510 Condensers and back pressure Figure 11.15(a) ‘Furmaniting' steam leak trom a valve (Furmanite Lid) Double tube plates Since the early 1960s it has been common to build condensers with double tube plates. With this type of construction the inlet and outlet ends of the Condensers and back pressure 511 Figure 11.1810) After Furmaniting’[Furmari 1s) condenser each huve two tube plates separated hy a gap of about one centimetre, The basic idea is that in the event of a ferrule or tube-expansion leaking the circulating water will drip into the space between the tube plates instead of contaminating the condensate, Any leakage is piped toa small collecting tank via a conductivity measuring tinit, Provided the conductivity is acceptable the drains are pumped back to the condenser. However. if the Conductivity level is unacceptable because of leakage of circulating water then the drains are pumped to waste Detection of small leaks in condensers Double tube plates, as mentioned above, provide an excellent means of detecting a small CW leak at the tube ends. However, other leaks are Possible and there are various ways of locating them. The old-establighed method of location isto fill the steam side of the condenser with water to above the tubes and add fluorescene ~ about 2 ke for a 450 MW unit Leakage is located by scanning the tube ends in ultra-viotet light. the idea being that any leakage will rip from the tubes and be easily visible because it will Quoreseé. However, although this method is satisfactory in many cases, there are some disadvantages, namely512 Condensers and back pressure 1. Very small leaks are difficult to detect. 2 If there are a number of leaks it is difficult to segregate sound tubes from faulty ones. = 3 The cold water used to flood the condenser often éauses small tube leaksto contract and seal. The leakage will re-appear, of course, when the tubes are warmed-up in service, 4 The unit must be off load. ‘Therefore, various alternative methods have been developed including the following: (@) Foam. This consists of spraying a layer of foam on the tube plates at both ends of the condenser while a vacuum is maintained on the steam side. If there is a leak, the associated tube will be put under vacuum and the foam. will enter the tube, thus easily identifying it. Of course, it is absolutely vital for the success of this method that the foam should be stable, ie. it should adhere to the tube plate for a considerable time as a thick layer. (b) Bubbler leak. A tedious but positive method. One end of the condenser hhas its tubes plugged, a vacuum is maintained on the steam side and the bubbler is connected to each tube in turn at the other end. Should there bea faulty tube, air bubbles will pass through the bubbler. The objections to this method are: I the steam side must be under vacuum, 2itis laborious; if there is an obstruction in the tube (say, a bullet stuck part way along), then only the tube between the bubbler and the obstruction will be tested; 4 itis not much good for detecting leaks at tube ends. An alternative to the conventional bubbler, shown in Figure 11.16, was developed at the Marchwood Engineering Laboratories of the CEGB. ‘The arrangement is shown in Figure 11.17, and the equipment-can be used whether the turbine is on or off load. The off-load method of operation is as follows: With the vent valve shut, the apparatus is brought under vacuum from the vacuum pump. The pump isolating valve is then shut and, shortly after, the balance valve js also shut. Any leakage into the tube.will be indicated by a stream of bubbles in the bubbler jar (©) Indliplugs. A similar effect to the bubbler is obtained. by: using Indiplugs. These are tapered rubber plugs which have a hole along their length. A very thin rubber diaphragm fits over the end of the plug. The method of use is simple. The suspect tubes are sealed at one ‘end and the rubber plugs inserted in the other. A vacuum ismaintained Condensersand backpressure 513 Figure 11.16 Conventional bubbler (CEGB) Vent valve wave ‘Tube under test Pump isolating valve Tovacuum cus bubbler ine SS reat ome Water Figure 11.17 MEL bubbler (CECB) in the condenser and, if there is a leak in a tube, the diaphragm is distorted thus clearly indicating the presence of the leak. (4) Furmanite guns, Another method utilizes Furmanite guns. These can be used to seal the ends of the tubes and the tube is pressurized by air. The rate of decay of the ar pressure is a measure ofthe soundness of the tube. “The method is laborious but can be used without the condenser being. ‘under vacuum. Other Furmanite gunsare available to check for ferrule or expanded joint leaks. This isa very important application, as such leaks ate often very troublesome to locate. ‘The equipment can be used also to detect leaks in feed