TOPIC EIGHT: INFORMATION SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE

Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Explain the importance information systems management
b) Explain the techniques of maintaining an information system
Maintenance is the process of modifying an information system to continually satisfy
organizational and user requirements.
System maintenance is an ongoing activity, which covers a wide variety of activities, including
removing program and design errors, updating documentation and test data and updating user
support. For the purpose of convenience, maintenance may be categorized into three classes,
namely:
Types/Techniques of information system maintenance
The following are the 4 types of information system maintenance
 Corrective Maintenance
 Adaptive Maintenance
 Perfective Maintenance
 Preventive Maintenance

 Corrective Maintenance: This type of maintenance implies removing errors in a program,

which might have crept in the system due to faulty design or wrong assumptions. Thus, in
corrective maintenance, processing or performance failures are repaired.
Adaptive Maintenance: In adaptive maintenance, program functions are changed to enable the
information system to satisfy the information needs of the user. This type of maintenance may
become necessary because of organizational changes which may include:
a) Change in the organizational procedures,
b) Change in organizational objectives, goals, policies, etc.
c) Change in forms,
d) Change in information needs of managers.
e) Change in system controls and security needs, etc. 
Perfective Maintenance: Perfective maintenance means adding new programs or modifying the
existing programs to enhance the performance of the information system. This type of
maintenance undertaken to respond to user’s additional needs which may be due to the changes
within or outside of the organization.
Outside changes are primarily environmental changes, which may in the absence of system
maintenance, render the information system ineffective and inefficient.
These environmental changes include:

 Changes in governmental policies, laws, etc.,

  Economic and competitive conditions, and
 New technology

Preventive Software Maintenance

Preventative Software Maintenance helps to make changes and adaptations to your software so
that it can work for a longer period of time.
The focus of the type of maintenance is to prevent the deterioration of your software as it
continues to adapt and change. These services can include optimizing code and updating
documentation as needed.
Preventative software maintenance helps to reduce the risk associated with operating software
for a long time, helping it to become more stable, understandable, and maintainable.
Updating software environments, reducing deterioration, and enhancing what is already there to
help satisfy the needs of all users are also included in the software maintenance examples.
Importance of information system maintenance
1. Detect issues early, before they become problems
By using regular IT servicing you can get the jump on problems and make arrangements so
that your business isn’t impacted. Using regular IT servicing you can also help reduce your
IT support costs by fixing during scheduled maintenance windows where other work is
scheduled.

2. Prevent against viruses and malware

Viruses and malware are a pain to any business, virus writers actiGvely seek to disrupt your
business and access files on your network. When your computer is infected a number of
symptoms may be felt, from annoying slowdowns to popup messages or contacts emailing
you about a strange email you apparently sent them. If your IT system is compromised your
business could be used as a launching pad to infect other businesses, which can have
consequences as companies start black listing your email address.

If Microsoft Windows and your antivirus software is kept up to date then it greatly reduces
your chance of a virus infection as commonly known IT loopholes are closed to hackers and
virus writers.

If you do receive a suspicious email or come across something you’re not sure about online,
be careful with it, in a moments haste you could cost a lot of productivity and money to be
wasted.
Remember antivirus is not foolproof, always exercise caution and if in doubt contact your IT
service provider

3. Speed up Your Computer and information system

Over time, files that are stored on your computer can become disorganized and fragmented,
this results in slow loading times and delayed access to programs and files. By regularly
running speed checks and smart optimization, we can speed up your computers loading times
and take care of those annoying pauses when you are busy and need quick and efficient
access to your files and software.

4. Keep Antivirus Software Up-to-date

Antivirus software is vital and every PC should be protected but having antivirus software
installed isn’t the end of your IT security – it needs to be up-to-date and working as intended.
Some office staff can ignore important warnings from antivirus programs, mistakenly
thinking that the system is just doing its job. It is important to check out these issues and
make sure you are running the latest version of your antivirus software, as an infection could
cost hundreds or even thousands of dollars to fix - and can have a devastating effect on
productivity.

