Ne Ghali ie mae Crete)HVDC TransmissionAbout the Authors S Kamakshaiah S Kamakshaiah is former professor of electrical engineering and head, Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad (A.P.). He completed BE with honors from Government College of Engineering, Ananathapur in 1962, and obtained ME and PhD from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in High Voltage Engineering in 1965 and 1977, respectively. Dr Kamakshaiah has done extensive research in the area of triggered vacuum gaps and has a teaching and research experience spanning more than 45 years. He has supervised more than 25 MTech and six PhD theses. To his credit are 25 research papers, published in national and international journals. Among his many accolades are a Best Theses award for his PhD work and recognition as Best Teacher by the Government of Andhra Pradesh in 1997. Dr Kamakshaiah has also authored several books in the field of electrical engineering, V Kamaraju V Kamaraju is former professor of electrical engineering and principal, College of Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada (A.P.). He completed BE with honors in 1963 from the same college, and ME and PhD in High Voltage Engineering from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in 1965 and 1978, respectively. Dr Kamaraju has more than 45 years of teaching and research experience. He has supervised 25 MTech and two PhD theses and to his credit are more than 20 papers published in national and international journals. He has also been a visiting professor at Middle East Technical University, Turkey. Dr Kamaraju has erected and commissioned a medium-sized high voltage laboratory at Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, College of Engineering, Kakinada. He has been honored as Best Teacher by the Government of Andhra Pradesh in 2001. He has also authored books on electrical engineering in the past, including High Voltage Engineering with the late Prof. M S Naidu and Electrical Power Distribution Systems; both published by Tata McGraw-Hill.HVDC ransmission S Kamakshaiah Formerly Professor and Head of Department Department of Electrical Engineering College of Engineering Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh V Kamaraju Formerly Professor of Electrical Engineering and Principal College of Engineering Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited NEW DELHI McGraw-Hill Offices New Delhi NewYork StLouis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoIN| Tata McGraw-Hill Published by the Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008. 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This work is published with the understanding that Tata MeGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering of other professional services, Ifsuch services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ‘Typeset at The Composers, 260, C.A. Apt., Paschim Vihar, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at AP Offset Pvt. Ltd., 25/487, Zulfe Bengal, Dilshad Garden, New Delhi-110095 Cover Printer: AP Offset RALQCRXCDRRZCDedicated to my Almighty S Kamakshaiah Dedicated to my Family VS Rao (son), V Radhika (daughter), V Rajiv (grandson) and VVSN Jagadeeswari (daughter-in-law) whose encouragement, patience and help made this book possible. V KamarajuForeword Preface List of Symbols Abbreviations Inside Chapter One 1d 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1.10 Chapter Two 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Chapter Three 3 32 33 34 35 36 Contents HVDC Transmission: Developments Introduction 1 Historical Development 1 Equipment required for HVDC Systems 13 Comparison of AC and DC Transmission 17 Limitations of HVDC Transmission Lines 28 Reliability of HVDC Systems 28 Standard Rated Voltages of HVDC and EHVAC Systems 29 Choice of EHVAC and UHVAC Lines and Substation 30 Comparison of HVDC Link with EHVAC Link | 37 HVDC-VSC Transmission Systems 31 References 35 Worked Examples 35 Questions 37 Problems 38 Multiple Choice Questions 38 HVDC Converters Introduction 40 ‘Thyristors and their Characteristics 40 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 42 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) 53, HVDC Converter Valves and Valve Assembly 57 HVDC-Voltage Source Converters: Principle and Operation 58 3-phase 6-pulse Converters using SCRs or Thyristors 62 12-pulse Bridge Converters 63 References 65 Worked Examples 65 Questions 66 Multiple Choice Questions 66 6-pulse Converter Operation and Analysis Introduction 68 Conduction Sequence in 6-pulse Converter Configuration 3 68 The Ideal Commutation Process without Gate Control 70 DC Output Voltage 7/ Gate Control (Phase Control) of Valves 75 Analysis of Voltage Waveforms with Overlap Angle (j1) 87 xi xiii 40 68Contents 37 38 39 3.10 3.1 Chapter Four 4. 