heater and514 Condensers and back pressure cooler tube nests. When the handle is squeezed the neoprene seul is ‘expanded and seals the tube. The tube is sealed at either end and it is then pressurized with air. Leakage is indicated by the decay of the pressure For checking tube end ferrules a special gun is used, A seal is made against the tube plate around the ferrule and a second is made a short distance inside the tube by an expanded neoprene seal. Thus, the ferrule and short length of tube can be pressurized with air and leakage is determined by the rate of pressure decay. (¢) Halogen Gas. This method. will indicate the level of the faulty tube in the condenser, so the number of individual tubes to he checked is con siderably reduced. An indication of the level of the CW in the condenser is required, and the steam side must be under vacuum. The CW level is lowered slowly and a halogen gas is introduced into the air space above the CW level. When the faulty tube is exposed the gas will enter thysteam space and along the air suction pipe past the Leybold equipment sensing head. (On-load tube cleaning The desirability of keeping the condenser tubes clean on the CW side is obvious, as dirt is synonomous with interference with heat transfer, One Particular source of trouble arises from slime deposition. River waters contain algae and other organisms which find the habitat inside a condenser tube amenable, and so they settle on the tube surface, As they are jelly-like creatures, they provide a suitable bonding agent for mud and silt, thus seriously interfering with heat transfer. ‘The solution to-the problem is to make the environment inhospitable. which is done by intermittently dosing the CW going to the condenser with chlorine. The residual free chlorine at the CW outlet must be carefully monitored to ensure that no contamination occurs if it is returned to a river Chlorination is very effective, although quite expensive. At coastal stations there are often additional problems due to mussel growth, see Figure 11.18, Here again the normal cure is to inject chlorine into the CW. ‘An alternative to chlorine injection for keeping the tubes clean is to use onload mechanical cleaning. In this system spongy balls are circulated through the tubes while the unit isin service, thus constantly keeping them clean. The general arrangement is shown in Figure 11.19. Many units have been fitted with this equipment. The costs involved with the system. besides capital, include the pumping power to recireulate the balls, make-up for the ball charge and the extra cost of the CW pumping power because of the increased system resistance. On the other hand there is no necessy‘for chlorine injection and, the manufacturers claim, the tubes are kept com pletely free of films from slime, dirt and scale Condensersand back pressure Condenser Figure 11.18 On-load condenser clearing system (CEGB) 1: Pump/motor set frbal ceution 2 Injection aisributon point S Gincerr tea 2 Gromer nition oat 5 Bultraploy collection sndinepecton purposes & Sponge nbber bale Gietibuend minecreastng water 515,516 Condensers and back pressure Scale formation A common problem in Europe and America in recent years-has béen the deposition of phosphate scales on the CW side of condenser tubes. The trouble stems largely from the increasing use of washing powders, particu. {arly in domestic washing machines. The water from many of the machines eventually discharges into rivers, thus increasing the phosphate level of the water. This undesirable trend will probably continue because of the increas. ing use of these machines, When this water is used as power station CW the phosphates under Suitable conditions, forms a scale on the condenser tubes which interferes ‘with the heat transfer and so worsens the back pressure. The measures taken to combat the problem include: (a) Scale prevention. This is achieved by controlling the pH of the CW to7.5 by dosing it with sulphuric acid. However, this can lead to acid attack of the concrete of the CW culverts (b) Scale removal. Periodically chemically clean the CW side of the con- denser tubes to remove the deposition. The amount of.deposit can be considerable ~ for example, over two tonnes were removed from a 350 MW unit condenser. Asiatic clam fouling ‘This type of fouling is common in the USA. and the history of the problem is quite interesting. Asiatic clams are a popular food with Chinese people and, in the 1930s, many Chinese labourers were working on projects on the Columbia River, Some live clams got into the tiver and multiplied rapidly, ‘So much so that now they ate to be found in the rivers of over half the states in the USA. ‘The clams find the environment inside condensers hospitable and have an adverse effect on turbine back pressure, as they can grow to 35 mm in