Corfiot Italians

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Italkian, the Judeo-Italian dialect spoken in Corfu.
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Corfiot Italians (or "Corfiote Italians")

are a population from the Greek island of
Corfu (Kerkyra) with ethnic and linguistic
ties to the Republic of Venice. Their
name was specifically established by
Niccolò Tommaseo during the Italian
Risorgimento.[citation needed] During the
first half of the 20th century, Mussolini
(whose fascist regime promoted the Map of Venetian Corfu by Christoph
ideals of Italian irredentism) successfully Weigel in 1720, when the Corfiot Italians
used the Corfiot Italians as a pretext to were the majority in the capital (Città di
[citation needed]
Corfu)
occupy Corfu twice.

Contents
1 Origins
2 Venetian heritage
2.1 Language
2.2 Culture and learning
2.3 Architecture
2.3.1 Teatro di San Giacomo
3 Corfiot Italians and the Risorgimento
4 Italian occupations of Corfu
4.1 Corfu Incident of 1923
4.2 World War II
5 Italian with Venetian/Apulian influences
6 Renowned Corfiot Italians
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography

Origins
The origins of the Corfiot Italian community can be found in the expansion
of the Italian States toward the Balkans during and after the Crusades. In
the 12th century, the Kingdom of Naples sent some Italian families to
Corfu to rule the island. From the Fourth Crusade of 1204 onwards, the
Republic of Venice sent many Italian families to Corfu. These families
brought the Italian language of the Middle Ages to the island.[1]

When Venice ruled Corfu and the Ionian islands, which lasted during the
Renaissance and until the late 18th century, most of the Corfiote upper
classes spoke Italian (or specifically Venetian in many cases), but the
mass of people remained Greek ethnically, linguistically, and religiously
before and after the Ottoman sieges of the 16th century.

Corfiot Italians were mainly concentrated in the city of Corfu, which was
called "Città di Corfu" by the Venetians. More than half of the population
of Corfu city in the 18th century spoke the Venetian language.[2]

The re-emergence of Greek nationalism, after the Napoleonic era,

contributed to the gradual disappearance of the Corfiot Italians. Corfu
was ultimately incorporated into the Kingdom of Greece in 1864. The
Greek government abolished all Italian schools in the Ionian islands in
1870, and as a consequence, by the 1940s there were only four hundred
Corfiote Italians left.[3]

Venetian heritage
The Republic of Venice dominated Corfu for nearly five centuries until
1797. Although assailed several times by Ottoman naval and land forces
and subjected to four notable sieges in 1537,
1571, 1573 and 1716, in which the great natural
strength of the city and its defenders asserted
itself time after time. The effectiveness of the
powerful Venetian fortifications of the island
was a great factor that enabled Corfu to remain
the last bastion of free, uninterrupted Greek
and Christian civilization in the southern Map of the Republic of Venice in
1560, partially showing Corfu at
Balkans after the fall of Constantinople. Will the bottom.
Durant, an American historian, claims that Corfu
owed to the Republic of Venice the fact that it was the only part of Greece
never conquered by the Muslim Turks.[4] The Ottomans occupied briefly
some of the other Ionian islands, but were unsuccessful with their four
sieges of Corfu. This fact gave Corfu and Malta the title of "Bastions of
Christian Europe" during the late Renaissance.

Language

During these centuries, many Venetians moved to the island. Because of

its association with the ruling elite, by the end of the 15th century, the
influence of the Italian language and culture (including in some ways the
Roman Catholic church) assumed a predominant role in the island. Until
the second half of the 20th century the Veneto da mar was spoken in
Corfu, and the local Greek language assimilated a large number of Italian
and Venetian words, many of which are still common today. Indeed, even
before the fall of the Byzantine Empire much of the population in Corfu
spoke the Veneto da mar or the Mediterranean Lingua Franca Sabir as a
second, or first, language.[5]

"Corfu had also a demographic problem because of the constant

Turkish invasions. Venice declared an invitation to everyone who
wanted to move and live in Corfu. Cretans, Peloponnesians, people
from Epirus and many Venetians were moved to Corfu. Pieces of land
were given to Venetians in order to stay on the island permanently."[6]
Corfu passed as a dowry from the Greek Despot of Epirus to Manfred of
Sicily in 1259, and was not ruled by Greeks again until the 19th century. It
became Venetian in 1386 although, with the exception of Corfu city which
maintained a majority of a Venetian-speaking population (due partially to
the Italkian of the capital's Jewish community), most of the peasants
retained Greek as their first language.