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4.10 411 4.12 4.13 4.14 415 4.16 Chapter Five 5 52 53 34 55 56 57 58 59 Voltage Drop in Per Unit Quantities 92 Complete Characteristics of Converter as Rectifier/Inverter Analysis of 12-pulse Converter 100 Power Flow in HVDC Links 103 Operation and Analysis of VSC Converters 106 References 112 Worked Examples 112 Questions 123 Problems 125 Multiple Choice Questions 126 Control of HVDC Converter and Systems Introduction 129 Mechanism of AC Power Transmission 129 Principles of Control 130 ‘Necessity of Control in case ofa DC Link 130 Rectifier Control 137 Compounding of Rectifiers 135 Power Reversal inaDC Link 139 Voltage Dependent Current Order Limit (VDCOL)— Characteristics of the Converter 140 System Control Hierarchy and Basic Philosophy 142 Inverter Extinction Angle Control (EAG) 152 Pulse Phase Control 153 Starting and Stopping of aDC Link 154 Constant Power Control 156 Control Systems for HVDC Converters 156 Inverter Operation Problems 159 Control of VSC Converters 162 References 166 Worked Examples 166 Questions 170 Problems 171 Multiple Choice Questions 172 Harmonics in HVDC Systems Introduction 174 Importance of Harmonic Study 174 Generation of Harmonies by Converters 174 Characteristic Harmonics on the DC Side 178 Characteristic Current Harmonics 181 94 129 174 Characteristic Variation of Harmonic Currents with Variation of aand jt 187 Effect of Control Modes on Harmonics 188 Noncharacteristic Harmonics 189 Harmonics in VSC Converters 190 References 192 Worked Examples 192 Questions 195Chapter Six 61 6.2 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 Chapter Seven 7 72 13 14 15 16 1 18 19 7.10 7 Chapter Eight 81 8.2 83 84 85 8.6 Contents | ix Problems 195 Multiple Choice Questions 195 Harmonic Suppression in HVDC System—Filters 197 Introduction 197 Harmonic Model and Equivalent Circuit 197 Use of Filters 200 Filter Configuration 202 Design of a Band-Pass Filter 204 Minimum Cost of Tuned AC Filters 208 Design of High-Pass Filters 209 Protection of Filters 209 Reactive Power Considerations 210 DC Filters 2/2 Power Line Communication and RI Noise 2/3 Active Filters and their Applications 213 Filters with Voltage Source Converter (VSC) HVDC Schemes 25 Other Methods of Harmonic Elimination 2/7 References 218 Worked Example 219 Questions 220 Multiple Choice Questions 221 Grounding and Ground Electrodes for HVDC Systems 23 Introduction 223 Advantages and Problems with Ground Return 223 High Voltage Direct Current Systems—Grounding 225 ‘The Current Field in the Earth near an Electrode 225 Resistance of Electrodes—Electric Current Field 227 Distribution of Current Field between the Electrodes 237 Natural Current Field due to the Earth’s Magnetic Field 238 Effect of Ground Return on Buried Objects 238 Requirements of Electrodes 239 Basic Parameters of Design of Ground Electrodes 240 Design of Land Electrodes 248 References 255 Worked Examples 255 Questions 258 Problems 259 Multiple Choice Questions 259 Faults and Protection Schemes in HVDC Systems 262 Introduction 262 ‘Nature and Types of Faults 262 Faults on AC side of Converter Stations 263 Converter Faults 265 Faults on DC side of the System 273 Protection against Overcurrents/Overvoltages 279Contents 87 Chapter Nine o1 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 Chapter Ten 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Chapter Eleven Md 112 13 14 us 16 117 118 119 11.10 Appendix Author Index Subject Index Protection of Filter Units 280 References 280 Questions 281 Multiple Choice Questions 281 Overvoltages and Insulation Co-ordination for HVDC Systems Introduction 283 Insulators for HVDC Overhead Lines 284 Lightning Overvoltages 287 Fast Transient Overvoltages produced by Converters 289 Overvoltages due to Faults or Disturbances from AC side 290 Protection against Overvoltages 291 Insulation Design of DC Lines and Air Clearances 296 Insulation Co-ordination for Converter Stations and DC Systems 297 References 299 Worked Examples 299 Questions 303 Multiple Choice Questions 303 Muttiterminal HVDC Systems Introduction 305 ‘Types of Multiterminal (MTDC) Systems 306 Parallel Operation Aspects of MTDC 307 Paralleling (Disconnecting) of Units or Converter 309 Control of Power in MTDC 309 VSC—Multilevel DC Systems 311 References 314 Questions 314 Multiple Choice Questions 314 Parallel AC and DC Systems Introduction 316 Power Transfer Capabilities 316 Reliability Conditions 3/7 Power Loss Considerations and Other Technical Aspects 317 Environmental Characteristics Considerations for DC Transmission 319 Power Upgrading and Conversion of AC Lines (Systems) into DC Lines 324 DC and AC System Interaction 327 Parallel AC/DC Systems 333 FACTS and FACT Converters/HVDC 338 Modelling of HVDC