H i 182 Temperature measurement Cooper Copper Tet Ter Tee ee Ties Tes Wea Ties Ties Ties: ‘Suiichbow Suitenbox {1 pote ‘pote! Figure 4.8 Multipoint thermocouple switch boxes (diagrammatic) Figure 4.8 Multi-point thermocouple switch boxes (CEGB) balance principle as this avoids errors due to resistance changes in wires or at the junctions with the thermocouple. Figure 4./0(a) shows a diagram of an Temperature measurement 183 7 a Figure 4.10(a) ik Basic potentiometer circuit elementary potentiometer. ‘The output voltage of battery V is adjusted by the variable resistance R, to give a pre-determined value across the wire AB and the resistance R,, The purpose of Rs is to give the effect of a considerably longer wire AB. If the wire is uniform and homogeneous there will be a constant voltage drop per unit length. For example, ifthe voltage is 0.05 and the distance 100 cm, then the voltage drop will be 0.05/100 = 0.0005 Viem, or 0.5 mV/em, and so the distance can be calibrated in terms of millivolts Suppose the thermocouple TC is generating a voltage of 20 mV, the reading on galvanometer G will be zero when the potentiometer and ther- ‘mocouple are in electrical balance, i.e. when the balance point C is 40 cm from point A, and the millivolt reading on the potentiometer scale will be 40 x 0.5 = 20 mV. A practical potentiometer is shown in Figure 4. 10(b). If only one type of thermocouple isto be used with the instrument, then it can be scaled directly in terms of temperature, such as has been done with the electronic thermometer shown in Figure 4.3. Digital voltmeters For quite a number of years now it has been common to use digital volt- ‘meters instead of potentiometers. They are much easier to use as the ‘thermocouple circuit millivolts are displayed as a digital read-out (see Figure 4.11), These instruments are usually called DVMs. Flue-gas temperature measurement ‘When measuring the flow of flue gas it is necessary to determine the gas temperature: For this purpose it is usual to employ suitable thermocouple extension wires with the hot ends twisted together. For example, a length of T, — T, extension wire may be passed through a suitable184 Temperature measurement Figure 4.10(0) Quick reading potentiometer (CEGB) Figure 4.11 Digital voltmeter (CEGB) ‘ength of metal tube with the hot end exposed so that it can be placed well ‘into the gas stream. The other ends are connected to a suitable detector. such as a Comark electronic thermometer, Tempsrature measurement 185 Sometimes the wires in the gas stream become electrostatically charged and this causes the readings to be false. In addition to the spurious readings there are considerable fluctuations of the indicated temperature, The remedy is to earth the system by connecting the negative terminal of the detector to suitable metalwork Some typical causes of faulty operation of thermocouples are listed below: Thermocouple installation defects Low millivolis [Incorrect immersion of T/C. 2. TiC damaged. 3. Wrong type of TIC. 4 High millivolts 1. Flame touching T/C. 2. Wrong type of TIC. 3. Wrong extension cables. Poor connection at terminals. 4, Incorrect zero. Extension cable insulation defective, 6. Wrong extension cables. 7. Polarity of exteision cables, wrong’ (Wrong at both ends ~ reading is wrong), (Wrong at one end ~ reading is backwards) 8. Incorrect zero, Mercury-in-glass thermometers These can be used for temperatures up to about 600°C. Of course, there are also other liquids beside mercury which can be used, some of which are shown in Table 4.5. ‘Table 4.5 Thermometer liquids Aleoho! Toluene Pentane Creosote However. for normal power station work only mercury therrhometers are used, The boiling point of mercury is 358°C. bu! thermometers can be made for higher temperatures than this by introducing nitrogen under pressure: ‘As the temperature rises the mercury expand: and so further pressurizes »186. Temperature measurement the gas. Thus the boiling point of the mercury is raised. For mercury thermometers in the range ~ 20°C to 110°C “lead” glass is used. For other temperature ranges other glasses are used, e.g. ‘Normal’ grade. Corrosili- cate and Supermax, Before reading a thermometer ensure that the temperature is steady. and also be careful to avoid parallax error. If extreme accuracy is required it is necessary to refer 10 the immersion length which will be found etched on the back of the glass, Immerse the thermometer to this depth and correct for th ‘emergent