5. Maximize Software Efficiency

Computers age and over time they start to slow down – software packages that performed
quickly and efficiently to begin with, can become sluggish and have a negative impact on
productivity. Because this slowdown has occurred over many years, the computer user may
have grown used to the issue and may think that it is normal. It’s not normal, and at SOHO
systems we do regular checks to ensure your software is running to its maximum efficiency –
often the answer is just a slight hardware modification or a quick clean out of programs that
are no longer needed; if the issue is more complicated however, we can investigate and
advise on a range of suitable options

Advantages of carrying out information system maintenance

A computerized maintenance management software (CMMS) helps organizations plan,

track, measure, and optimize everything related to maintenance on a digital platform.
CMMS software opens the door to new set possibilities for your maintenance team and
duties. Following are some of the most important benefits of CMMS.
Work scheduling
Computerized maintenance management software automates the scheduling of inspections
and maintenance, preventing the occurrence of maintenance issues and expensive repairs.
The software can also schedule repetitive work orders and send time-based reminders to the
responsible parties so your technicians cannot forget to perform maintenance.
Switching from reactive to proactive maintenance will also reduce the overall operating
costs of the maintenance function.

Increase safety
CMMS software also improves health and safety. Computerized maintenance management
software helps organizations in checking and maintaining equipment in order to meet safety
standards and to prevent breakdowns and failures. The preventive work minimizes time
waste due to accidents and makes your equipment safer for both operators and the
environment.

Enhance productivity
IS maintenance enable maintenance technicians to access real-time information, check
inventory, and initiate work orders even when they are far from the office. This increases
efficiency and productivity because the work is done in a faster manner whilst saving budget
resources.

Manage work orders efficiently

Software for maintenance and facilities management improves workflow and efficiency by
allowing you to schedule, assign, and close work orders quickly and easily. CMMS software
gives you the ability to configure work order and automatically tracks all work orders in the
system. By organizing work orders, everyone will know what tasks need to be completed
and who is responsible for them.

Eliminate paperwork
IS maintenance eliminates the need for unnecessary paperwork because the software can be
set up to capture information automatically. Furthermore, maintenance personnel can view
all information related to work orders on their computers or mobile devices so there is no
need to print out documents

Control costs
Information system maintenance helps to stop overspending on inventory, avoid costly
scrap and rework, save on energy costs by keeping equipment in top condition, and increase
asset uptime, all while tracking maintenance costs so you know exactly how your budget is
being spent.

Reduce downtime
A IS maintenance gives facilities a chance to slash downtime by making it easier to conquer
backlog, increase the reliability of assets, schedule preventive maintenance, and simplify
repairs. This all helps to keep assets healthier and ensure downtime is eliminated at its root.
TOPIC NINE: ROLE OF INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS) IN ORGANIZATION
CHANGE
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Explain the meaning of organizational change
b) Describe the impact of IS as an agent of change in an organization
c) Explain key consideration for implementing a change programmes in an organization
Definition of terms
Organizational change is the movement of an organization from one state of affairs to another.
A change in the environment often requires change within the organization operating within
that environment. ... It may involve a change in a company's structure, strategy, policies,
procedures, technology, or culture.
Types of organizational change

There are Four kinds of structural organizational change which are enabled by information
systems:

 Automation: Automation is the use of control systems and information technologies to

reduce the need for human work in the production of goods and services. In the scope of
industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. It enables employees to
perform their tasks more efficiently and effectively. Example of automation in business
are calculating paychecks and payroll registers, automated checkout and inventory
system employed by many supermarkets. And giving bank tellers instant access to
customers deposit records.

 Rationalization of procedures: The streamlining(making a system more effective and

efficient by employing faster/simpler working methods) of standard operation
procedures, eliminating obvious bottlenecks, so that automation can make operating
procedures more efficient. Rationalization follows quickly from automation. Both types
of change cause some disruption, but it's usually manageable and relatively accepted by
the people.

 Business process reengineering: Analyzes, simplifies, and redesigns business processes

with a mind to radically reduce business costs. Business reengineering reorganizes work
flows, combining steps to cut waste and eliminating repetitive, paper intensive tasks. It is
usually much more ambitious than rationalization of procedures, requiring a new
vision of how the process is to be organized.

Business process reengineering in simpler words is Radical redesign of processes to

improve cost, quality, and service, to maximize the benefits of technology. For example,
 the EMI Records Group was having difficulty filling orders for its most popular CDs.
Retailers and recording stars were rebelling--it took the company as much as 20 days to
deliver a big order for a hit CD, and then nearly 20% of the order would be missing.
Small, incremental improvements would not have been adequate, so the company
reengineered its entire distribution process with dramatic effects on on-time delivery and
order fill rates.

In business process reengineering, the organization can develop the business vision and
process objective. It can identify the processes to be redesigned (core and highest
payback) and understand and measure the performance of existing processes. It can also
identify the opportunities for applying information technology and build a prototype of
the new process. 