Systems 349 References 354 Questions 355 Multiple Choice Questions 356 Some HVDC Projects implemented in India 283 305 316 358 365 367Foreword ‘The power sector in India is growing at a very rapid rate. From the present installed capacity of about 160,000 MW meeting a peak demand of about 100,000 MW, it is anticipated that by 2020 the installed generation capacity will be more than 450,000 MW to satisfy the anticipated peak demand of about 350,000 MW. This is to ensure that our present per capita electricity consumption of 500 units will reach 1000 units by 2020. Also the objective of the National Electricity Policy to provide ‘power for all’ will be reasonably fulfilled. The reforms, restructuring of the power sector, and private participation, which are the outcomes of the Electricity Act 2003, are likely to lead to improved quality and reliability of power supply and satisfy the ever-increasing demand for electrical energy consumption. To achieve these objectives all the available energy resources have to be developed and efficiently utilised, including, the adoption of renewable sources like solar, wind, tidal, geothermal and biomass. Many times the conventional energy sources are far away from the load centres demanding large power transfer over long distances. The Power Grid Corporation of India which handles the National Grid has already proposed many 765 KV AC Lines and 800 KV DC lines for bulk power transmission. These are in addition to the e 400 KV AC lines, 500 KV DC lines and back-to-back DC ties, which form the major inter-regional ties for the National Power Grid. It is necessary to plan the growth of the transmission system properly, since in the ‘years to come, the power evacuation from ultra-mega projects and far away hydro plants will pose a problem due to difficulties in procuring safe right of way. Here comes the need for HVDC lines, which require less space and are more suitable for long distance bulk power transmission compared to EHVAC systems. Because of the large geographical distances involved in India, there will be occasions when power regions in the country may have to operate in isolation with no AC inter-regional ties. Under these conditions, the DC lines are able to function as asynchronous links for inter-regional power transfer. Thus for operating modern power systems, a good knowledge of the charac- teristics, operation and control of HVDC systems is imperative for electrical utility engineers. | am happy to know that this topic is included as an elective course for final year electrical engineering students in almost all engineering colleges and also as a course in post-graduate studies in many universities. ‘Therefore, a comprehensive text book on HVDC transmission giving all details of characteristics, operation, control, modelling, and simulation is very much needed. This need is fully met by the text book on HVDC authored by very experienced teachers Prof. S Kamakshaiah and Prof. V Kamaraju. All the necessary details required by students are covered in 11 chapters with several worked out examples which will help them understand the theory sections better. This book also provides a historical account of development of HVDC technology and details of HVDC systems presently operating in India. New developments in HVDC systems utilising voltage source converters with IGBT devices have also been included to enhance the general knowledge of students about future HVDC systems. 1am very much indebted to the authors for giving me an opportunity to go through this excellent book on HVDC transmission. I congratulate the authors for bringing out a very useful text book on this topic which will be of great help to students of electrical engineering. M Ramamoorty Former Director General Central Power Research Institute BangalorePreface This book introduces the subject HVDC Transmission at a basic undergraduate level and covers all the topics associated with DC transmission as well. The book can be used for one semester, omitting a few chapters or as a complete reading material for two semesters of a course. It will be especially useful for final year undergraduate students of Electrical or Electrical and Electronics Engineering. The text is also meant for post-graduate students of Electrical or Electrical and Electronics Engineering, who have opted for a course on HVDC Transmission, also known as HVDC Engineering. High Voltage Direct Current Transmission was first developed in the 1950s, when 3-phase AC power trans- mission over long distances and through cables (undersea to islands) became difficult. DC transmission, at that time, seemed to be a viable alternative solution. The first commercial projects launched in this field were the Moscow-Kashira project of 30 MW over a distance of 100 km in 1951, and the