RAILROAD CURVES AND EARTHWORK aoe ge ad are fixed, and often inter- mediate points also. It is desirable that no unnecessary re. strictions as to intermediate poinis should be imposed un the engineer to prevent his selecting what he finds to be the best line, and for this reason it is advisable that. the reconnoissance jould, where possible, prece a arte of ct should mined. If maps of the United | States Geological Survey are at hand, with contour lines and other topography carefully shown, the reconnoissance can be largely determined upon these maps. Lines clearly imprac- ticable will be thrown out, the maximum grade closely deter- mined, and the field examinations reduced to a minimum No 12 Railroad Curves and Earthwork. route should be accepted finally from any such map, but 1 careful field examination should be made over the routes indi cated on the contour maps. The examination, in general, should cover the general section of country, rather than bc confined to a single line between the termini. A straight line and a straight grade from one terminus to the other is desirable, but this is seldom possible, and is in general far from possible, Ifa single line only is examined, and this is found to be nearly straight throughout, and with satisfactory grades, it may be thought unnecessary to carry the examination further. It will frequently, however, be found advantageous to deviate con- siderably from a straight line in order to secure satisfactory grades. In many cases it will be necessary to wind about more or less through the country in order.to secure the best line. Where a high hill or a mountain lies directly between the points, it may be expected that a line around the hill, and somewhat remote from a direct line, will prove more favorable than any other. Unless a reasonably direct line is found, the examination, to be satisfactory, should embrace all the section of intervening country i * e giv ) + Im crossing a valley through which a la rge stream flows, it ma} be of great importance to find a 800d bridge crossing. In aan ae where there are serious difficulties in crossing a ridge, a tunnel may be necessary. Whero such structures, eitherReconnoissance. , . bridges or tunnels, are to be built, favorable points for thelr construction should be selected and the rest of the line be com- Pelled to conform, In many parts of the United States at the Present time, the necessity for avoiding grade crossings causes the crossings of roads and streets to become governing points i he. d,_ The report upon reconnois- sance should include information upon all these points. It is for the determination of the third point mentioned, the rate of maximum grade, that the barometer is used, Observing the elevations of governing points, and knowing the distances be- tween those points, it is possible to form a good judgment as to what rate of maximum grade to assume. The Elevations are usually taken by the oid Baromen Sua Tables for converting barometer ae anaes elevations above sea-level are readily available and in convenient form for field use. (Seo Table XI., Allen’s Field and Office Tables.) Distances may be determined with sufficient accuracy in tn cases from the map, where a good one exists, Where this method is impossible or seems undesirable, the distance may be determined in one of several different way the trip is made yaa customary to use an instrument wh res and records the number of revolutions of the wheel to which it is attached, and thus the hanging vertical, while the wheel turns, The instrument is4 Raitroad Curves and Earthwork. speed is increased, a point is reached where the centrifugal force neutralizes or overcomes the force of gravity upon the pendu- lum, and the instrument fails to register accurately, or perhaps at high speeds to register at all. If this form of odometer is used, a clear understanding should be had of the conditions under which it fails to correctly register. A theoretical discus- yn might closely establish the point at which the centrifugal ore will ‘balance the force of gravity. The wheel striking “against stones in a rough Toad will ‘create disturbances in the ction of the pendulum, so that the odometer will fail to register Geratay at speeds less than that determined upon the above 2 : ‘asst ‘ion. © < : manufactured for automobile use, is con- “hee the wheel and the axle, and so measures Positively the relative motion between the wheel and axle, and this ought to be reliable for registering accurately. Many engineers prefer to count the revolutions of the wheel them. selves, tying a rag to the wheel to make a conspicuous mark for counting. ‘When the trip is made on foot, pacin, ive satisfactory results. An instrument called the registers the results of pacing. As ordinarily conStructe ie graduations read to quarter miles, and it is possible to estimate to one- tenth that distance, Pedometers are also made which register paces. In principle, the pedometer depends upon the fact that, with each step, a certain shock or jar is produced as the heel strikes the ground, and each shock causes the instrument to ‘egister, Those registering miles are adjustable to the length . of pace of the wearer, If the trip is made on horseback, it is found Possible to get good results with a steady-gaited horse, by first determining his rate of travel and figuring distance by the time consumed in traveling. Txcellent results are said to have been secured in this way. 7, It fs customary for engineers not to use a compass in Teconnoissance, although this is sometimes done in order to trace the line traversed upon the map, and with greater accu- racy. A pocket level will be found useful. ‘The skillful nse of Pocket instruments will almost eertainly be found of great value to the engineer of reconnoissance,Feconnoissance, 5 Tt may, in cases, occur that no maps of any value aro in ex. {stence or procurable, It may be necessary, in such a case, to make a rapid instrumental survey, the measurements being taken either by pacing, chain, or stadia measurements, ‘This is, however, unusual. Reconnoissance for other projects than railroads should be carried on in much the same way in principle as for railroads, Tt should still consist of a critical survey of the field to be tray- _ Bevod,, taking note of all features of topography, natural or arti- ‘ficial, which might influence the location of a line or of any important features of an enterprise. ‘This is true in the case of irrigating ditches or canals, highways, pipe lines, or whatever else. Full use should be made of existing maps, which will be found available for most of such projects. ‘The extent of coun- try now covered by the maps of the Geological Survey makes those of extraordinary value for many purposes. An occasional inaccuracy in such maps, from whatever cause, renders a fol- lowing up by a field survey a most wise precaution. 8. The preliminary survey is based upon the results of the Teconnoissance, and the location upon the results of the pre- liminary survey. The reconnoissance thus forms the founda- tion upon which the location is made. Any failure to find a suitable line and the best line constitutes a defect which no amount of faithfulness im the later work will rectify. ‘The most serious errors of location are liable to be due to imper- fect reconnoissance ; an inefficient engineer of reconnoissance should be avoided at all hazards. In the case of a new railroad, it would, in general, be proper that the Chief Engineer should in person conduct this survey. In the case of the extension of existing lines, this might be impracticable or inadvisable, but an assistant of known responsibility, ability, and experience should in this case be selected to attend to the work,