Quality Management in Hungarian Higher Education: Organisational Responses to

Governmental Policy
Author(s): Tibor Csizmadia, Jürgen Enders and Don F. Westerheijden
Source: Higher Education , Oct., 2008, Vol. 56, No. 4 (Oct., 2008), pp. 439-455
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40269208

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High Educ (2008) 56:439-455
DOI 10.1007/s 10734-007-9 103-3

Quality management in Hungarian higher education:

organisational responses to governmental policy

Tibor Csizmadia • Jürgen Enders • Don F. Westerheijden

Published online: 26 October 2007

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007

Abstract This article focuses on responses of higher education institutions to govern-

mental policy. We investigate the influence of organisational characteristics on the
implementation of quality management in Hungarian higher education institutions. Our
theoretical framework is based on organisational theories (resource dependency and neo-
institutionalism), Allison's models on organisational decision-making processes, and also
addresses some of the more specific characteristics of higher education institutions. Our
empirical investigation shows that organisational characteristics matter in policy imple-
mentation of quality management in Hungarian higher education. Certain organisational
variables, viz. leaders' commitment to the implementation process, the involvement of
external consultants, institutional reputation, and bureaucratic and political decision-
making processes have strong effects on the implementation of quality management.
Characteristics particular to higher education institutions were much less influential.

Keywords Higher education • Quality management •

Policy implementation • Hungary

Introduction

Since the global economic upheavals of the 1970s governments have faced three major
problems (Pollitt et al. 2001). The first is financial: the ability to tax seems to have dimi-
nished, just as the cost of continuing to maintain welfare states has risen. The second problem
has been an apparent decline in trust in governmental organisations (see, e.g. Norris 1999).

T. Csizmadia • J. Enders • D. F. Westerheijden (El)

Center For Higher Education Policy Studies, University of Twente,
P.O. Box 217, Enschede 7500 AE, The Netherlands
e-mail: d.f.westerheijden@Utwente.NL

T. Csizmadia
e-mail: csizi@gtk.vein.hu

J. Enders
e-mail: j.enders@utwente.nl

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 440 High Educ (2008) 56:439-455

The third has been raising expectati

ernments are therefore seeking ways
services. Thus a new tendency in th
education institutions, has come to
digms have been introduced, alongsi
this process, greater attentionto p
mance-based funding, organisation
mechanisms as are used as policy ins
how to enhance it and how to evalu
agenda in higher education (Kogan
The case of Hungary is no stranger
political upheaval of 1 989, quality in
the contemporary agenda in the nat
policy initiatives in the 2000s conce
rather modest. No clear national h
quality was provided by the Minis
mentation. Thus the processes in w
open, leaving much room for orga
international perspective, the Hun
countries where policy-making conc
The interesting point here is to se
tation of quality management me
during the 2000s. Newton (2002) em
important in organisational respon
policy interest in quality manageme
functions of higher education inst
institutions were autonomous in int
issue becomes how this issue was in
Thus our overall research question
institutions implement quality mana
and what was the role of organisati
quently focuses on how higher educ
quality management, which organ
management implementation with
quality management implementation
Quality management is used as a te
may be relevant to devote a few wo
task for most higher education inst
tigious was either seen as too esoter
activity to be given major attenti
higher education institutions, the
stressed after 1989 - and devising st
while at the same time greatly expa
stressed autonomy of the profession
managed process at a new, larger
institutions had to find a new
balan
was seen as the major instrument t
management encompasses designing
instruments in the governance of

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 High Educ (2008) 56:439^*55 441

improve the quality of education, sat

of courses by students as one of t
includes many other policies as well
resources management to introductio
ations to desired learning outcomes.