three years and some become even larger. No really effective solution to the Problem: has yet been found but some of the means of controlling the pests include: (a) massive doses of chlorine; (b) regular condenser cleaning; (©) reverse flow condensers in which the directicn of water flow through the tubes can be changed; (A) operating at elevated temperatures of over 40°C. Variations of condenser operating conditions ‘The three main conditions to consider are (a) change of CW inlet temperature; Condensers and back pressure 517 (b) change of CW flow; (©) change of heat rejected to the condenser. fe that the amount of heat Before proceeding it is important to appreciate that t transferred in a heat exchanger usually depends upon the log mean tempera- ture difference (LMTD) between the two fluids. The numerical value of the log mean temperature difference is given by: LMTD et temperature CWoutet temperate 122 Sawsned eam tmperatre valu canbe caleultd or ed tom Figure 11.20. "ihc lg mean temperature diference ormola du to Gras and was sclated 6 contaliow hea exchangers Condens though; ae asa of the crossfow ype and so he emperatue ference ten kena ibneue meat ote, Mean temperature = 2122 ‘The following calculations use the LMTD and the reader should recalculate them using the arithmetic mean to see what difference is made. 2) Efe of variation of CW ine tmperaar on back pressure oe arto cles cameo chang of OW fer erent The primary one i to alter te steam saturation temperature bythe same Snot athe CW change ming eer ty ea constant. This in tar, wl change ihe cortesponding back pesure Ste secondaryeffctscaed 9 the fix that te beat ante othe OW scram cot ih ie camdnsr es charges ih he empe tea he nar Te primary nd secon changes ten ope Sireclons The magtuseof the secondary eft is approximately cq tothe fourth ota te mean CW temperate. ° por ‘example, consider a condenser with the following conditions: ‘CW inlet temperature wc ‘CW outlet temperature t, 20°C ‘Steam saturation temperature ¢, = 25°C518 Condensers and back pressure a umro & so 20 s0- © 20 “0 20 sof 20 2 2 zo} 0 0 1 ° ° 3 2 3 3 5 7 > 3 6 6 5 s| 5 ‘ 4| 4 4| | 2 2 2] 2 1 1 1 Figure 11.20 Nomogram of iog meantemperature difference Corresponding back pressure = 31.66 mbar Mean CW temperature = 15°C Log mean temperature difference = 8.5°C If the CW inlet temperature is increased to 15°C the primary effect willbe to increase the saturation temperature of the steam to 30°C. The corres. ponding back pressure is 42.41 mbar. ‘The secondary effect depends upon the change of mean CW temperature from 15°C to 20°C; the new log mean temperature difference will be: wewuwt =850(25\. 55093 x } 7.9°C Condensers and backpressure 519 lo jox23 = antilog 0.55 = 3.548 1-18 = 3848(0,~ 25) Ba 2.5481, Sot, 28.92 Equivalent back pressure = 40.0 mbar So the final conditions are: (CW inlet temperature t, Isc CW outlet temperature , 3c Steam saturation temperature, = 28.92°C Equivalent back pressure 40.0 mbar (b) Effect of variation of CW flow on back pressure ‘The primary effect of a change of CW flow is to alter the CW temperature rise. Thus, if the flow is halved the temperature rise will double, other things being equal. The secondary effect, which operates in the same direction as the primary, results from the change of heat transfer rate, due to the changed thickness of the CW boundary film. It is approximately proportional to the square root of the flow. Consider a system with the following initial conditions: (CW inlet temperature 1, ‘CW outlet temperature ¢, (CW temperature rise ‘Steam saturation temperature t, Corresponding back pressure ‘Log mean temperature difference CWflow If the flow increases to 12000 kg/s the CW rise will become 10°C520 Condensers and back pressure 10 000/12 000 = 8.3°C due to the primary effect. The mean CW tempera- ture will thus be 14.1°C and the saturation temperature ofthe steam 18.3 +5 = 23.3°C. The corresponding back pressure is 28.6 mbar. Secondly, the increased flow will increase the heat transfer rate by reducing the stagnant water film adjacent to the condenser tubes and this will result in a log mean temperature difference as follows: LMTD = 8. sto oe ° . 12 000 So the new conditions will be: 76°C CW inlet temperature ¢, we ‘CW outlet temperature t, = 183°C Log mean temperature difference = 7,76°C CWfow = 12. 