According to historian Ezio Gray, the small communities of Venetian-

speaking people in Corfu were mostly assimilated after the island became
part of Greece in 1864 and especially after all Italian schools were closed
in 1870.[7] However, the Italian language maintained some importance, as
can be seen by the fact that poets like Stefano Martzokis (Marzocchi was
the surname of the father, an Italian from Emilia-Romagna) and Geranimos
Markonos, the first from Corfù and the second from Cefalonia, wrote
some of their poems in Italian during the second half of the 19th century.

Culture and learning

Venetian rule significantly influenced many aspects of the island's culture.

The Venetian feudal families pursued a mild but somewhat assimilating
policy towards the natives, who began to adopt many aspects of Venetian
customs and culture. The Corfiotes were encouraged to enrich
themselves by the cultivation of the olive, but were debarred from
entering into commercial competition with Venice. The island served even
as a refuge for Greek scholars, and in 1732 became the home of the first
Academy of modern Greece. The first newspaper of Corfu was in Italian:
the official weekly newspaper (Gazzetta degli Stati Uniti delle Isole Jone)
was first published in 1814. First in Italian, then in both Greek and Italian,
finally from 1850 in Greek and English; and it continued for the entire
duration of the English Protectorate until 1864. Many Italian Jews took
refuge in Corfu during the Venetian period and spoke their own language,
a mixture of Hebrew and Venetian with some Greek words.

Venetian influence was also important in the development of the opera in

Corfu. During Venetian rule, the Corfiotes developed a fervent
appreciation of Italian opera, and many local composers, such as the
Corfiot Italians Antonio Liberali and Domenico Padovani developed their
career with the theatre of Corfu, called Teatro di San Giacomo.

Corfu's cuisine also maintains some Venetian delicacies, cooked with

local spicy recipes. Dishes include "Pastitsada" (the most popular dish in
the island of Corfu, that comes from the Venetian dish Spezzatino),
"Strapatsada", "Sofrito", "Savoro", "Bianco" and "Mandolato". Some
traditions in Corfu were introduced by the Venetians such as the Carnival
(Ta Karnavalia).

Architecture

The architecture of Corfu City still reflects its long Venetian heritage, with
its multi-storied buildings, its spacious squares such as the popular
"Spianada" and the narrow cobblestone alleys known as "Kantounia". The
town began to grow during the Venetian period on a low hillock situated
between the two forts. In many respects, Corfu typifies the small Venetian
town, or borgo, of which there are numerous other surviving examples in
the former Venetian territories of the Adriatic Sea, such as Ragusa and
Spalato in Dalmatia. As in Venice itself, the "campi" developed
haphazardly in the urban fabric where it was natural for residents to
congregate, especially around churches, civic buildings, fountains, and
cisterns. The best example of such a space is Plateia Dimarcheiou ("Town
Hall Square"), overlooked on its north side by the 17th century Loggia dei
Nobili (which today serves as the seat of the local government) and on the
east side by the late sixteenth century Catholic Church of St. Iakovos, or
St. James. The Italian Renaissance is best represented on Corfu by the
surviving structures of the Fortezza Vecchia (the Old Fortress) on the
eastern side of the town, built by the Veronese military engineer Michele
Sanmicheli and the Venetian Ferrante Vitelli, who also designed the later
fortress on the west, the Fortezza Nuova.