Sweden-Gotland island project of 20 MW, spread over a distance of 98 km. Subsequent developments in high power electronic static devices made power conversion uncomplicated and cost effective. Of late several HVDC schemes and projects have come up all over the world where there is a need to transmit power over long distances (>500 km), interconnect two different frequency AC systems (asynchronous tie), provide cable transmission over long distances or connect nonconventional power sources like wind power and solar power to the main grid supply. In India, a few back-to-back interconnected systems and long distance transmission systems have been intro- duced in the last two decades. This has helped immensely in exposing power engineers to the basics of DC transmission technology. However, very few books are available on this subject. The first book written by Hingorani and Adamson that appeared in the late 1950s provided a brief outline of the subject. Kimbark’s book on DC transmission (Vol. 1, 1970) is an exhaustive read but it focuses solely on mercury arc valve technology. In the last two decades few more books, but of an advanced level have been published, Recognising the growing interest of students in this field, and a need for a comprehensive yet basic level text, ‘we have authored this book to aid in-depth academic study. The book discusses state of the art in HVDC transmission systems and provides coverage of modem trends in HVDC transmission in ample detail. VSC converters which have been recently developed to interconnect nonconventional energy sources like wind power to the grid are included and presented in a lucid manner. Topics on interaction of AC and DC systems, multiterminal HVDC systems and FACTS controllers are included to give a complete overview of trends in this field. The content has been written after careful perusal of curriculum in various engineering colleges and hence can be used by students of all universities. This book can also be used as a reference reading or a refresher course guide by field engineers and professionals connected with HVDC systems. ‘The content is written in simple and pedagogical manner and aims to provide a holistic understanding to a reader interested in studying inception, working principles, advantages and disadvantages of HVDC trans- mission and transmission systems. A few highlights of the book are listed below. © Includes modern trends and list of HVDC projects in India and abroad. © An informative coverage of some HVDC projects implemented in India, including the longest bipolar HVDC transmission line from Thalcher (Orissa) to Kolar (Bangalore) has been included towards thexiv | Preface end of the book. Technical details of three long distance transmission schemes and one back-to-back scheme (inter-state/inter-regional grid interconnectors) under the control of Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. (PGCIL) has been presented with photographs from the site. © A dedicated chapter on Grounding and Ground Electrodes has been provided to highlight the ability of HVDC transmission systems to transmit power by using the ground as return conductor. The impor- tance and methodology of grounding has been presented in ample detail. ‘The book begins with an elucidation of the need for HVDC along with information on its historical background and past developments. Further, it is organised in the following manner. The first chapter introduces the subject with a comparison of AC and DC systems, highlighting the merits of DC as a better alternative under specific conditions. HVDC projects executed around the world in the last fifty years have also been listed with relevant details in this chapter. Solid state devices (thyristors and IGBTS), their characteristics, use, operation, methods of triggering, along with high voltage valve technology is explained in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 deals with HVDC 6-pulse and 12-pulse converters. Their operation, power flow, losses and its control mechanisms have been analysed in this chapter. Chapter 4 is devoted to the operation and control of thyristor valves. Harmonics, their suppression through filters, filter arrangements and other suppression methods are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6. Necessity of grounding or earthing, layout and location of ground electrodes, and computation of ground resistance is discussed in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 is devoted to faults and protection schemes in HVDC systems. In Chapter 9, transient and overvoltages that occur in HVDC converters and lines are discussed along with possible protection measures against these. An introduction to insulation co-ordination is also given Multiterminal schemes which are fast becoming important in HVDC