000 kgs 83 Thus 7.76 = 2.3108,, 83 = = 0.465 23% 7.76 4-10 = 2917(1,~ 183) B38 = 1.9171, eh 22.6°C ‘The corresponding back pressure = 27.32 mbar (©) Effect of variation of heat transferred to the CW If the heat rejected to the condenser changes the CW temperature rise and the log mean temperature difference will also change. For example, consider a condenser with the following conditioas: CW inlet temperature ¢, =" ‘CW outlet temperature t, = 20°C CW temperature 10°C ‘Steam saturation temperature, = 25°C Corresponding back pressure 31.66 mbar Log mean temperature difference = 8.5°C Heat rejected to CW 100% Condensers and back pressure 621 If the heat rejected is increased to 105% the CW temperature rise will becoine 105 asc 10% 9p 7 10+ ‘Also, the log mean temperature difference will become 105 85 X—= 89°C 100 10.5 39= ———_— 231080 | 10.5 ty — 10 = 3.258 (ts ~ 20.5) 56.789 = 2.2589 nt 25.15°C ‘The corresponding back pressure = ‘So the final conditions are: (CW inlet temperature CW outlet temperature c Steam saturation temperature | = 25.15°C Corresponding back pressure = 31.95 mbar Heat rejection to condenser. = 105% Ie should be remembered that much ofthe above is also applicable to eat exchangers suchas feed heaters. ' ota a ple tat follows, Figures 11 22and 11.29 give het transl conics to the log mean temperature difference as an altemative to calculating the values. power ling towers it i with all six ofits cooling towers in A station is operating at full load with all six: “ service. itis a closed CW system so there is no supply of cooling wate: from the river except for a small amount of make-up which can be distegarSSeS SS 522° Condensers and back pressure By how much would the back pressure change if one cooling tower was taken out of service but the total station load remained the same and the ‘water loading on the remaining towers was unchanged? The initial condi- tions are: Condenser CW inlet temperature t, 20.25°C Condenser CW outlet temperature’, = 30.40°C CW temperature rise = 10.18C Terminal temperature difference Saturated steam temperature f, Corresponding back pressure Velocity of CW in condenser tubes Cooting tower dry bulb temperature Cooling tower wet bulb temperature Condenser tube diameter anh ann 13.75 - 3.6 13.75 23l0Be SE 10.15 2.3 log 3.82 10.15 © 2.3 * 0.5821 SoLMTD = 7.58°C ‘Taking one cooling tower out of service will cause the original heat abstrac- tion in the condensers to be accomplished in the new circumstances by only 5/6 of the quantity of water. Therefore the CW rise will become: 6 10:15 12.18°C So the CW.outlet temperature would become 32.43°C if the CW inlet temperature remained as before. However, as itis a closed CW system this will not be the case, and so itis necessary to refer to the Universal Perfor- mance Chart (Figure 11.21) to determine the new conditions, ‘The initial conditions are shown on the chart. When the cooling tower is. taken out of service the CW rise will become 12.18°C and reference to the ‘chart shows that at 12.18°C cooling range the re-cooled temperature t, 2rc Condensersand back pressure 523, temperature T,°C Snoase ‘cooling range AT Stoic Fecooled water. uaiyya09 Aanp = @ ‘ae savem Tay o29u % Wa ‘Cooling range ST Figure 11.21 Universel performance char for natural draught cooling ower [CEGB!524 Condensers and back pressure Hence the new value of ¢, = 21.0-+ 12.18 = 33.18°C ‘Therefore the mean CW temperature has gone from 20.25 + 30.40 - = 25.31°C, to 2 21.04 33.18 ———— = 2.0°¢ 2 Because of the higher average temperature the log mean temperature difference will reduce as follows (see Figure 1.22): 12] Heat tanser correction factor os W015 202530 as 40450 Mean CW. temperature, °C igure 11.22 Heat transfer correction factor for mean CW temperature Factor from curve tor mean temperature 25.31°C Factor for mean temperature of 27.09°C 10s So factor K, = = 0.982 iw Also the velocity of the CW through the tubes will be less, the new velocity being 1.5 * 5/6 =~ 1.25 mvs. This will cause the heat transfer to reduce as shown in the curve in Figure 1/.23, Factor for velocity 1.5 mis = 3.13 Condensersand backpressure 525 45 Heat transfer corection factor os ie 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 COW velocity, m/s Figure 11.23 Heat transfer correction factor for velocity of CW flow (CEG) Factor for velocity 1.25 m/s = 2.85 3.13 So factor K, 1.098 2.85 Because of factors K, and K,, the original log mean temperature will change from 7.58°Cto 7.58% K XK, SoLMTD So with five cooling towers in service: 12.18 7.58 * 0.982 * 1.098 82°C fo vas 2.3108 | 9, 12.18 0.65 @, 2382526 Condenserstind backpressure (=) = 4.467 (4,~ 4) 4-21 = 4.467 (¢, ~ 33.18) 272 = 3.467 4 =36.7°C Corresponding back pressure = 61.7 mbar Hence the back pressure will go from 53.18 mbar to 61.7 mbar by taking one cooling tower out of service. Condenser layouts nally, condensers were always located beneath the low-pressure cylinder, normally in a transverse direction, Since the 1960s a change has been made to other dispositions, Axial condensers With the advent of multi low-pressure cylinders the axial condenser became feasible, see Figure //.24. A disadvantage of this type is that it requires a deep basement and so building costs are increased. On the other hand the condenser design is such that a