 Paradigm shift: A radical reconceptualization of the nature of the business and the nature
of the organization.  It is about changing the very nature of the business and the
structure of the organization itself, whole new products or services that didn't even
exist before. In other words, paradigm shifts deals with major disruption and
extreme change.  For example, higher education is undergoing a major paradigm shift in
the online delivery of education. Classes are now offered through the Internet so that
students don't even go to classrooms. Many tried-and-true teaching methodologies are
being radically altered to accommodate this shift in how education is offered.

Impact of IS as an agent of change in an organization

i. Economic impacts of information system as an agent of change in an organization:

From an economic perspective, information system, technology can be observed as a factor of
production that can be substituted for capital and labor without barriers. As information system
technology mechanizes the production process, less capital and labor are necessary to produce a
specified production or output. 
a) Transaction cost is reduced
It considers that organization expands in size because they can gain certain products or services
internally at cheaper cost than by using external firms in the market. By reducing the cost of
market participation, information technology permits firms to obtain goods and services at lower
cost from external sources than through the internal ways. Information systems can thus assist
firms to increase revenue while contracting in size.
Firms contemporarily got expanded in size to decrease transaction costs. IT potentially lowers
the costs for a given dimension by shifting the transaction cost curve inward and unlocking up
the possibilities of revenue growth even without increasing size or even revenue growth carried
simultaneously by shrinking size.
b) Reduce Agency cost
It basically observes the firm as an infinite connection of contracts among self- interested
individuals, who should be carefully monitored and supervised to make sure that they follow the
interests of the organization. Information technology can assist to reduce agency costs, the costs
of bringing together many different people and activities to result that each manager can observe
a larger number of workers.
c) Using Information Systems to Gain Competitive Advantage
Firms holding a competitive advantage over others typically have entry to special resources that
others do not have or they are able to use those resources more efficiently resulting in higher
income growth, profitability, or efficiency. This blend of resultants finally, in the long run, gets
converted into higher stock market valuations than their existing competitors.

Porter's competitive forces

Michael Porter's competitive forces model describes 5 competitive forces which shape the fate of
the firm. These forces include:
Traditional competitors: Surviving firms that share a firm's market area.
New market entrants: Fresh or new companies carry certain advantages, like not being
confined into old equipment and high encouragement, as well as demerits, like very few
expertise and tiny brand recognition. Some industries have fewer obstacles to entry such as cost
less for a new company to make an entrance to the field.
Substitute products and services: These are substitutes that your customers might use if your
prices become too high. For example, Internet telephone service can substitute for traditional
telephone service. The more substitute products and services in your industry, the less you can
control pricing and raise your profit margins.
Customers: The power of customers widens if they can easily adopt a competitor's products and
services, or if they can drive a business and its competitors to fight on price alone in a clear
marketplace where there is tiny product differentiation and all the prices are known instantly.
Suppliers: The greater different suppliers a firm has, the greater command it can exercise over
suppliers on the basis of price, quality, and delivery routines.
There are four generic strategies used to manage competitive forces, each of which often is
allowed by using information technology and systems:

a) Low-cost leadership: There is use of information system in order to get the lowest