Theoretical framework

Our point of departure, as we stated above, is to understand the way organisations respond
to environmental pressures - in this case governmental reform. In the field of organisation
studies, various theories have been developed and applied over the years, which enable to
examine and understand this aspect of organisations. We first turned to the approaches of
resource dependency and neo-institutional theories. The main reason for using both per-
spectives is that organisations exercise strategic choice, but do so within constraints
imposed by their institutional environments (Hrebeniak and Joyce 1985; Pfeffer and
Salancik 1978). A growing number of studies have indeed suggested that these theories
offer distinct but complementary explanations why and how organisations respond to
institutional change (Oliver 1991; Greening and Gray 1994). Neo-institutional theory
focuses amongst other things on the role of myths, beliefs and norms in organisational
structure and behaviour. Resource dependence theory emphasises organisational responses
in the face of dependencies on external organisations.
The common essence of their complementary perspectives is that organisations exercise
strategic choices but do so within constraints imposed by their institutional environment
(Hrebeniak and Joyce 1985; Pfeffer and Salancik 1978). However, at this point, the frame-
work required additional elements not treated sufficiently in this organisational literature.
Prime among these were the individuals in the organisations and their decision-making rules
and habits (Sabatier 2005). The specific organisational character in different social fields was
still underplayed, however. Therefore our theoretical framework was expanded to incorpo-
rate characteristics of higher education institutions that were found important by the literature
to explain organisational response to governmental reform in the higher education field.
The resource dependency perspective assumes that, in order to survive, organisations
need a sufficient supply of resources. These resources often cannot be produced by the
organisations themselves; therefore, to guarantee the flow of resources, an organisation
must interact with other organisations that control these resources, and thus it depends on
them. This perspective concludes that an organisation will be more likely to follow the
requirements of the supplier of resources when it depends on these resources. However, it
also emphasises that external control is not absolute, because organisational constraints
always leave space for autonomous decision and improvisation.
At this point, we turned to neo-institutional theory, which demonstrates how organi-
sations perceive their environments, how they act to control and avoid dependencies in
order to maintain organisational discretion and autonomy of action and how they are
influenced by their routines and organisational culture. It also suggests that organisations,
in order to survive, adapt to norms and beliefs in their environment and incorporate them,
which produces homogeneity within a certain organisational field. In addition, in neo-
institutionalism, legitimacy is seen as a dominant factor securing stability and survival.
However, institutional theorists have also contended that institutions facing conflicting,
inconsistent demands about what practices they ought to use can maintain legitimacy by
adopting symbolic designs to mask core activities that may be controversial, i.e.

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 442 High Educ (2008) 56:439^*55

unacceptable to some key constitue

are most effective under conditions
What receives little attention in re
what is also identified as crucial in t
making processes within the organ
that respond to governmental refor
actor and structure (and institution
link' from organisational theories. A
making processes (Allison 1971; All
on organisational decision-making
organisational aspects of a particular
decision-making processes the output
patterns of behaviour and standard o
constitute routines for dealing with st
adaptations to particular unique issu
priately. In addition, according to t
institutional staff members do not c
individual preferences and position
effect on institutional action. In th
various overlapping bargaining game
considerable leeway in implementa
implementation and quality manag
external consultants in quality man
The perspectives outlined above fac
nisation relations and interaction. I
specific characteristics of higher edu
provided by the general theories.
emphasised the high degree of struct
capacity and capability for collecti
Tolbert (2005) pointed out that the m
implemented new programmes or m
cation institutions should be seen a
change and adaptation (Maassen 19
perspectives, and definitions of qua
ment. In so-called hard and converge
relatively clear standard operating
Becher and Trowler 2001), it is easier
management than in soft and diverg
the potential influence of the reputa
sational operation and performance
well-developed reputation will also b
for policy implementation. In contra
institutions with a strong reputation
follow the government's expectatio