continuous support wall is provided along the sides of the LP cylinders. Bridge condensers ‘This type is shown in Figure 11.25. The condenser and the support beam for the low-pressure cylinder are integral and span the gap between the founda tion blocks at the steam and generator ends. Radial condensers ‘As the name implies, the condenser tubes are located all round the LP turbine except for space for the IP/LP steam pipes and access to bearings (Figure 11.26). Tis arrangement offers some thermodynamic advamages in that the Jeaving loss is reduced and there is a reduced hood loss. The weight Of the structure is less than other types and the height of the basement is Teduced, so leading to lower building costs. The foundation block is simpli- fied and so this is a big advantage. Pannier condensers ‘These are similar to radial condensers in some respects, but the condenser tubes are only located at the sides of the turbine (Figure 11.27). There isonly limited space below the operating floor which is something of dis advantage. ' t i i Condensersand back pressure 527 ser (CECB) Figure 11.24 Axial condCondensersand backpressure 529 528 Condensers and back pressure U1 sin6iy‘530 Condensers and back pressure. Condensers and backpressure 531 Working Sheet For Condenser Tests Date == S232 9694 4 == == TIANo. at Power Station ‘No, Conditions ‘Units Spectind Test 1 Gross oad onset ew 900000 496650 2 Heatequivatentofload = (11x 3600 x 10° Guyh 180000 1787.98 3 Generator effetency trom tester sume 98.0%) * = 90 4 Mechanical efficiency from test of ‘tssume 30-100 MW fs 99% 100 MW ane above 99.5%) * - ws 5 Heat coverted to work = (2) « (10) (arth Gum 162732 ya1508 6 _ Heat consumption ofset('as¢un' for xen 8802.64 3 Total heat supplidto set (1) (6) aim 220297 smo esirmane 3. Heatvejected to consenans “(7 -“t6) Sim pons 2a am sores 8 Fullycorected back pressure moor art "aya 0 Temperature corresponding to back pressure c me m8 ts 11 QWintertemperature © jao 0 42, GWourtet temperature € 2208 13. Intl temperature ditference Figure 11.27 Pannier condenser (CEGB} | enn © ne 8 | 14 Terminal emperature citterence gen (10) = (12) © 36 m2 Condenser performance | 15 CWtemporature rise = (12) — (11) c 102 104 | 16 Sd. (rsVe) = 38 "2 17 Log 6./9 = logs-(16) = 0578 02308 Condenser performance tests are normally incorporated as a part of turbine 1@ Logette) = (77) 23026 = aso 05308 heat consumption tests. Consequently various items of information sucha 39 LID = (81/08) < 78 196 the ‘as-run’ heat consumption at a give f | 20. Surface area of tubes mw geo the “as-run’ heat consumption at a given loading are readily available 21 Heat rejected = [8}/(20)|» 10° ier eaten asically a condenser is guaranteed by the manufacturer to deal with a 22. Heatiransmiasion rate (201/19) kiinm-c $7070 260.8 specified quantity of steam and maintain a specified back pressue when | 23, Quantity of CW = (8) 199713600 Cw supplied with a fixed CW fl | 3 (15) where Cw = 42 ki /AaK fo/s 135852 151855 uepielite sa low at given inlet temperature. Also the 24. CWiliow = (23) » specif vol x 10 i tubes is specified as is the number of air pumps required (23) = 4.0017 x 10" mis 3361521 Therefore, before comparing condenser test performance: with its 25 Gil icy trough apes = ; me ek guarantee is necesar wo correct or deviations ofthe above params 26 Yoctprewuretemy uMro= (10-3) a Ha specified. For this itis best to use a working shect such as that on | 2B Test TO corrected formean water the ext page. For detailed information about condenses pertlsreres ote ee feference should be made tothe CEGB Site Tet Code No. 3. Surfve Type Cro tet = (5g Zee) 4 co = (eae Steam Condensers, published in 1981 Ter at paca na rejection and CW quantity = (Bispecitied / (zeytest_\% an. ee «(ee c = 1523 rest “| (26) specified 28. Exhaust temperature for comparison With {Quarantee ~ (26) Specified + (28), “c = a4 30 Beck pressure corresponding to (23) mor 8 31 Correctes back pressure compared to Specified = (8) spec ~ (30) mba — timo532 Condensers and back pressure ‘Questions 1 Why is back pressure such an important terminal condition én a uit? 2 Does reducing the back pressure always result in more work being available per kilogram of steam? 3. What determines the minimum practical back pressure? 4 Does the minimum practical back pressure vary with oad? 5 Does it vary month by month? 6 What components ofa total deviation are usually determined? 7 Which are reducible by cleaning the condenser tubes? 8 Which are reducible by cleaning the tabe plates? 9 Which are reducible by stopping air ingrex? 1 Comment on the high CW temperature’ loss 1 Comment on correct CW flow oss. 12 Comment on air ingress. 13 Comment onthe “ity tubes loss 14 Why is air ingress so detrimental to back pressure? 15 What precautions are desirable when determining the CW temperature? Back pressure? 