BASIC CONCEPTS from Tools to ‘ONCEPTS from Sociology and Anthropology - Tools to t socir eae organization or system of interrelationships that connects: « als in a common culture. Alll the products of human interaction, the experience of living with others around us, Humans create their interactions, and: once created the products of those interactions have the ability or power to et back upon humans to determine or constrain action. Ofien, we experience society (humanly created organization) as something apart from the individuals and interactions that create it, PRODUCTS OF HUMAN INTERACTION - COMPONENTS OF SOCIETY ions, rules, symbols that shape and are enacted as feelings, thoughts. awviors of groups of people. Referring primarily to learned behavior it from that which is given by nature, of biology, culture has been used 6 designate everything that is humanly produced (habits, beliefs arts and artifact) sed from one generation to another, In this formulation, culture 'S ished from nature, and distinguishes one society from another. LANGUAGE? a system of verbal symbols through which humans communica ideas, feelings, experiences. ‘Through language these ean be accumulated and transmitted across. generations. Language is not only a tool, of a means oF expression, but it also structures and shapes our experiences of the world and What we see around us. VALUES: preferences - ideas people share about what is good, bad, desirable. reneral, abstract, cut across variations in ‘These are usually very NORMS: concepts and behaviors that constitute the normal. Behavioral rules or standards. for social interaction. These often derive from values but also ‘values; sometimes derives from statistical norms but often not. Serve is sides and criticisms for individual behavior. Norms establish expectations that shape interaction. “Culture. Those patterns of meaning that any group or society uses t0 interpret and evaluate itself and its situation.” Bellah et.al. Habits of the Heart 1985 “Culture. A system of durably acquired schemes of perception, thought ancl ction, engendered by objective conditions but tending to persist even afer anv Ghieration of those conditions.” Bourdieu, The Inheritors. 1979, “Habitus. A set of historical relations ‘deposited’ within individual bodies in the orm of mental and corporeal schemata of perception, appreciation, and action.” Bourdieu. ‘Scanned with CamScanner“Culture, What it means to act according to one’s culture és, loosely speaking, t0 follow one's inclinations as they have been developed by learning from other ‘members of one’s community.” Hannerz, Soulside, 1969:17. “Culture. Refers to the learned repertoire of thoughts and actions exhibited by members of social groups ~ repertoires [transmitted] independently of genetic heredity from one generation to the next.” Harris. Cultural Materialism, 1979:47. “Culture. Symbolic vehicles of meaning, including beliefs, ritual practices, art forms, ceremonies, as well as informal ... practices such as language, gossip. ‘stories and rituals of daily life.” Swidler, “Culture in Action” 1986:273 “Culture. The cultural is the creative, varied, potentially transformative working out... of some of the fundamental social/structural relationships of society Willis, Learning to Labor. 197:137. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: the arrangement of the parts that consti organization of social positions and distribution of people within those positions. STATUS: socially defined niches, positions (student, professor, administrator) son in that every status carries a cluster of expected behaviors, how a ps status is expected to think, feel, as well as expectations about how they should be treated by others. The cluster of expected duties and behaviors that has become fixed in a consistent and reiterated pattern of conduct. sis of shared rly interacting on the -d statuses and roles. GROUP: wo or more people re: expectations of others” behavior; interrela patterns of activity reproduced across time and spi ly repeated. Institutions often concern ions with on INSTITUTION Practices that are regularly and continuou arrangements that human bein s work out in the inte ty is achieved across generations, es. Social institutions are like buildings that are at reconstructed by the very bricks that compose every moment constantly bei them. SOCIAL STRUCTURE: Structure refers to the pattern within culture and organization through which social action takes place; arrangements of roles, organizations, institutions, and cultural symbols that are stable over time, often unnoticed, and a changing almost invisibly. Structure both enables and constrains what is possible in social life. If a building were a society, the foundation, supporting columns, and beams would be the structure which both constrains and enables the various ‘Scanned with CamScannerinds and arrangement eerie ements of spaces andr ; institutions). Sche Toms (roles, organizations, and ooh mata and resources (material and human) through which social kes place, becomes < : Patterned, and institutionalized. Incorporates both culture and the resources of social organization. a Social structures have a dual character, defined as composed simultaneously of schemas, which are virtual, and. eee Which are actual. Schemas, Fats as fundamental tools of thought... not the formally stated prescriptions but the informal and not always conscious schemas, metaphors and assumptions presupposed by such formal statements. Schemas are the effects of resources, just as resources as the effects of schemas. William Sewell 1992. Social structure. The organized set of social relationships in which members of the society or group are variously implicated. Patterned behavior and relationships. “The patterned arrangements of role-sets, status-sets, and statts- sequences can be held to comprise the social structure.” Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure. p. 370. “Social Structure. Patterned arrangements of role-sets, status-sets, and status sequences consciously recognized and regularly operative in a given society and closely bound up with legal and political norms and sanctions.” Turner. Drama, Fields, and Metaphors, 237. Social Structure:. Relatively stable systems of social relationships and opportunities in which individuals find themselves and by which they are vitally affected, but over which most of them have no control and of the exact nature of which they are usually unaware.” Greenfield. Nationalism, p. 2. AGENCY: “the realized capacity of people to act upon their world and not only to know about or give personal or intersubjective significance to it. .. the power of people to act purposively and reflectively. in more or less complex relationships with one another, to reiterate and remake the world in which they live, in circumstances where they may consider different courses of action possible and desirable, though not necessarily from the same point of view." Consider human beings as producers, as instruments, and as products, to be the drivers, the vehicle and the recipients of acts of others. (Inden, 1990:23) ITY: combines the intimate or personal world with the collective space of cultural forms and social relations. Imaginings, consciousness, reflections of self produced, improvised from cultural materials and social transactions. caught betw present and future, constant negotiation. Rather than a unified, single, or Nn past al or genetic subjects, composite of many, often contradictory self-understandings and performances, often not confined to the body but spread over the material and social environment, few of which are durable. << ‘Scanned with CamScannerINEQUALITY: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: the division of people socio-economically into layers or st When we talk of social stratification, we draw attention into the unequal positions occupied by individuals in society. In the larger traditional ind in industrialized countries today there is stratification in terms of wealth, property, and a to material goods and cultural products. RACE: 4 human group that defines itself and/or is defined by other groups as different...by virtue of innate and immutable physical characteristics. It is a Group that is socially defined on the bases of physical eriteria ETHNICITY: cultural practices and outlooks of a given community of people that set them apart from others. Members of ethnie groups see themselves. as Culturally distinct from other groups in a society, and are seen by those others to be so in return, Many different characteristics may distinguish ethnic. groups from one another but the most usual are language, history or ancestry ~ real or imagined, religion, and styles of dress of adornment. Ethnic differences are wholly learned. ‘Scanned with CamScannerNON-TRADITIONAL SECURITY THREAT. J Definition Be Ay Non-Traditional Security Threats are j referred to the challenges to the survival and } well-being of peoples and states that arise primarily out of non-military or non-pelligerent sources such as climate change, cross-border 1 énvronmental degradation (global warming) z gaseous |y emissions, and pollution and resource (depletion, “infectious diseases like a sl dengue fever and epidemics, natural disaster: ve earthquakes, floods and drought irregular migration, food shortages, people smuggling, drug trafficking and other forms of transnational crimes, iy & sy.7cs 9 : So far six branches of non-traditional security threats have been spotted which are Intemational Terrorism, * Transnational organized crime, Environmental security. legal Migration, Energy Security and Human security. The list may differ with respect to 4 every nation which will have its own list which § may differ from others. The response to each : particular threat may vary depending on | whether a particular section of the population is being impacted by a particular threat. The Non-Traditional Security , Challenges Posing [peas okaistan 7P2 iltancy is a dedp’rédted scourge that has plagued Pakistan, for long. The country experienced different moves of militancy : intolerance to extremism and from 4 fundamentalism to violence. A diversified |) chain of challenges confronts Pakistan, These } challenges could radiate from extremism, 4 economy, energy crisis, demographic issues { and governance problems, human security, j Non-Traditional Security Threats in Pakistan: Role Non-State Actors of NON — TRADITIONAL SECURITY-THREATS IN PAKISTAN: ROLE OF NON-STATE. - ACTORS J f,cimate change will continue to tay its 537 border security, illegal immigrations, trans- border crinies, climate change, weak political system, foreign policy issues and institutional squabbles. Most of these are inter-related and operate simultaneously. Some of these challenges also make subsets like economy, energy and demographic challenges making 2 confusing situation as to climate change which one causes the others. Climate Change y its impact on human activity Sustenance in Pakistan through frequent Weather changes in temperature and precipitationXPakistan ranks among the 10 top countries highly prone to climate change, Even amongst top vulnerable