Research model, hypotheses and o

The theoretical framework was tho

concerning quality management im

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High Educ (2008) 56:439-455 443

dependency, decision-making proce

leaders' commitment and external
agement implementation. 'Dependenc
refers to the relationship between h
ernment (including the Ministry of E
(MAB). The character of the 'decisi
which address the phenomenon fr
political (BPM) decision-making mod
the literature on organisational cha
teristics more specifically. 'Complexi
functional groups and units, each o
reflects the overall estimation in w
stakeholders. Further, disciplinary di
higher education and explores the d
tions of 'quality' in various discipli
leaders' and 'external consultancy',
management. The 'commitment of
something in the future. 'External
experts in the creation and impleme
Further, we decompose our depende
into four elements: the scope and pace
adequacy of the quality mechanism im
level or extent of new mechanisms re
implementation' refers to the numb
implementation process. The last two
agement implementation. 'The Proto
institution used the Protocol develop
quality management systems in the h
management mechanism implemented
ature. The literature on quality manag
the practices in Hungarian higher ed
recent higher education literature in
rymple (2002), Mergen et al. (2000)
model implies its own unique persp
institution while there is complemen
rich picture of required fields of act
mechanism is connected to neo-instit
system works symbolically or genuin
The relationships between independ
the research model (Fig. 1). In verba
propositions1 were inferred, which s
to be related to the occurrence of
variables). The hypotheses and resea
ational isation of the variables can be

1 Our research did not allow quantitative in

tinguishing 'hypotheses' from 'research pro
'hypotheses'. Others, which could be appr
'research propositions'.

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 444 High Educ (2008) 56:439-455

Fig. 1 Research model

Looking at the 'boxes' and 'arrows'

vation is that a large number of re
dependent variables. Yet there still a
nevertheless have not been phrased
reason for the 'missing arrows' is th
tations about some relationships to b
connected with 'dependency'. 'Scope
making process', and 'adequacy' was
go into these variables and the choice
The 'Protocol', offered by the gover
higher education institutions to imp
dependency theory explained that hig
to the extent of their dependency fro

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 High Educ (2008) 56:439^55 445

Table 1 Hypotheses and research proposi

Hypothesis 1 (a) The less higher edu

quality management will be imp
(b) The less higher education ins
will follow the Protocol.

Hypothesis 2 (a) The higher the complexity of higher education institutions, the slower the
pace of quality management implementation.
(b) The higher the complexity of higher education institutions, the narrower
the scope of quality management implementation.
Hypothesis 3 (a) The more the disciplinary balance is toward hard and convergent sciences
within higher education institutions, the faster the pace of quality
management implementation.
(b) The more the disciplinary balance is toward hard and convergent sciences
within higher education institutions, the wider the scope of quality
management implementation.
Research proposition 4 (a) The higher the commitment of leaders, the faster the pace of quality
management implementation.
(b) The higher the commitment of leaders, the wider the scope of quality
management implementation.
Hypothesis 5 (a) The more the higher education institutions are supported by external
consultants, the faster they can implement quality management.
Research proposition 5 (b) The more the higher education institutions are supported by external
consultants, the wider the scope of quality management implementation.
(c) The more the higher education institutions are supported by external
consultants, the more adequately they implement quality management.
Research proposition 6 (a) The more bureaucratic the decision-making processes, the slower the pace
of quality management implementation.
(b) The more political the decision-making processes, the slower the pace of
quality management implementation.
Hypothesis 7 (a) Reputation can have a positive or a negative influence on the pace of
implementation of a quality management mechanism; it will be more
negative the more reputation implies independence from governmental
resources, while it will be more positive the more reputation implies actual
decision-making capacity of the higher education institution.
(b) Reputation can have a positive or a negative influence on the scope of
implementation of a quality management mechanism; it will be more
negative the more reputation implies independence from governmental
resources, while it will be more positive the more reputation implies actual
decision-making capacity of the higher education institution.