16 Name some methods of monitoring condensers for air ingress. 17 How would you locate sources of air ingress? 18 Name some common sources of inleakage. 19 Why are CW leaks undesirable in condensers? 20 Name some methods of detecting leaking tubes. 21 Name some means of preventing slime accumulating in tubes, 22 What is the cause of phosphate scaling in condensers? Exercise 2 (a) Name the various condenser arran; ygements in use on modem plant ‘Comment upon each, giving any advantages and disadvantages that you know. : (6) Describe a double tube-plate installation and say why they were intro- duced. Project 1 Refer to the "Working Sheet for Condenser Tests’ Calculate the ‘corrected back pressure compared to specified’ for these conditions: Gross load on set 499 000 kW “As-run' heat consumption 7846 kI/kWh Fully corrected back pressure 31,66 mbar CW inlet temperature we CW outlet temperature 2c Condensers and back pressure 633 Exercise 1 (Answers) Refer to page 501. oe ne Mn Test 4 8 Loss Mw, 100 Back pressure Plant mbar 38845 Seon" cuven 782A EWinlettomo. foe B70 GW outlet tomo. © ms 10 tot % BF wo GWoutertemp % 182 20 MeoneWouterteme Averageotia) “© 209124 crausttemp.®. font GO Behe “ c TO 26.0 Exhaust temp, C Ho 20 Exhausttemp. © He wo Condensate orp. A" © RA ms ms Condensate temp. 6 = Be Be ns Condensate temp’ © RT us ze Air gucion temp. 8 % mo wo 20 suction temp. ‘C° 70 ms 20 Rian pg se BE nme 2 5 8 & eS Ein mane ak wl Snag cet omy a BS B REREEES” oneusny mor me py git Be howe (5)+(12) mbar 298 «166 322 47.0 oto) mow ke (mo CMS 8 meer ai) mae (nA tk ciao ng me foes $28 Gite fa RE Re ds Fs ER tne veecerenme ganar ge sO Ne ot pres SE534 Condensers and back pressure Project | (Answer) == ‘tem No. Value ‘tem No. Value t i 3 “499.000 7 oar 2 1796.4 8 ‘10986 } 3 98.0 3 8.10 i 4 985 20 a i 5 1823.66 2 73.644 i 8 7346, 2 099 75 ; 391815 a 138026 8 2091.48 Ey 13.86 i 3 31.66 5 208 10 2 6 iss un io 2 357 Hl 2 20 28 Bes 3 15 2 7.86 14 5 40 387 15 10 EY Cis h 6 3 ‘The condensers on a 350 MW unit have the following optimum and actual conditions, The back pressure correction curve is shown in Figure 128. Condition una Optimum Actual TOWinlet temperature © 165) 70 251 280 ‘3 Saturated steam temperatu c 305 3877 280 330 5 Back pressure mbar ao a0 3 Fi (2) What back pressure improvement could be obtained by cleaning the condenser tubes? (b) Determine the cost of sustaining the tube fouling condition at full load. given: Full load heat consumption = 0.777 GI/s 85% Project 2 (Answer) {@) Back pressure with clean tubes = 44 mbar BP due to high CW inlet temp. (18 + 8.6 + 5.4 = 32.0°C) = 47.5 mbar BP due to high CW inlet and flow (28 + 5.4 = 33.4°C) = $1.5 mbar BP due to high CW inlet and flow plus dity tubes = 58.0 mbar Henee effect on back pressure of dirty ubes = 58.U~ 51.5, SS ee ee 5 2e 5 AH ' ie i gi : BS a g Smbar — Condensers and back pressure 535 108. 108 103 102 10 1.00 Heat cons 098 oe 4060-80100 Back pressure milibre Figure 11.28 Back pressure correction curve fora 350-MW turboslternator at fla (b) Reférence to the heat consumption graph shows that over the range above (47-60 mbar), the graph is a straight line. At 44.0 mbar the correction is 1.0; at 60.0 mbar itis 1.02 ‘Heat correction factor change is (.02 for 16 mbar 0.00125/mbar So extra heat at FL with dirty tubes = 0.777 * 0.00125 * 6.5 0.0064 Guis - extra boiler input heat = 0.0064/0.85 = 0.0676 GI's Cost of extra heat = 0.0076 * 0.96 = £0.0073/s ~ £26.8/h ~ £4415/week at FL Additional Reading { pRUNoND , "Steam side peste gradiensinsrtce condenser. roc I Mech. EI Novis G8) 2sitveR ns. ‘An approach toa general heory of surface condensers, Prof ME, E18 ‘Noi (156364) S ciiistornen and ronsTERW1.-Rugley dry cooling omer sytem, Proc, Mech. E evens Conde CEGB (1981) 4 site Test Code No. 3, Peformance of Surface-Type Steam Condensers Senawton “the clea otairand ot soneatccatnagconcondenesperfomane”.NEL Report No. 294 6 BS as PL (1909) Water Cooling Towers (Pans)12 Feed-water heating A non-reheat cyte ncorporat ‘ crating turbine with thre stages of fed eatin isustated in Fre 11. The enpeatare ofthe concent ang te andenser is shown as point A. Because of fe tin; art raised to that shown a point B. Consequent. the enapy shang tte i x py change ofthe feed due to feed heating is represented by the sreaunderthe cine Al 10 soo 0 on 2 200 5 2 200 5 10 0 § sl -soo}.| § 32 3 3%) : a ne IL Ok a Entropy, kakak Figure 12.1 dealised representation of feed heating 536 Feed-waterheating 537 ‘The source of the heat is steam bled from the turbine. That bled to heater umber Lis at temperature T, absolute and the heat it contains is equal to 7, ‘multiplied by the entropy change of the strip. Similar considerations apply to the steam bied to heaters 2 and 3. The total heat represented by the three strips is equal to the total heat given to the feed, i.e. to the area under AB. 