Venetians promoted the Catholic Church during their four centuries of rule
in Corfu. Today, the majority of Corfiots are Greek Orthodox Christians
(following the official religion of Greece). However, there is still a
percentage of Catholics (5% or c. 4,000 people) who owe their faith to
their Venetian origins. These contemporary Catholics are mostly families
who came from Malta (about two thirds), but also from Italy during
Venetian rule. The Catholic community almost exclusively resides in the
Venetian "Citadel" of Corfu City, living harmoniously alongside the
Orthodox community.

Teatro di San Giacomo

During Venetian rule, the Corfiotes developed a fervent appreciation of

Italian opera, which was the real source of the extraordinary (given
conditions in the mainland of Greece) musical development of the island
during that era. The opera house of Corfu during 18th and 19th centuries
was that of the Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo, named after the
neighbouring Catholic cathedral, but the theatre was later converted into
the Town Hall. A long series of local composers, such as Antonio Liberali
(a son of an Italian bandmaster of the British Army, who later translated
his surname to 'Eleftheriadis'), Domenico Padovani (whose family has
been in Corfu since the 16th century) or Spyridon Xyndas contributed to
the fame of the Teatro di San Giacomo.

The first opera to be performed in the San Giacomo Theatre had been as
far back as 1733 ("Gerone, tiranno di Siracusa"), and for almost two
hundred years between 1771 until 1943 nearly every major operatic
composition from the Italian tradition, as well as many others of Greek and
French composers, were performed at the stage of the San Giacomo
theatre. This impressive tradition, invoking an exceptional musical past,
continues to be reflected in the mythology supporting the opera theatre of
Corfu, reputed to be fixture on famous opera singers' working travel
itineraries. Operatic performers who found success at the theatre were
distinguished with the accolade applaudito in Corfu ("applauded in
Corfu") as a tribute to the discriminating musical sensibility of the island's
audience.
Corfiot Italians and the Risorgimento
The Italian Risorgimento was initially concentrated in the Italian peninsula
with the surrounding continental areas (Istria, Dalmatia, Trentino,
Nizzardo, etc.) and did not reach Corfu and the Ionian islands. One of the
main heroes of the Italian Risorgimento, the poet Ugo Foscolo, was born in
Zante from a noble Venetian family of the island, but only superficially
promoted the possible unification of the Ionian islands to Italy.

The first newspaper of Corfu was in Italian: the official weekly newspaper
(Gazzetta degli Stati Uniti delle Isole Jonie) was first published in 1814.
First in Italian, then in both Greek and Italian, finally from 1850 in Greek
and English; and it continued for the entire duration of the English
Protectorate until 1864.

According to historian Ezio Gray, the small communities of Venetian-

speaking people in Corfu were mostly assimilated after the island became
part of Greece in 1864 and especially after all Italian schools were closed
in 1870.[7]

However, the Italian language maintained some importance, as can be

seen by the fact that poets like Stefano Martzokis (Marzocchi was the
surname of the father, an Italian from Emilia-Romagna) and Geranimos
Markonos, the first from Corfù and the second from Cefalonia, wrote in
Italian some of their poems in the second half of the 19th century.

The island of Corfu was a refuge for many Italians in exile during the Wars
of Independence of Italy, like Niccolò Tommaseo (who married Diamante
Pavello-Artale, a Corfiot Italian).[8]

After World War I, however, the Kingdom of Italy started to apply a policy
of expansionism toward the Adriatic area and saw Corfu as the gate of this
sea. Benito Mussolini developed an extreme nationalistic position in
accordance to the ideals of Italian irredentism and actively promoted the
unification of Corfu to Italy.
The Corfiote Italians, even if reduced to a few hundreds in the 1930s, were
strongly supported by fascist propaganda and in the summer of 1941
(after the Italian occupation of the Ionian islands) Italian schools were
reopened in Corfu city.[9] During World War II Mussolini promoted an initial
development of Italian irredentism in Corfu, similar to the one being
promoted in Savoy.[10]

Italian occupations of Corfu

Italy occupied Corfu two times: the first for a few months only in 1923
after the assassination of Italian officers; the second during World War II,
from April 1941 to September 1943.