theoretical independent variables that could be made with the 'Protocol'. As far as the
scope of implementation is concerned, this was seen to depend on the set of organisational
variables (complexity, disciplinary characteristics, reputation and leaders' commitment)
and 'external consultancy', but not on 'dependency', for the empirical reason that the
Hungarian government in its policy only concentrated on quality management for edu-
cation, not for research; it did not demand a wider scope. Similarly, the scope of quality
management implementation was not connected to the decision-making process because
bureaucratic and political decision-making were in the first place expected to affect the
speed of decision-making rather than its substance. Finally, both elements of adequacy
(comprehensiveness of quality management mechanisms and their symbolic or genuine
adoption) are closely related to the support of quality experts. Implementing a

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 446 High Educ (2008) 56:439-455

comprehensive quality framework

quality management mechanisms an
seen in relation to external expert
genuine implementation demands th
quality procedures, information abo
quality management system, and la
members on how to use quality man
the extent of the support, summar

Research design

The research design was develope

methods. We combined a statistica
Hungary with a case study approach
higher education institutions in H
survey was quite satisfactory as q
institutions (response rate: 65%), wh
population. Concerning the survey
ducted. The necessary informat
management through was acquired
by a survey questionnaire. In the c
multiple regression analyses were
tistical analyses must remain tentat
As a second main part of the em
formed for studying quality manag
also provided information on som
questionnaire, namely the commitm
adequacy of the implemented qualit
selection of cases should be theoret
on the variation of the values of ind
the study, such as complexity, disc
in order to cope with the threats to i
factors on the observed findings.
bility and access.
In the cases studied, data from the
documents, semi-structured intervie
quality management implementation
multiple methods of data collectio
always was able to fill the data gaps

Empirical results

The most salient findings were that

institutions had started implementa
cation function. The higher educati
models of quality management intro
time to contemplate the models' re

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 High Educ (2008) 56:439-455 447

Table 2 Main empirical outcomes

Hyp. & Rp. Independent variable Dependent variable Method Result

H la Dependency Pace Cross-tab, MR, CS 0

H lb Dependency Protocol Cross-tab, CS 0
H 2a Complexity Pace Cross-tab, MR, CS ++
H 2b Complexity Scope Cross-tab, MR, CS 0
H 3a Balance Pace Cross-tab, MR, CS
H 3b Balance Scope Cross-tab, MR, CS +
Rp 4a Commitment Pace CS ++
Rp 4b Commitment Scope CS ++
H 5a External consultancy Pace Cross-tab, MR, CS ++
H 5b External consultancy Scope Cross-tab, MR, CS ++
Rp 5c External consultancy Adequacy CS ++
Rp 6a Bureaucratic DMP Pace CS ++
Rp 6b Political DMP Pace CS ++
H 7a Reputation Pace Cross-tab, MR Mechanism through
independence
H 7b Reputation Scope Cross-tab, MR Mechanism through
independence

-, hypothesis not supported; 0, contradictory results; hypothesis neither falsified nor confirmed; +, weak
support for hypothesis; ++, strong support for hypothesis or research propositions; MR, multiple regression;
CS, case studies

standards were very popular). Concerning implementation of quality management in

Hungarian higher education, organisational characteristics matter. General organisational
variables, viz. leaders' commitment, external consultants, institutional reputation, and
bureaucratic and political decision-making processes all have strong effects on quality
management implementation, while characteristics particular to higher education institu-
tions were much less influential. At the same time the ambiguous political message of
Hungarian government concerning the improvement of institutional quality in widespread
symbolic compliance of higher education institutions, instead of increasing the institutional
quality as had been the goal of the policy.
Table 2 presents the main empirical outcomes of our empirical investigation listing
the independent and dependent variables, the methods of analysis used and the results
of the empirical analysis. First, external consultancy and institutional reputation prove
to be the strongest explanatory variables2. External consultancy (hypotheses 5a and b;
research proposition 5c) has a strong positive relationship with the pace, scope and
adequacy of quality management implementation based on the empirical evidence.
Institutional reputation (hypotheses 7a and b), on the contrary, has strong negative
relationship with the pace and scope of quality management implementation based on
the two statistical tests. Second, case study analysis showed that the leaders' commit-
ment (research proposition 4a and b) also has a substantial positive effect while

2 They not only showed to be always in the expected direction and statistically significant - the latter except
in research proposition 5c because that could only be studied in the case studies, not through my survey -
they also had the greatest impact on quality management implementation.