'As steam conditions have progressed there has been an increase in the number of stages of feed heating on units. Thus, modem plants often have ight or even nine heaters. Of course, feed heaters are very expensive items fof equipment and so the actual number used for a particular plant will be decided on economic grounds. Table 12.1 shows some information on “Table 12.1 Number of feed heaters on various plants Table 12.1 Number of feed heaters on various ent? _____ Guiput SteomatTSv____-RIHTemp. Finalfeed No.of Country (Mw) (bar) co) i (PO) - heaters io 13888 538 m6 200162088 538 238 Gor? ux 20072488 538 257 6 Usa 30015868, 566 566 22 7erB UK 378288 586 266 3 UK 5001586 568 565 22 = 7orB UK 6001586 566 566 28 3 UK 001586538 538 28 8 usa 800172438 538 28 7 Usa ie typical installations. Figure 12.2 shows the order ofimprovement that results from using various numbers of heaters. There is a diminishing return from using more than one, and the gain by going from, say, ten, tohuge number, is seen to be quite small. Therefore, the number of heaters in use on modern machines will probably remain about the economic maximum for some time. "An important consideration with non-contact heaters is the amount of heat exchange surface to provide. The greater the surface area the higher the outlet feed temperature, but the cost will be greater. The economic limit is ‘usually when the outlet feed temperature is within about $°C of the steam Saturation temperature; in other words when the terminal temperature difference is about °C. ‘Types of feed heater ee Low pressure “These are either of the non-contact or direct-contact type. Figure 12.3 shows atypical non-contact heater. The bled-steam is at alow pressure and may be538 Feed-waterheating 1.9, 09. Fractional improvement in heat consumption 0 Or 0203 04 05 08 07 08 05 10 Fractional enthalpy rie Figure 12.2 Thermal improvement due to feed heating sub-atmospheric., All installations have at least one DC (direct contact) low-pressure heater, i.c. the deaerator. In this, as with all DC heaters, the bled steam isin direct contact with the condénsate and so the condensate and the steam are at the same pressure in the shell. The condensate is raised to saturation temperature and so the terminal temperature difference is zero. Figure 12.4 shows a typical layout. ‘On some of the recent large units the whole LP heater train comprises DC heaters. A typical layout is shown in Figure 12.5. The condensate in No. 1 heater is raised to saturation temperature; Therefore, for it to attain a higher temperature still in No. 2 heater, it must be raised to a higher pressure. This is achieved by cascading the outlet of No. 1 heater downwards through a suitable distance to give the condensate at No. 2 the required extra head, ‘The condensate is then cascaded to No. 3 heatet and then to No. 4. Feed-waterheating 39, Main steam inlet Inlet port (in steam belt) Support bracket Heater body Tube element Pipes omitted 1 Battles Air vent outlet Drain cooling Figure 12.3 Low pressure feed hester(CEGB)540 Feed-water heating Feed-waterheating 841 Diagram of ful flow deaeratorICEGB) Fi Hy HOR i SS Figure 12.5 Food hester arrangement of 600-MW unit (CEGB)542 Feed-water heating ‘Thermodynamically the only advantage of using DC heaters is that the TTD is zero, whereas with non-contact heaters it would be between I and SC. Figure 12.6 shows the construction of a direct-contact heater. Of ‘course, these heaters are often operating at sub-atmospheric pressure and so. it is important that they, and the associated pipework, are assembled so that air cannot leak into the system, High-pressure non-contact heaters All the feed heaters after the booster pump or feed pump are termed “high pressure’. The bled steam supply often contains a substantial quantity of superheat. On units without bled-stéam driven boiler feed-pump turbines. the bled steam for feed heating is tapped off the main turbine at suitable locations. Normally the highest pressure heater is supplied from the HP cylinder exhaust and the next highest is supplied from an early stage of the IP cylinder. Thus, on a reheat turbine the penultimate heater steam temperature is considerably higher thanghat of the final heater. On the other hand, a bled-steam turbine may receive its steam from tae HP eylinder exhaust and appropriate tapings from the bled-steam turbine Provide the steam for heat feeding, see Figure /2.7(a). The bled steam tapped from such 2 source. while at the same pressure as would be obtained from the main turbine, is at a much lower temperature. Therefore. itis desirable to obtain the steam for the heaters from the bled-steam turbine where possible. Sometimes such turbines exhaust their steam to a suitable feed