stem error. Wet and dry bulb (or hygrometer) type This type consists of two matched mercury-in-glass thermometers. One has its bulb covered with muslin, the other end of the fabric being immersed in distilled water. Thus the fabric is always damp. and evaporation from it governed by the humidity of the air, results in its temperature being reduced. Thus, the difference in temperature between the ‘wet’ and the “dry thermometers is a measure of the relative humidity. ‘The instrument should be exposed to the air but shaded from sunlight. In fone type the two thermometers are surrounded by metal jackets with substantial clearance between the jacket and the thermometer. A clockwork driven fan causes a flow of air over the thermometers. The difference between the dry and wet readings is called the depression of the wet bulb. from which the relative humidity can be determined, (see Figure 4.12.) Calibration Calibration of- thermocouples and thermometers should preferably be carried out in specialist laboratories such as at the CEGB Calibration Centre at Hams Hall. Temperature sensing devices are calibrated by. (a) the Fixed-Point Method; (b) the Comparison Method. ‘With method (a) the device is calibrated at any of the fixed points on the International Temperature Scale (see Table 4.6.) With method (b) the device is compared with a suitable sub-standard Fixed-Point methods (i) fee Point A mixture of crushed ice and water (both derived from pure water) is contained in a vacuum flask. The thermometer is immersed in the mixture, Temperature measurement 187 Figure 4.12 Wet and dry bulb thetmometer, (Assmann hygrometer)(CEGB) “Table 4.6 International Temperature seal fixed points of some substance ata pressure of 1013 mbar) Fired pant c Ce Hysrogen bolls Figure §.11 Chassis of Bourdon tube pressure gauge (Budenberg Gouge Co Lid) 1 Before carrying out any adjustments note the instrument reading when on 2 deadweight tester at about 10%, 30%, 50%, 70% and 90% of full-scale pressure with the pressure rising and then falling. 2 Apply about 10% pressure and, if the gauge reading is incorrect, remove the pointer with a pointer remover and re-position it correctly (using 2 Pointer punch) to eliminate the zero error. Flick the pointer gently and check that it returns to the correct position. If it fails to do so it may be208 Pressure measurement that the tube is defective. 3 Raise the pressure to about 90% of the scale pressure. If the reading is incorrect alter the position of the shoulder screw and linkage. Move the screw towards the quadrant pivot to increase the range, o away from the pivot to decrease it 4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the gauge is correct at both points. 5 Adjust for angularity if necessary. Apply 50% pressure and move the angularity adjusting screw until the connecting link and the quadrant arm are at right angles, 6 Note the readings at the five points with both ascending and descending, pressures asin step 1 7 Plot the readings to check for hysteresis error. If the gauge has been subjected to overpressure the loop may be ‘open’, in which case it has a Permanent set. Ifthe set is not excessive it is possible that the gauge can be recalibrated and function satisfactorily. 8 Assemble the gauge taking care that the pointer does not foul the glass. 9 Prepare a calibration curve such as that shown in Figure 5.12. An error is ot Tue Error Figure 8.12Piot of pressure gauge error Positive when the gauge reading is greater than the true reading, error ~ 100 Percentage error = Ting 10 Attach a label to the gauge with details of the date of test, maximum Percentage error and the name of person carrying out the test. ‘Head errors Ifa pressure gauge is mounted above or below the level of the measuring point an error is applied to the gauge if the connecting pipework is full of liquid as this head is transmitted to the gauge. Consider Figure 3.13(a) and (6). tn (a) the measuring point is 30 m above the gauge and so the head error is given by (ifthe liquid is water) Pressure measurement 209 Figure 5.13(a) Positive pressure gauge head error: (5) Negative pressure gauge heed error (CECB) 81 « 1000 20Nint = 294.3 KN? 943 bar high 81 mi! density in kg? Hote Nin are often called Pascals(P). tn(b) the gauges 30m above the tapping point andso the head error willbe roe 2 fos pges were tobe prtofapemanent instalation they shouldhave the errors removed by offsetting the pointer and the scale plate marked where g