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 448 High Educ (2008) 56:439-455

bureaucratic and political decision

have negative effect on quality man
complexity (hypothesis 2a) has al
management implementation b
hypothesis la and b, indicating tha
pace of quality management impl
neither support nor reject this hyp
empirical study was that the far
one hand, and the uncertain situa
education quality policy and appro
resulted in the unexpected finding
Further, hypothesis 3a and b, ref
sciences within a higher education
agement implementation was weak
others. Its positive impact on the
supported, while its impact on the
findings. Hypothesis 2b, referring t
scope of quality management impl
contradicted by other ones, so it cou
findings.
In sum, our findings showed that leaders' commitment to a project of change,
involvement of external consultancy and institutional reputation were the strongest
explanatory variables. 3 with regard to the pace and scope of quality management
implementation. Involvement of external consultants also showed a strong positive cor-
relation with the adequacy of quality management implementation. The findings showed
strong negative relationships between reputation on the one hand and the pace and scope of
implementation on the other hand, which suggests - in line with the resource dependency
approach - that institutions with a strong reputation will be less dependent on government
and thus need not follow the government's expectations quickly and widely. Bureaucratic
and political decision-making processes also have negative effects on quality management
implementation such as institutional complexity.
The evidence for an important role of characteristics specific to higher education in
implementation is weak, while there is much more support for generally applicable factors
like institutional reputation, external consultancy, leaders' commitment and the type of
decision-making process. However, all the phenomena worked simultaneously, and none
of them should easily be excluded.
Overall, we found no strong evidence for or against a major influence of resource
dependency from government for organisational responses to governmental reform. The
uncertain and unclear governmental coordination certainly contributed to a certain lack of
responsiveness on the side of the higher education institutions.
These empirical findings invite further reflection also including possible alternative
approaches for explaining some unexpected results. First, the role of government has to be
reconsidered. The lack of a national education quality policy and the lack of a stable, well-
developed long-term strategic plan of the Ministry of Education created uncertainty for the

3 They not only showed to be always in the expected direction and statistically significant - the latter cannot
be said about research proposition 5c since that could only be studied qualitatively, in the case studies, not
quantitatively, through our survey - they also had the greatest impact on quality management
implementation.

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 High Educ (2008) 56:439-455 449

higher education institutions, negati

at four of the six higher education
institutions reacted quickly to the sa
only they had support from extern
process.
Second, data on four cases supported the idea that symbolic compliance combined with
internal resistance to change (i.e. de-coupling) was sustainable for higher education
institutions confronted with vague governmental policy. Implementing quality manage-
ment mechanisms only symbolically may help institutions to maintain their legitimacy by
masking the underlying resistance to change. The cases also showed that next to contin-
uous external support, the commitment of institutional leaders was crucial in implementing
quality management genuinely, not only symbolically.
Third, the findings supported the importance of the degree to which an institution
depends on the market. This suggests the need to reconsider the operationalisation of
'dependency'.4 This may explain the unexpected sign of the relationship between
dependency and the pace of quality management implementation: it was not the depen-
dence on governmental expectations that caused higher education institutions to react
quickly, but rather the independence from market forces that allowed them to react slowly,
as Clark (1970) already suggested.
Fourth, the Hungarian higher education institutions strongly tended to use business-
world models of quality management. This implies what the neo-institutional theory
emphasised, namely that normative isomorphism, in our cases introduced through external
consultancy, plays an important role in the institutionalisation process and in protecting
legitimacy.