heater, such as the deaerator, but a common alternative is for them to exhaust to a condenser or to the main turbine Figure 12.7(b) shows the layout of a high-pressure heater. This particular type consists of a number of small bore tubes connected to tubular headers. Alternative types are shown in Figure /2.7(c). They incorporate an integral esuperheating, condensing and. usually, drains cooling section. ‘The sections are clearly marked. Feed heater trains S Figures 12.8, 12.9 and 12.10 show feed heater layouts on some modem plant. Figure 12.8 shows the layout on a 375 MW once-through supercritical Pressure unit. The layout is complicated somewhat by the necessity to Provide recirculation facilities external to the boiler while pressure-raising, Figure 12.9 illustrates a 500 MW unit layout incorporating non-contact heatersexcept for the deaerator, whereas in that shown in Figure /2.l0there are direct-contact LP heaters. Up to the 1950s a common material for HP heater tube nests was 70/30 cupro-nickel: However, this proved to be unsuitable because the tube metal flaked off (i.e. it exfoliated). So a change was made to other materials. For feed water up to 240°C, 90/10 cupro nickel is satisfactory and for higher Feed-waterheating 543 Figure 12.6 Direct contact feed heater construction (CEGB) temperatures steel is commonly used. This s free from corrosion because of the oxygen-free operating conditions on modern plant. It also has the advantage that the use of welding for tube joints is facilitated and also the chemical control of the water is simplified. On the other hand, modern HP heaters usually have a drains cooling section and so, with steel tubes, ‘corrosion at the water level is aggravated by air ingress during shut-down Periods. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure complete drainage of the steam side of the heaters by some form of automatic emptying device every time the uait is shut down,Feed-water heating 545 igure 12.7(b) HP feed heater with tubular headers (CEG)54S Feed-water heating me Re eA o Figure 12.7(c) HP fed heaters — other types Feed-waterhesting 547 Figuee 12.6 Diagrammatic arrangement of teed heating system for 8375 MW unit (cece) ola renaat ine Boiler feed ume turbine =o edo io metneetne7! |, to Mead ee N DP bsier LP, Heaters HP. Heaters Figure 12.9 Diagrammatic arrangement of a eed hesting system fora S0O-MW unit (CEGB) = oe548 Feed-waterheating Generator coolers et PHB Figure 12.10 Diagrammatic arrangement of feed heating system for 8 860-MMW unit (CEGB) * Heater spacing Normally heaters each give approximately the same rise in feed temperature usually in the range 25-35°C. However, the last heater on reheat uaits (i.e. the one supplied with cold reheat steam) will usually have a substantially greater heat transfer. Heater drainage Flash boxes The normal method of drainage is by cascading the drain water from one heater to another lower down the train, Ofte flash boxes ae provided such as showa in Figure 12.11. An orifice is located atthe drain infet tothe lash we B Fed water iets “Blea area ie seam sea eee, extnener To fish box of next heater Figure 12.11 Feed heater vontice Flash cascade drains (CEGB) pater boxes Feed-water heating $49 box to ensure that flashing takes place inside the box. The orifice size determines the maximum quantity of drain water that it will pass and so this also controls the maximum steam quantity to the upstream heater. It is important that an orifice is not changed for one of different size unless the ‘manufacturers have been consulted. Worn orifice plates should be replaced, Each line going to a flash box has its own orifice plate. Inside the box the supply pipe terminates with a diffuser. This has a slot on the underside t0 allow the flashing steam/water to be discharged downward and thus minimize the quantity of moisture entrained with the flash steam which passes t6 the heater. Figure 12.12 shows an orifice plate and diffuser assembly, Figure'12.12 Orifice plate and aittuser assembly (CEGB) Calculation of flash steam quantity The quantity of flash steam is easily calculated. Consider the flash box shown in Figure 12.13, Assume | kg of water is supplied to the orifice, and the water is at 18 bar abs, and 205°C. Reference to the steam tables shows the heat content to be 875 kl'kg of water. The pressure inside the flash box is determined by the bled steam pressure to the associated heater. For example. if we are considering. say. No. 5 flash box then the associated heater will be No. 5. Suppose the bled steam pressure is 10 bar abs., then the flash-steaim will be at the saturation temperature corresponding to 10 bar. 18" 180°C. and its enthalpy will be 2776.2 kiikg. The water ithe flash box will be at saturation temperature also, i.e. 180°C, and the heat content will be 762.6 kivkg.