Corfu Incident of 1923

Further information: Corfu incident

At the end of December 1915, Italy sent a military force to Corfu under the
command of General Marro. They established Post Offices with the
French occupation troops there. In 1915–1919, the Italian and French
forces (as well as Serbian forces) remained on the island. The Italians did
not have any intention of pulling out, but the British and the French
government forced them to displace.

In 1923, the Italians tried to occupy Corfu again, but, on the morning of 27
August 1923, unknown persons murdered General Enrico Tellini and three
officers of the Italian border commission on the Greek–Albanian border.

Italy made an announcement asking within 24 hours the following

demands: an official apology of the Greek government; the
commemoration of the dead in the Catholic Church of Athens, with all the
members of the Greek government to participate; the rendering of honors
to the Italian flag and the Italian naval squadron anchored in Faliro; an
investigation of the Greek authorities, with the participation of the Italian
officer Perone di San Martino, which should end within 5 days; the death
penalty for those found guilty; the payment of 50 million Italian lire within
5 days by the Greek government as indemnity; and finally, that the dead
should be honored with military honors in Preveza.

The Greek government responded accepting only the first three and the
last demands. Consequently, using this as a pretext, the Italian Army
suddenly attacked Corfu on 31 August 1923. Commander Antony Foschini
asked the prefect of Corfu to surrender the island. The prefect refused
and he informed the government. Foschini warned him that the Italian
forces would attack at 17:00 and the Corfiots refused to raise the white
flag in the fortress. Seven thousand refugees, 300 orphans plus the
military hospital were lodged in the Old Fortress, as well as the School of
Police in the New Fortress. At 17:05 the Italians bombarded Corfu for 20
minutes. There were victims among the refugees of the old Fortress and
the Prefect ordered the raising of the white flag. The Italians besieged the
island and set the forces ashore. From the beginning of their possession,
they started to inflict hard penalties on the people who had guns, and the
officers declared that their possession was permanent. There were daily
requisitions of houses and they censored the newspapers. Greece asked
for the intervention of the League of Nations, of which both Greece and
Italy were members, and demanded the solution of the problem through
arbitration. The Italian government of Benito Mussolini refused, declaring
that Corfu would remain occupied until the acceptance of the Italian
terms. On 7 September 1923, the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris
ended with the evacuation of the Italian forces from Corfu, which finally
began on 20 September 1923 and ended on the 27th of the same month.

World War II

See also: Axis Occupation of Greece

After World War I, Italy had embarked on a policy of expansionism towards

the Adriatic, in which Corfu played an important role, as it controlled
entrance to it. As shown by the incident of 1923, Mussolini and Italian
irredentism had set their sights firmly on the island. The Italian community
was an especially useful tool, and it was both supported and exploited by
Fascist propaganda.[9]

During the Second World War Mussolini wanted to possess the Ionian
Islands, which he succeeded with the help of the Germans during the
Greco-Italian War. The Italians occupied Corfu from 28 March 1941. They
implemented a process of italianization, with creation of Italian schools,
centered around the small surviving community of the Corfiote Italians,
who still spoke the Venetian dialect,[11] but which by that time numbered
only 500 people, living mainly in Corfu city.[12]

The first reaction to the Italian occupation happened on the first Sunday
of November 1941. During the procession of the Saint Spyridon, the
fascist young Corfiot Italians participated and provoked the students of
the Greek high schools. When the procession arrived in the Upper Square,
the students started to leave whilst singing the national Greek songs. The
"Carbinaria" and the "Finetsia" fascist groups attacked and arrested many
Greek students, beating them and exiling some of them to the island of
Othonous. After that episode there was a relative calm in Corfu until the
surrender of Italy on 9 September 1943.