Reflections on the theoretical framework and methodology

The theoretical framework seems to be largely supported by the results of the investiga-
tions, but needs critical consideration in some respects. Below we discuss possible
refinements as well as methodological limitations of our approach.
First, the importance of decision-making processes uncovered in our study shows that
there is a need to study the processes of quality management implementation, and not only
their outcome. Quality management implementation as an outcome, observed in a short
time period, hides many of the dynamic processes that should interest policy makers,
experts and also academics. For example, a study could be proposed that is not only a study
of quality management implementation (institutionalisation), but also a study of de-insti-
tutionalisation processes. As indicated elsewhere, various fads, particularly quality
mechanisms in higher education, have failed (Birnbaum 2000), and became de-institu-
tionalised (Oliver 1992). Since de-institutionalisation could not be included in the time
period of the study it needs more studies on how and why such processes occur. The fact
that so much symbolic compliance was observed, gives additional urgency to such a study.
Therefore, the results of this study, as well as its method, underscore the importance of
longitudinal observations also noted in implementation studies: to study implementation
over a longer term (Sabatier 2005; Kyvik 2005; Kogan 2005).

4 The variable dependency was operational ised by asking higher education institutions to what extent their
income was received from government.

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 450 High Educ (2008) 56:439-455

Second and related to the first poin

management implementation process
symbolic compliance while interna
for higher education institutions c
goals and methods are not interna
implementation seem so interrelat
pressure facing many higher educati
implement quality management sy
tutionalised internal environment
external demands may convince the
other hand hardly be a tool that is c
This implies for further research t
agement implementation and the e
quality management implementatio
explanatory power to the model.
Third, when looking at the actual
variables on the way higher education
important to take into account the p
the unclear national quality policy pl
at many higher education institution
within institutional theory - how am
tutions. Second, the lack of coerciv
resulted in external consultancy p
implementation. This implies first t
other very strong forces, as resourc
guidance. Next, this also implies that
in different ways.
The current research also has its me
quality management implementation
Hungarian higher education. Studyin
the influence of differences between
of the findings of this study. There
and traditions that are specific to ou
acteristics and their relationship
accreditation body) that we have fo
surrounding the quality of their acti
reflect general principles of influenc

Conclusions and outlook

This study focused on how higher education institutions in Hungary responded to go

ernmental reform, and specifically, which organisational characteristics influenced quali
management implementation. The concept of quality management in this study denot
designing, implementing and improving policies, processes and instruments in the gov
ernance of higher education institutions aiming to assure and improve the quality of
education, satisfying stakeholders' needs.

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 High Educ (2008) 56:439-455 45 1

In our theoretical framework we firs

and neo-institutional theories that h
sational change and stability overall
models of bureaucratic and political de
role of such decision-making processes
features more specific to higher educa
which we carried out, both, quantitat
Looking back on the results of the
characteristics matter in policy imp
higher education. General organisati
consultants, institutional reputation,
cesses all have strong effects on qualit
particular to higher education instit
ambiguous political message of Hung
institutional quality did not increase
widespread symbolic compliance of hi
Obviously, our theoretical framewor
for further research in a cross-natio
(1975) it is fruitful to look for 'mo
comparisons. Thus it may be interesti
tradition of higher education quality
hand, and also, e.g. in a Western Eur
Vught 1989) and the 'evaluative state
tradition than in Central and Eastern
at the role of stakeholderism in highe
regard to market orientation in highe
stakeholders and does that have conseq
that respect, the previous communis
cases concerning the stakeholder co
Kingdom, among others, would be m
concept.
Another context to test our framework would be quality management implementation
for the research function in higher education institutions. However, the corresponding
operational isation of the concept of a comprehensive quality management framework for
this area should be done first, and in a discipline-specific manner, taking into account the
different disciplinary characteristics. Discipline may be a more important explanatory
factor in research than it proved to be in the current study.

5 First, however, one Hungarian specific concept - namely the Protocol - should be replaced by the quality
assurance model implied by the different national expectations.

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 452 High Educ (2008) 56:439-455

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 454 High Educ (2008) 56:439^155

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