countries, some nations like Bangladesh and the Maldives face only one type of threat of rise in sea level. But Pakistan face multiple threats though with just 9.08 percent of green house gas (GHG) emissions,,it remains one of the lowest contributors to the increase in global temperature. In Pakistan high-impacts events such as floods, droughts and cyclones are frequently happening to bring immense pressure on the state and the people. Flooding due to unforeseeable rains like the one that hit the country in 2010 and 2011 and glacial melt down that the people of Chitral sustained in 2015 top the list of possible threats from global warming for a country that has the largest land mass under glacier outside the north pole. Some other threats which Pakistan faces include droughts and desertification. Among non-traditional climate change threats, heat wave that lashed yachi in August 2016 top the list. pws T ok akistan’s rapidly (growing population” makes unfavorable impact on all aspects of fai ‘Scanned with CamScanner 4, fer al538 ‘society 1@ the economy and the environment 1,8 Population growth on massive scale add to a ‘country’s weak position by endangering basic NY civic amenities which eventually push the us ,, County 13 Tack of clean and potable water, 33 SERB of Housing. space usmaely puting ‘immense burden on society. Global Warming ‘The climate scientists have wamed that concentration of GHG (green house gases) in the atmosphere have reached new heights ‘and are rapidly contributing to an average rise Of 2 to 42 Celsius © temperatures Scientists believe that any rise above 2c threshold could ‘Ingger far reaching an. pve changes ace The earth can 3 global warming of 1 5 fo 2 (degree) ¢ Global warming is change in atmospheric temperature due to’ green house gas emission. Global warming at 3c can result in the crossing of “many tipping points including ear disappearance of the Arctic summer sea ice, degradation of the Amazon rain forest and YY instabilty—in—the__South Asian summer monsoon, -rendering any remedial action ineffective In case global warming reaches 4c,"clmiate scientists warn, only one tenth of the global population would surave The rapid rise in GHGs is reducing mankind's ability to limit warming to sate levels, According to scientists, floods in Pakistan, forest fires in Russia, mudsies in China and droughts in Sub-Sahara Atrca are the resutts of scendnds which they had been Predicting since lng due to the impact of GHGs like carbon dioxide (CO;), Methane and nitrogen oxide. These climatic changés, Scientists war, can contribute to the disasters like 2010 and 2011 floods in Pakistan happening mote frequently and more intensely in future. Pakistan: has: some $218 glaciers, over 13680 sqr kilometers or 13 Percent’ of mountains in the upper’ Indus Basin, and 2420 lakes of which 50 are reportedly to be highly dangerpus and may cause flooding in the Indus basin. . ‘Among othér damages of global warming, Pakistan is expertencing biodiversity with maximum — re Pakistan Affairs Joss, shifts in weather patterns and changes in fresh water supply These changes. partcularly in pattems of rainfal, glacia! retreat and srowmet, could cause unexpected floods in rain-deficient region and create decught The conditions in ferie areas These changes will ise more g'arngy after 2050 when the shrinking Himaleyan glacier would disappear. DANGERS OF CLIMATE CHANGE The increase 9 global temperatures kely 10 be between two to 54 degrees Celsus ‘over the next century. An increase of 0.8 degree Cetsus over the last year speaks volumes abt the steady rse in global temperatures. The top wrormes years creed ater 1990 This cored with the econome and technologie boom. wih arrual increases in precptation, snowtall anf record-breaking temperatures. The dreadful foods of 2010, 2014 and 2015 in Pakistan bear testament to this betel Such calamitous floods have not occurred in the nation’s history. Tharparkar has been ‘expenencing a prolonged drought for the past three years that has claimed many lives - Primanly those of malnourished children (official statistics on the matter reman unavailable). The trouble does not end there These catastrophes destroy crops, decrease the availabilty of hygienic water, kil both People and animals and begin the onset of disease. Pakistan is home to an estimated 190 milkon people, according to the UN, and is ‘population is growing at an annual rate of 1.89 percent. AS the population increased, more demands will be imposed on finite and depleting resources. Cites of Pakistan ae expanding and the urban spraw! has] exacerbated pollution levels, deforestation, habitat fragmentation and increased demands on energy reserves. Around 80 percent of the electricity mn Pakistan is provided by burning fossil fuels such as oll and gas. Not only are these reserves being exhausted but the problem is also being further aggravated. Increased foss! fuel combustion adds to greenhouse gas ‘Scanned with CamScannerANsSiONS. Ar conditioners and the gaseous spew emilled from generators also add to {hese emissions. Increased heatwaves creale @ greater demand for energy consumption \which subsequently leads to greater demends {othe main Sources of energy inthe county. oil and gas, The birds and the bees are finely alluned to their’ surroundings and habitats They depend on the natural changes in the weather to survive, The weather is what controls their breeding Seasons, the lemperatures they are adapled to and the Wind ppatlems they use for fight. However, Climate change is altering everything they depend upon. Their habitats are shrinking and