From 10 to 14 September 1943, the Germans tried to force the Italian

garrison in Corfu to surrender, while the political prisoners from the small
island of Lazaretto were set free. Finally, on the morning of 13 September,
Corfiots woke up to the disasters of the war, as the Germans attacked the
island. The German air raids continued the whole day bombarding the
port, the Fortresses and strategic points. During the night of 14
September, huge damages were inflicted to the Jewish quarters of Saint
Fathers and Saint Athanasios, the Court House, the Ionian Parliament, the
Ionian Academy, in which the Library was lodged, the Schools of Middle
Education, the Hotel "Bella Venezia", the Customs Office, the Manor-
Houses and the Theatre. Finally the next week the Germans occupied the
island with huge losses among the Italians, and subsequently deported
the nearly 5,000 Jews (speakers of the Italkian) of the island to
concentration camps, where most of them perished.

Currently, the Venetian language is no longer spoken in Corfu as its last

speakers died in the 1980s. Moreover, there are only a few Jews in Corfu
city who still speak Italkian, a Jewish language mixed with many Venetian
words.

Italian with Venetian/Apulian influences

Historically, the upper class of the Jewish
community of Corfu spoke a Venetian dialect
with some modifications (due to the influence
of Greek) (see "Italkian").

The Venetian of the Corfiote Jews accordingly

differed from the same Venetian dialect as
spoken by non-Jews in the same town. A
characteristic of this dialect is the formation in
"ò" of the plural of nouns ending in "à", a
formation which originated in the Hebrew
ending, simplified, according to the Italian laws Old Venetian-style buildings of
of phonology, into "ò", e.g., the Italianized plural downtown Corfu city.
of "berakah" is "berakhò" (for "berakot"); hence "novità", "novitò"; "città",
"cittò." There has presumably been no Jewish literature in this dialect,
since Venice herself very early adopted pure Italian as her official
language, and all documents of the Corfu Jewish community were written
in that language, which served as well in Hebrew schools as the means of
translating the Bible.[13]

Permanent residence in Corfu was also found by the Apulian Jews, who
brought from the Italian coast their vernacular and a few specimens, still
preserved, of their literature. The dialect from Apulia was accordingly
spoken by the under class of the Jewish community. Two Apulian love-
songs, seemingly original, exist in manuscript, of which one is an
independent composition of a rather scurrilous purport, while in the
second each stanza is preceded by one of a religious Hebrew poem on a
quite different subject. Both are written in Hebrew characters, as is a
semioriginal composition containing the rules for the Passover supper, of
which the following paragraph (with Italian words retransliterated) may be
cited:

"Pigiamu la cu li doi signali, e la spartimu a menzu, edizzimu: Comu

spartimu chista, cussi spardiu lu Mari Ruviu, e passàra li padri nostri
intra di issu e fizzi cun issi e . Cussì cu fazza cu nùi; chistu annu accà,
l'annu che veni à la terra di omini liberi.—Menza mintimu sotto la
tovaggia pir, e l'altva menza infra li doi, pir cu farrimu."

The simple past tense ("vitti", "vidisti", "vitti") was the only one in use
among the Apulian Jews, who agreed in this respect with the Apulians of
the Italian coast; they differed from the latter, however, in forming the
future, which is expressed by means of the auxiliary "anzu" (= "I have"),
as on the Continent, and a following infinitive, which is always, as in
modern Greek, resolved. Such resolution occurs quite frequently in the
area of Bari (with the particles "mu" or "mi"), but not as regularly as in
Corfu, where with the exception of the substantivized forms "lu manzari",
"lu mbiviri", and a few others, the unresolved infinitive is absolutely
unknown. So to-day "dirò", "aggiu diri" and "aggiu mu dicu" occur on the
Continent, but only "anzu cu dicu", in Corfu.

This dialect has brought all borrowed words under its own laws of
accidence; but its original vocabulary has been hopelessly impoverished
and deprived of its finest elements. A Corfiote Jew visiting any part of
Apulia would have found difficulty in understanding the spoken vernacular
or the songs of the natives, although the grammatical structure is exactly
the same as that of his own dialect.

