. purely mechanical subjects such as vibra tion. turbine line-our and so on are not covered. However, pumps are so important in power station work that a chapter has been devoted 10 the subject “The views expressed are those of the author and he is Solely responsible for any errors or omissions. incere thanks are due to the many people who have helped in the preparation of the work. They are too numerous to mention individually. but a special word of thanks is due to the following: Mr. Portecus, Director-General, Midlands Region, CEGB. for his kinidContents Preface Acknowledgements Part General Plant Considerations Ideal steam cycles 3 Coal 55 Pumpsand pumping 92 PartIl Measurement ‘Temperature measurement 175 Pressure measurement 199 Gasflow 224 Waterflow 261 Part 1 ~ Main Plant 8 Boiler efficiency and optimization of airsupplies 303 9 Pollution control 370 10 Turbine performance and monitoring 408 11 Condensers and back pressure 492 12 Feed-water heating 537 PartIV Miscellaneous 13, - Steam turbine heat consumption tests $91 14 Plant operating parameters 624 15 Economics of outages 667 Index 679Permission to publish the book, to use illustrations from CEGB sources and for other facilities; Mr R. Mason and Mr T. Westcombe of the Efficiency Department at Drakelow Power Station for their helpin reading the text and the preparation of many of the illustrations; Mr J.R, Jackson of the CEGB National Training Resources Unit for his valuable advice and ‘encouragement; the Management and various staff at Drakelow Power Station for their help and co-operation; Mr F. Carlin, Midlands Region Sciemtific Services Department, Mr C. Clag and Mr P. Adams of the Hydraulic and Temperature Calibration Centre at Hams Hall for checking the material in Part 2, and last, but by no means least, the various organizations who have given permission to publish illustrations and other material Allan B. Gill Acknowledgements ‘The author and publishers would like to thank Mr J. Porteous, Director- General, Midlands Region, Central Electricity Generating Board, for per- mission to reproduce many of the illustrations inthis book. Thanks are due also tothe following companies who supplied illustrations: General Descaling Co. Ltd Budenberg Gauge Co. Ltd Airflow Developments. Lid Furmanite International Lid. Negretti and Zambra Ltd. Davidson and Co. Ltd Land Combustion Lid. Figures 7.1, 7.5 and 7.14 are from BS 1042, Part 1, 1964, and are repro- ‘duced by kind permission ofthe British Standards Institution, 2 Park Steet, London WIA 2BS, from whom complete copies of the Standard can be obtained.10 u 2 1B 5 i ee ‘ Contents Preface Acknowledgements Parti General Plant Considerations Ideal steam cycles 3 Coal 55 Pumps and pumping 92 Part 1 Measurement ‘Temperature measurement 175 Pressure measurement 199 Gasflow 24 Water flow 261 Part il Main Plant Boiler efficiency and optimization of air supplies 303 Pollution control 370 ‘Turbine performance and monitoring 408 Condensers and back pressure 492 Feed-water heating 537 PartIV Miscellaneous ‘Steam turbine heat consumption tests $91 Plant operating parameters 624 Economicsof outages 667 Index 675Part General Plant Considerations 1 Ideal steam cycles 3 ‘The temperature-entropy diagram — supercritical conditions 3 ‘The ideal cycle ~ sensible heat addition - latent heat addition ~ natural and. assisted circulation - superheat addition - superheat temperature control 7 Work done in the turbine and thermalefficiency—reheating—feed heating 28 The Carnot cycle 35 Modified Rankine eycteto allow for pumping 37 “The equivalent Carnot gle 37 The tual heat-entropy diagram 41 Questions, exercises and projects 43 2 Coal (Sampling, analysis, allocation and stock assessment) 55 General - Manual sampling from conveyors ~ falling streams ~ stationary vehicles~coal stocks 55 Automatic sampling $8 Number of increments required to form a gross sample 60 Moisture determisiation 62 Preparation of laboratory sample ~ particle size reduction - sample division 63 Laboratory analysis — proximate analysis - ultimate analysis 65 Reporting of results ~ ‘as received’ ~ ‘dty’ basis ~ “dry ash free’ - “dry mineral-mattey-free’ 67Determination of ultimate from proximate analysis ~ Gebhardt formula — Parr’s formula ~ the modified Seyler chart ~ simplified Seyler-Dulong formula 70 ‘Assessment of coal stocks - general ~ volume determination ~ density determination — coal stock assessment - exercise 77 Coal allocation linear programming 83 Questions, projects 88 3° Pumps and pumping 92 Positive displacement pumps ~ lift pumps ~ force pumps - ram or piston Pumps - gear pumps peristaltic pumps 92 Centrifugal pumps - volute - guide vane 98 Terms used in pump studies ~ potential - velocity — friction — total head 99 Suction conditions. Gas formation. Pump suction conditions, examples. Pump supplied with boiling water. Suction pipework layout, Determination of pipe sizes ~ suction ~ delivery. Positive suction head. Pump efficiency- characteristic curves. System resistance. Affinity