life as they know it is severely threatened, leaving life as humans know it threatened, Without the birds and bees, there will be no more pollination of the crops and Vegetation that we rely on, no checks and balances on soil erosion or water salinity, no \ranspiration which brings timely rainfall, no fertile soil, no biodiversity and no control over Pests. The impact on a single species of Plants or animals has devastating consequences for other species that depend onit. Disastrous droughts, which might expand to 70 percent of the land in several decades, are expected if we continue with business as usual, The effects are already evident. Australia experienced a 10-year-ong drought at the beginning of this century and Row their famous fruit bats have dropped dead from a recent heatwave. Over 700 of them have died within the span of a weekend. The Maldives is the first sacrificial lamb of this century as it will soon drown into the rising sea. As all these problems arise and the global population continues to grow, more violence and even war will break out over the demand for resources, Ecosystems have often proved to be resilient to human damage and capable of healing themselves. But strong action must be laken to revert the system to its natural trajectory. The recent international agreement Non-Traditional Security Threats in Pakistan: Role Non-State Actors 539 at COP21 and COP22 that aims to reduce Global temperatures by two degrees Celsius below pre-industrial levels through nationally- determined contributions (NDCs) are all the More paramount. But just the fact that Pakistan is a signatory is not enough. It must begin ardent measures to draft and implement its NOCs, The Paris Agreement created a steady flow of finances to the developing World that we must take advantage of Developed countries have committed to ‘mobilise $100 billion annually towards this end. With a renowned climate change denier sitting at the helm of intemational poitics (Donald Trump}, it has become even more imperative for the global south to rally together and put pressure on the intemational ‘community to work towards these goals. For Pakistan to have an audible voice in the international community, it must begin setting precedents. The phrase ‘think globally, act locally’ should be the maxim of our time. A nationwide awareness campaign must be initiated. Local communities must begin working towards ending deforestation and protecting crucial wildlife species. The extensive decarbonising of our major cities ‘needs to be initiated along with proper urban Planning and waste management, Alternative energy solutions ~ such as solar and wind = need to be put in place These can be established not for nationwide but community levels at the onset. China ~ a country we have strong ties with — can be ‘elied upon for support as they have broken barriers in producing green technology, Reducing the implications of global warming is ‘ot only imperative, itis possible, THE AFTERSHOCKS OF GLOBAL WARMING For the past three decades climatologists have been raising alarms about global warming and its consequences, and now geologists have also got involved in the issue World's ‘renowned geologists are of the pinion that rapidly metting glaciers will result ‘Scanned with CamScanner540 in increasing number of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis, This is based on the premise that ice is extremely heavy — one cubic metre of ice weighs almost one ton and glacier being a colossal sheet of ice exerts tremendous pressure on the surface of the earth beneath their cover. When glaciers start to melt, as we are experiencing today, pressure on the earth's surface on which the glaciers are located is reduced significantly. The lightening of load on the earth's surface allows its mantle to rebound causing the tectonic plates beneath to become unstuck. According to Patrick Wu, a geologist at the University of Alberta in Canada, the Weight of thick ice puts a lot of pressure. This ‘weight suppresses earthquakes, but when the ice melts earthquakes are triggered. Wu goes ‘on to say that many earthquakes that occur in Canada today are related to this ongoing rebound effect that started with the end of the last Ice Age some 10,000 years ago. In the face of present global warming, tapidly changing climatic factors and speedy deglaciation the foreseeable rebound is expected to be much severe and faster. Experts term this rebound ‘Isostatic Rebound’. This process reactivates the fault, increases the seismic activly and lifts pressure on magma chambers that feed volcanoes. Experts are also of the view that there are implications for parts of the world where glaciers and active faults coincide, including the Hindukush, Himalayas, Alps, Andes, etc In Pakistan, in the Hindukush and Himalayan regions glacier melt due to climate change coincides with active faults Andrew Hynes, tectonics expert at McGill University, puts forward another theory to illustrate an additional relationship between glacier melt and earthquakes when he says that increased glacier melt increases the concentration of fluid in the fault that lubricates the rock, allowing the plates to slide, ‘An added phenomenon that needs to be kept in mind is that if glacier melt is reducing Pakistan Affairs the stress on earth’s surface in glaciated areas, it is also increasing the stress on ‘seafloors due to rapid influx of water. The massive metting of ice might trigger earthquakes that are strong enough to lead to the seafloor collapsing or and underwater landslide that in tum could generate a tsunami) Melting