operational cost accompanied by the lowest prices. For example, a supply chain management
system can include an efficient customer response system for directly linking consumer
behavior to distribution, production and supply chains by helping lower inventory and
distribution costs.
b) Product differentiation: There is use of information systems to permit new products and
services or amazingly change the customer’s convenience in bringing your existing products
and services for use. For example, Land's End uses mass customization which offers
individually customized products or services by using the same production resources like
mass production, to custom-tailor clothing for individual customer specifications.
c) Focus on market niche: There is use of information system for enabling a specific market
focus and serving this narrow target market comparatively better than competitors.
Information systems also support this strategy by producing and evaluating data for finely
adjusted sales and marketing techniques. For example, The Hilton Hotel uses a customer
information system along with detailed data about present guests to give tailored services and
reward profitable customers with extra concern, privileges, and attention.
d) Strengthen customer and supplier intimacy: There is use of information system to secure
linkage with suppliers and develop relations with customers. For example, Chrysler
Corporation has adopted information systems to avail direct access from suppliers to
production routines, and even allows suppliers to decide how and when to ship suppliers to
Chrysler’s factories. This allows suppliers longer lead time in producing goods. Strong
linkages to customers and suppliers add switching costs (the cost of switching from one
product to its competing product) and loyalty to your company.
 ii. Other Impacts of Information Systems as an agent of change in an Organization
1) Systems and Organizational Productivity
Organizations require different types of information systems to mitigate distinctive process and
requirements. Efficient business transaction systems make organization productive. Business
transaction systems ensure that routine process are captured and acted upon effectively, for
example, sales transaction, cash transaction, payroll, etc.
Further, information systems are required for executive decision. Top leadership requires precise
internal as well as external information to devise a strategy for organization. Decision support
systems are designed to execute this exact function.
Business transaction systems and executive decision support systems contribute to overall
organizational productivity.
2) System and Workers Productivity
Information systems have facilitated the increase in workers’ productivity. With introduction of
email, video conferencing and shared white board collaboration across organization and
departments have increased. This increased collaboration ensures smooth execution and
implementation of various projects across geographies and locations.
3) Information systems as a value add for organization
Organization use information systems to achieve its various strategy as well as short-term and
long-term goals. Development of information systems was to improve productivity and business
effectiveness of organization. Success of information systems is highly dependent on the
prevalent organization structure, management style and overall organization environment.
With correct development, deployment and usage of information systems, organization can
achieve lower costs, improved productivity, growth in top-line as well as the bottom-line and
competitive advantage in the market.
The readiness of workers into accepting the information systems is the key in realizing the full
potential of them.
Development and deployment of information systems have revolutionized the way business is
conducted. It has contributed to business effectiveness and increased in productivity.
5) Communication
Part of management is gathering and distributing information, and information systems can make
this process more efficient by allowing managers to communicate rapidly. Email is quick and
effective, but managers can use information systems even more efficiently by storing documents
in folders that they share with the employees who need the information. This type of
communication lets employees collaborate in a systematic way. Each employee can
communicate additional information by making changes that the system tracks. The manager
collects the inputs and sends the newly revised document to his target audience.
6) Operations
How you manage your company's operations depends on the information you have. Information
systems can offer more complete and more recent information, allowing you to operate your
company more efficiently. You can use information systems to gain a cost advantage over
competitors or to differentiate yourself by offering better customer service. Sales data give you
insights about what customers are buying and let you stock or produce items that are selling well.
With guidance from the information system, you can streamline your operations.
7) Decisions
The company information system can help you make better decisions by delivering all the
information you need and by modeling the results of your decisions. A decision involves
choosing a course of action from several alternatives and carrying out the corresponding tasks.
When you have accurate, up-to-date information, you can make the choice with confidence. If
more than one choice looks appealing, you can use the information system to run different
scenarios. For each possibility, the system can calculate key indicators such as sales, costs and
profits to help you determine which alternative gives the most beneficial result.
8) Records
Your company needs records of its activities for financial and regulatory purposes as well as for
finding the causes of problems and taking corrective action. The information system stores
documents and revision histories, communication records and operational data. The trick to
exploiting this recording capability is organizing the data and using the system to process and
present it as useful historical information. You can use such information to prepare cost
estimates and forecasts and to analyze how your actions affected the key company indicators.
9) Information Storage and Analysis
These days many companies no longer manage their data and information manually with
registers and hard copy formats. Through the adoption of information systems, companies can
make use of sophisticated and comprehensive databases that can contain all imaginable pieces of
data about the company. Information systems store, update and even analyze the information,
which the company can then use to pinpoint solutions to current or future problems.
Furthermore, these systems can integrate data from various sources, inside and outside the
company, keeping the company up to date with internal performance and external opportunities
and threats.
Information systems aid businesses in developing a larger number of value added-systems in the
company. For example, a company can integrate information systems with the manufacturing
cycle to ensure that the output it produces complies with the requirements of the various quality
management standards. Adoption of information systems simplifies business processes and
removes unnecessary activities. Information systems add controls to employee processes,
ensuring that only users with the applicable rights can perform certain tasks. Further, information
systems eliminate repetitive tasks and increase accuracy, allowing employees to concentrate on
more high-level functions. Information systems can also lead to better project planning and
implementation through effective monitoring and comparison against established criteria.
10) Reduce morale of staff if the organization is resistant to change
IS become bounded in organization politics because they influence access to a key source
information. IS potentially change in organization structure, culture, politics, work and there is
considerable resistance to them when they are introduced. Most common reasons for failure of
large project due to organizational and political resistance to change.
11) IS flattens organization
Information systems can decrease the number of levels in any organization by supplying
managers with proper amount of information to supervise and monitor larger numbers of
workers and by giving lower-level employees relatively greater decision-making authority
12) Change organizations into post-industrial organizations:
Postindustrial theories also support the concept that IT should compress hierarchies by enabling
professionals to be self-managing, by decentralizing decision making and by encouraging the
formation of ad-hoc. These are temporary "task forces" that are used to address specific tasks