laws ~ change of impeller diameter ~ change of speed ~ pump efficiency and speed — effect of water temperature - specific gravity of fluid 104 Pumping with a free suction head ~ valve-controlled suction. Series pump- ing. Parallel pumping. Pumping to two points, Twin dscharge_ lines. Variable suction and static head. Syphonic assistance. Specific speed. Multi- stage pumps ~ power loss ~ end thrust = low flow operation — boiler feed pumps — thermal shock —leak offs 132 Pump size. Fault finding chart 155/157 ‘Questions, exercises 161 1 Ideal steam cycles The temperature-entropy (T-S) diagram ‘The basic diagram is shown in Figure J. 1. Note that the boiling water line 709) 600) 509] 400] 300 Temperature, “C 8 ore a € 6 § 7 8s G9 Enirony, kako Figure 1.1. Temperature entropy diagram SI Units 34 Ideal steam cycles, starts at 0°C and the temperature scale at absolute zero, i.e. (~)273.15°C. Also note that the entropy scale starts from zero. Heat is the product of absolute temperature and change of entropy, and so on a T-S diagram itis represented by an area For example, consider the latent heat required to convert | kg of boiling water at 100 bar ats. into dry saturated steam. The boiling temperature is 311.0°C = 84.111 K. The entropy of the boiling water is 3.3605 kJ fkgK and of the dry saturated steam 5.6198 kdkeK So latent heat required = T (S: ~ $1) 583.111 (5.6198-3.3605) = 583.111 x 2.2593 1319.7 KI ke. ‘This is illustrated in Figure 1.2 700 600 ° {atont heat Wid s 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 89 10 Entropy, kkk Figure 1.2. Representation of tatent heat Ideal steam cycles § Lines of constant pressure are horizontal in the wateristeam zone and rise rapidly in the superheat region as shown in Figure 1.3(a), while lines of Entropy, kilo Figure 1.3 (a. Lines of constant pressure Constant wetness are shown in Figure 1.3/6). Of course a line of constant dryness of, say, 90% is the same as a line of constant wetness of 10%. Supercritical conditions Reference to the temperature-entropy diagram shows that the ‘boiling water line’ and the ‘dry saturated steam lines’ come closer together, the higher the temperature. In other words, the quantity of latent heat required to convert the boiling water to steam becomes less. A point is reached where the boiling water and dry saturated steam lines ‘meet and so the associated latent heat is zero. Thisis known as the ‘Critical6 Ideal steam cycles 700 600) 400) . \ 4/ /9] \\WS 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 6 Entropy, ki Temperature, °C Figure 13 (6 Lines of constant wetness Point’ and occurs at the following conditions: Critical pressure 221.2 bar absolute Critical temperature 374.15°C Critical volume B17 dmkg Atmore elevated conditions the steam is ‘supercritical’. Thus, if water is at a supercritical pressure and is heated the temperature will increase until, at a particular value, the water will lash instantaneously into steam and super- heating will commence. There is no change of specific volume from the liquid to the dry steam state. ‘The temperature at which water at a given supercritical pressure will flash to steam is not precisely known, but the pseudo transition locus shown in Figure 1.4 gives an indication. The supercritical boilers at Drakelow operate ‘at about 250 bar and so the transition from water to steam takes place at ‘about 385°C. Ideal steam cycles 460 “The pseudo transition locus 440) 400 380) 3840 42 4a 46 48 BOB Emropy, kk Figure 14. The pseudo vansition lacus The Ideal (or Ranki ) cycle It 7 ‘axiomatic that every component in an ideal cycle works perfectly. Thus, the condensate is heated such that it is continuously at saturation temperature from the time it leaves the conderiser until it is at pressure; work is done in the turbine by isentropic expansion of the steam; in the condenser only the latent heat of the steam is removed, and so the condensate is at the boiling temperature corresponding to the back pressure, and soon.8 Idea stoam cycles ‘The basic cycle is shown in Figure 1.5, which shows the conditions for: Steam pressure 100 bar absolute Steam temperature 566°C (839K) Back pressure 30 mbar (saturation temp. 24.1°C) 700) 600 +500] 400] g 200] Temperature, °C o 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 8 8 1b Entropy, Kila Figure 18. Basic Rankine cycle At point A the condensate is atthe boiling temperature corresponding to the back pressure. It is then returned to the boiler via a heating system such that aa the temperature increases so does the pressure, and so the feed is ‘continuously at the boiling temperature corresponding to the pressure. At B the boiling water is at a pressure of 100 bar where it is evaporated in the ‘boiler. The latent heat addition is represented by the line BC and at Call the ‘water has been evaporated and superheating commences. This is shown by ‘CD and atpoint D the superheated steam temperature is S66 C - ‘The steam then expands isentropically inside thé turbine as showa by the : Ideal