of glaciers and the subsequent rise in sea level also means that previously exposed continental margins become inundated with water. ute ice in is already triggering . earthquakes and underwater seafloor slides! says Wu. Although, at present, these events are not getting much attention, these are early wamings of the more serious events that scientists believe will be experienced in near future. The glaciated areas in northem parts of Pakistan are quite vulnerable to such events as they are not only heavily glaciated but are also located on tectonic fault lines. For the last three decades the area is also experiencing rapid ice melt due to climate change. Climate change induced disasters, like Glacial Leke Outburst Floods (Glofs) and riverine floods, have become common features in the northem parts of the country. Call it a mere coincidence or reality that for the same period earthquake events are also showing an upward trend vis-a-vis the Glofsificcds. e ret ind earthquake events in ‘Hindukush and Himalayan regions of Pakistan are clear evidences - of this correlation. Over a period of three decades the frequency and intensity of both glacier- Tielt and occurrence of earthquakes if the northern regions of Pakistan have incréased. ‘Apparently “both ‘seem’ to be directly proportional to each other. During August 2013 alone, Chitral district and adjacent areas experienced over a dqzen earthquakes of above five magnitude. During December 2015 and first week of January 2016, District Chitral and adjoining glaciated areas experienced over five devastating earthquakes. In Chitral it has now become a common belief among the local communities that the frequency and devastation of earthquakes in ‘Scanned with CamScannerInter 'S directly proportional to the severity fand intensity of floods during the preceding summer. However, this myth of the local communities needs to be evaluated and studied in detail. Anita is home to some 642 glaciers with an estimated volume of neany kilometres and alone counts for nine per cent of the total glacial or ice reserves of Pakistan. According to experts from the field of environment, glaciology and hydrology all glaciers of Pakistan will melt away completely by the year 2035/ _As has been mentioned earlier, one cubic metre of glacial ice weighs almost one tonne. if by 2035 all glaciers in Pakistan melt away, as has been predicted by experts keeping in view the present melting rate, then it means removal of 269 billion tonnes of load from the surface of the earth's crust in Chitral alone. The melting of glaciers in the district is quite evident from increased number of Glofs and the ever increasing water flow in River Chitral (also known as River Kabul in the lower course) for the last two decades. Earthquake Earthquakes are another lethal form of non-traditional security threats to Pakistan. There was a severe earthquake which jolted Pakistan on 8th October, 2005. It devastated Pakistan's northern areas with massive loss of life and property. Just over a decade later the reconstruction of New Balakot city at Bakrial remains a pipedream. Like other calamities another earthquake struck again the northerm areas of Pakistan on 26 October 2015. Again the city of Balakot was devastated by the ‘severe earthquake. The ill-fated victims in Malakand, upper and lower Dir, Shangla, Chitral and other location were exposed to sheer cold weather when their homes were destroyed by the deadly quake. The quake hit mostly underdeveloped locations. The tectonic setting of Karachi, due to the converging proximity of the Indian, Arabian and Eurasian plates, underscores the Non-Traditional Security Threats in Pakistan: Role Non State Actors 544 Substantial likelihood of seismic disasters in the region. A massive tsunami hit Karachi in 1945. Generated by an underwater quake of 8.1 magnitude, a Giant tidal wave of 12 meters favaged the settlements. Four thousand people died, The entire coastline of Sindh and Makran was jolted. According to initial reports the death toll stood at 267 and the injured count was 1600 about 11,000 houses were damaged. The intensity of the earthquake on the Richter scale was almost as much as the one in’ 2005, but epic centre was so deep underground that fortunately a major catastrophe was escaped. This time the epic centre was 150 miles deep in the ground compared to barely 10 miles in: 2005. The total damage was estimated at around Rs. 1.5-25 billion. If the cost incurred on the rescue and relief efforts, the cost would be double to Rs. § billion. In addition to the above mentioned Non- Traditional Security Threats, there are other serious issues which exert tremendous pressure on government. Water security is a serious problem being faced by the government of Pakistan With rapidly growing population the water reserves are fast depleting. Urbanization, massive increase in tube well irrigation, reduced level of precipitation caused by climate change are also making their adverse impact on the availability of safe and potable water. Poor Governance Bad governance is lethal for social and economic well-being of the people. Pakistan has become a victim of bad govemance for the last two decades. Bad governance makes its roots when corrupt, inefficient rulers and politicians are successful in making their way to enter power echelons of the state. Influx of Refugees legal migration and mass arrival of refugees is another Non-Traditional security threat which brings massive pressure on the government. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 resulted in mass oxadus ‘Scanned with CamScanner