The Jews can boast of having preserved the oldest text in the Apulian
dialect, a collection of translations of Hebrew dirges dating from the
thirteenth century and now in the British Museum (MS. Or. 6276). It
contains many obsolete terms which are very close to the Latin and many
of the older and fuller grammatical forms. Among its points of interest are
words and phrases such as "tamen sollicitatevi" (="mind"), "etiam Ribbi
Ismahel", "lu coriu" (="skin"), "di la carni sua", "la ostia" (="army"), and
"di li cieli." In the fourteenth century the decay of Apulian in Corfu had so
far advanced that readers were no longer able to pronounce correctly the
words of this Hebrew manuscript or to grasp their meanings. Vowel-points
were accordingly inserted, but very inaccurately; and later an incompetent
scribe incorrectly substituted "duzzini" (= "dozens"), "douzelli" (= "young
men"), "macchina" (= "machine") for "magina" (= "image"), and
attempted to erase the superlative termination of "grandissima." It was
perhaps owing to the influence of the Venetian Veneto da mar that he
spared all the simple futures; but in four or five places where the pronoun
of the first person was erased the substituted words have so thoroughly
obliterated the original readings that it is impossible to discover what was
the old form of the peculiar "joni" which is now used side by side with "jò."

Today there are less than one hundred Corfiote Jews in the island of
Corfu, subsequent to the Nazi deportations during World War II.

Renowned Corfiot Italians

Elena D'Angri, one of the most famous opera singers of the 19th
century
Felice Beato, photographer of the 19th century is thought to have
spent his childhood in Corfu
Antonios Liveralis, opera musicist and composer
Spiridione Cilia, priest of the Maltese community in Corfu
Georges Moustaki, singer-songwriter, was a son of Corfiot Italian
Jews
Domenico Padovani, opera musicist and composer
Diamante Pavello-Artale, wife of Niccolò Tommaseo
Ektoras Botrini (Ettore Botrini), chef and TV presenter

See also
History of the Jews in Apulia
Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù
Corfiot Maltese

References
 1. Tagliavini, Carlo. Le origini delle lingue neolatine, p. 149.
2. Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano...Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 92.
3. Vignoli Giulio. Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa, p.
132.
4. Will Durant. The Renaissance, p. 684.
5. Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 105
6. BBC: the Venetian town of Corfu
7. ^ a b Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p.
118.
8. Seton-Watson. Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925, p. 236.
9. ^ a b Vignoli Giulio Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In
Europa, p. 143.
10. Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 127.
11. Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 162.
12. Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano...Malta, Corsica, Nizza, p. 47.
13. Fortis, Umberto and Zolli, Paolo. La parlata giudeo-veneziana, p. 73.

Bibliography
Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana, 1915–1945.
Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961.
Durant, Will. The Renaissance. MJF Books. New York, 1981 ISBN 1-
56731-016-8
Fortis, Umberto and Zolli, Paolo. La parlata giudeo-veneziana.
Assisi/Rome, 1979 ISBN 88-85027-07-5
Gray, Ezio. Le terre nostre ritornano... Malta, Corsica, Nizza. De
Agostini Editoriale. Novara, 1943
Martin, John Jeffries. Venice Reconsidered. The History and
Civilization of an Italian City-State, 1297–1797. Johns Hopkins UP.
New York, 2002.
Norwich, John Julius. A History of Venice. Vintage Books. New York,
1989.
Price, Charles. Malta and the Maltese: a study in nineteenth century
migration. Georgia House. Melbourne, 1954.
Randi, O. Dalmazia etnica, incontri e fusioni. Tipografie venete.
 Venezia, 1990.
Seton-Watson, Christopher. Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870–
1925. John Murray Publishers. London, 1967.
Siebert, Diana: Aller Herren Außenposten. Korfu von 1797 bis 1944.
Köln 2016, ISBN 978-3-00-052502-5
Tagliavini, Carlo. Le origini delle lingue neolatine. Patron Ed. Bologna,
1982.
Vignoli, Giulio. Gli Italiani Dimenticati. Minoranze Italiane In Europa.
Saggi E Interventi. Editore Giuffrè. Roma, 2000.

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