steam cycles 9 line DEF. At point E there is no superheat left in the steam and so from E to F there is increasing wetness. AtF the steam isat a pressure of 30 mbar and is. passed out of the turbine to the condenser and condensation of the steam takes place as represented by the line FA. At point A the steam has all been. condensed and the condensate is at boiling temperature ready to begin another cycle. ‘To summarize the above: ‘AB ~ heating of feed water (i.e. sensible heat addition) BC ~ evaporation of water in boiler (ic. latent heat addition) (CD ~superheating of steam (i.e. superheat addition) DF - expansion of steam in turbine. Point Eis the demarcation between superheated and wet steam FA ~condensation of the steam in the condenser More detailed study of the ideal cycle (a) Sensible heat addition In Figure 1.6 the sensible heat is represented by the area under the line AB. At point A the temperature is 24.1°C and at B it is 310.961°C, the values being obtained from steam tables. Also from the tables the sensible heat from A to B is 1408 ~ 101 = 1307 ki/kg. If, however, the heat represented by the area (°C YB in Figure 1.6 were known, the heat at B could have been calculated from: Heat at B area under YB ~ area 0°C YB {absolute temperature at B x entropy change from 0 to B) ~ area 0°C YB Willard Gibbs determined values for the areas such as 0°C YB and he called them the ‘Negative Thermodynamic Potentlal’, but the common name is “Gibbs Function’. In the 1939 Callender's steam tables itis denoted by G; in the 1972 C.E.G.B. Abridged Steam Tables itis denoted by g and called “specific free enthalpy’ To find the sensible heat using Gibbs’ function in the above case first calculate the heat at point 3, i. 310.961°C and 3.36085 entropy «. Sensible heat at B = ((310.961 + 273.15) x 3.3605] ~ ¢ From steam tables the value of g = 554.9 kJ/kg, So heat at B But the water was already at 24.1°C before heating took place, so italrgady contained the equivalent heat of water at 297.25 K,0.3S44entropy.\.10 Ideal steam cycies So initial heat = (297.25 x 0.3544) ~ g From steam tables g = 4.4 kJ/kg initial heat = 105.4 — 4.4 = 101.0 kkg ‘Therefore the added heat to raise the water from 24.1°C to 310.961°C 1408.00 — 101.0 1307 kd/kg as before 700 oe) a or fs 4 6 oe Entropy, Kiko Figure 1.6. Specie free enthalpy Increasing the pressure increases the quantity of sensible heat per kilogram ‘of water as shown in the random examples shown in Table 1.] and in Figure 17, Usually, increased pressure is associated with increased output ofthe turbo- -alternator, so not only does increasing the pressure mean more sensible heat Ideal steam cycles 11 2200 2000 1000 1600 120° 1000) Spscitic enthalpy, ki/kg 600 400 020406080 100 120 140160180 200 720, Pressure, bars absolute Figure 1.7. Sensibieheat at saturation temperature at various pressures ‘Table 1.1 Sensible heat of water at saturation temperature ‘osolute pressure ‘Suraton temperature ‘Sensiblehest “ re its) 2639 visas oy - mo 08.0 1 way weno 9 3a? e265 zi2 mais 21074 per kilogram, but also that there will usually be more kilograms to heat per second. Therefore the physical heat exchange surface must also increase.{pt tual consequence ofthis is thatthe numberof feed heaters increases, {is more elevated the steam conditions. Typical examples are given in Table 12, ‘Table’.2. Number of feed heaters for typical UK and USA installations nee a Outpun Final food umber of country (unw Wotertemp.cc} heaters 120 224 6 ux 15 2a 5 Usa 25 22 ? UK 350 238 6 Usa, 350 252 3 ux 500 22 7 Uk 510 256 7 Usa 600 252 s uK 860 24a ? USA 00 254 a usa 860 258 ? usa Some idea of the size ofa feed heater can be gained from Figure 1.8. Note the size of the man compared tothe heater nest from amoderate-cized unit Latent heat additi Waterisieam mixture is at about constant temperature from the bottom to the top of the tubes. Consider the latent heat addition required for the 100 bar cyele already SPysidered in Figure 1.5. The latent heat addition is represented in Figure 1.2, where B marks the beginning and C the end. Thus, the heat added ic represented by the shaded area below BC and amounts to 1319.7 kJ/kg. [The amount of latent heat required to convert boiling water entirely todry saturated steam varies with pressure as shown by the examples in Figure 1.9 and Table 1.3. So the proportion of latent heat absorbing surface required for each kilogram of wateristeam becomes progressively less as the pressure rises until, at the critical pressure of 221.2 bar absolute, itis zero. and remains Zero for higher pressures. The effect is to physically alter the proportions of the boiler surface required for this function. For example, low output boilers (say up to 100 MW) are associated Idea steam cycles Figure 18 High pressure heater for 360 MW. unt auningconstrugton(CEGE) Table 1.3 Variation of latent heat with pressure ‘Absolute pressure tear) 50 00 150 200 2122 ‘Saturation temp. rc 2608 30 baz 365? 374.5, Latent het (eg) 16307 13197 10040. S18 ° 13