iii. Impacts of Information system by use of internets as an agent of organization

change:
The Internet has nearly ruined some industries and has critically threatened more. The Internet
has also created completely new market and established the basis for thousands of new
businesses.
 Because of the development of internet, the conventional competitive forces are still at work,
but competitive variance has become much deeper. Internet technology is based on universally
set standards, making it comfortable for rivals to compete on the price alone and also for the new
competitors to get into the market.
Since information is available to everyone, the Internet uplifts the bargaining power of the
customers, who can promptly find the lowest-cost provider on the World Wide Web. Some
industries like the travel industries and the financial services industries have been more
influenced than others.
However, the Internet also generates new opportunities for establishing brands and building very
huge and loyal customer bases such as Yahoo!, eBay, and Google.

iiii How use of Information system with help of internet Improve overall performance
of business units as an agent organizational change
A large corporation is particularly a collection of businesses. Information systems can make the
overall performance of these business units better by enhancing synergies and the core
competencies.

1. Synergy: Synergy refers to the combined effect produced by two or more parts, elements
or individuals. Synergy results when the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. In
synergies, the result of some units can be utilized as inputs to other units, or two
organizations join markets and also expertise, and such relationships decrease costs and
generate profits. Use of IT in this synergy condition is to join together the operation of
distinct business units to that they can act as a single.
2. Core competency: A core competency is termed as an activity for which a firm is
supposed to be a world-class leader exactly like being the world's best small scaled parts
designer. A core competency depends on knowledge that is gained through experience as
well external knowledge. Any information system that focuses on the sharing of
knowledge across business units promotes competency.
3. Network based strategy: This strategy includes the use of:

 Network economics: In network economics, the marginal costs of summing another

participant or creating some other product are negligible, whereas the marginal profit is
much larger. For example, the more the products are offered on eBay, the more worthy
the eBay site is to everyone because more products are enlisted, and more competition
between suppliers ultimately lowers prices. 

 Virtual company model: Another network-based strategy is the virtual company, or

virtual organization, which makes the use networks to connect people, resources, and
ideas, allowing it to share with other companies to produce and distribute products and
services without being confined by traditional organizational territories or physical
locations. One company can make use of the capabilities of another company by not
being physically connected to that company.
 Business ecosystem: It is defined as the network of organization including suppliers,
distributors, and customers, government agencies- involved in delivering specific product
or services through both competition and co-operation. In the ecosystem model, multiple
firms work together to deliver value to the customer and IT plays an important role in
enabling a dense network of interaction among the participating firms.

Key consideration for implementing a change programmes in an organization

The following are the key factors to be considered when implementing a change programmes in
an organization
1. Control

Your employees take pride in the control they have over their tasks and operations in the
workplace. Changes that can be perceived as negative by employees include diminishing the
amount of control they have, such as hiring a supervisor that micro-manages them constantly.
The more control an employee feels they have, the more challenges they will be able to handle
without excessive stress.

2. Predictability

Simply knowing what is to come next can decrease stress and allow employees to take changes
in stride. This is known as ‘perceived control’ and can be a much more effective way of
implementing change. By letting your employees know what is going to happen, they can feel
more in control than they would if they remain unaware of what changes are taking place.

3. Understanding

Making changes without explaining the reason behind the change can negatively impact
employees and alter their response. Explaining why the change is occurring allows professionals
to make sense of the situation and therefore understand it better – another example of perceived
control. With no explanation, employees can feel helpless and experience anxiety or stress.

4. Time Frame

Sudden changes may seem like a good idea at first, but they can have a lot of drawbacks when it
comes to the response to these changes that employees have. The time frame between
announcing a change of programmes and implementing the change is crucial, as employees
should have adequate time to prepare for the change to come in order to avoid increasing the
stress they experience.

5. Relationships

The relationship that employees have with co-workers and supervisors also plays a role in
enforcing change in the workplace. Employees that feel as though they are heard, respected, and
valued are more comfortable asking for information and voicing any concerns they have about
the company. Having a good relationship with supervisors as well as other employees reduces
stress and fosters resilience