transmission are discussed in Chapter 10. Topics like (i) Parallel AC-DC systems and their interaction, (ii) High electric and magnetic fields and their effect on the environment, (iii) Land usage and ecological health effects, etc., have been discussed in Chapter 11. The book concludes with an introduction to FACTS and FACTS controllers. The book has strong pedagogical features inclusive of worked examples, questions, problems and multiple choice questions. A student will find a good mix of theoretical questions and numerical problems. A list of important references to aid further study has also been provided at the end of every chapter. Numerous tables, illustrations and photographs have been included in the text to support visualisation of content. The book is also supplemented with an interesting online learning center for both instructors and students, which can be accessed at http:/vww.mhhe.com/Kamakshaiah/hvdetl Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the excellent foreword, critical review and suggestions given by DrM Ramamoorty, former director general, CPRI, Bangalore. We would also like to thank Dr Adapa Rambabu of EPRI, USA, and Dr Vasudeva of CPRI, Bangalore, for contributing valuable and informative technical material during the preparation of this book. We also wish to express sincere thanks to all the reviewers listed below, who have spared precious time to offer constructive criticism and suggestions on the manuscript. Saikat Chakrabarti Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh PK Kalra Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Uttar PradeshBimal Kumar NK Kishore AM Kulkarni MH Dhend S Krishna AS Kandasamy R Suresh Kumar K Purushottam Prasad T Vamsee Kiran Paul Clee GR Gurumurthy Preface | xv Amritsar College of Engineering and Technology, Amritsar, Punjab Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, West Bengal Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Maharashtra All India Shri Shivaji Memorial Society's COE, Pune, Maharashtra Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Tamil Nadu Paavai Engineering College, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu Anna University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu Sri Padmavati Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh Padmasri Dr BV Raju Institute of Technology, Andhra Pradesh BNM Institute of Technology, Bangalore, Karnataka Further, any critical review or suggestions from the readers, academicians or engineers is welcome and will be incorporated in future editions of this book. Publisher’s Note: S Kamakshaiah V Kamaraju Have something to tell us? Write to us with your comments at tmh.elefeedback@gmail.com. Please mention the title and author name as the subjectPEL SVOE ESM ONTR 2 aS 9 4 ee eee 5 nea List of Symbols Firing angle of rectifier Firing angle of inverter (1-@), Angle of advance Control angle of inverter (Extinction angle) Phase angle between V and I in power circle diagram Relative permittivity Magnetic flux, Power factor angle Overlap angle / Commutation angle in convertors Micro Phase angle between voltage and current phasors, Power factor angle Resistivity of material or conductor Angular frequency ‘Tuned angular frequency for n harmonic Resonant angular frequency Delta (mesh) connection in 3-phase systems Phase sequence; as a suffix refer to instantaneous or phase quantity Diameter, Distance between two members Direct current Electron charge Frequency Conductance Harmonic order, Height Instantaneous current Current density Harmonic number Length, Length of a conductor Maximum value Harmonic number At no-load (as suffix) Pulse number, Primary side (line side) of converter transformer Per unit Charge Radius Secondary (valve side) of converter transformer Time, Temperature DC Voltage, Converter voltage on DC side Instantaneous voltage Reactance, Line reactance per unit length Admittance, Admittance per unit length Impedance, Impedance per unit lengthxviii | List of Symbols A AB, AC B c D pe E H CG HVDC STE {OS EEO z 9, SON uxt CS x Settee = Ls bs NOS & > = os Ampere, Area AC phase sequence Alternating current Suseptance, Breadth Capacitance Diameter, Diameter of a ring Direct Current Elec. field intensity Height, Spacing between conductors High Voltage Direct Current Current (DC) Direct current average value Rated DC current Gate current RMS current of line side of converter transformer AC 3-phase currents RMS current on secondary or valve side of converter transformer Current density Inductance ‘Smoothing reactor (Inductance) ‘Mutual inductance Pulse number, Power through converter Power in AC system DC power transmitted Reactive VA Capacitive VA Inductive Resistance Phase sequence 3-phase AC system Apparent power (VA) Time interval, Time, Temperature Convertor DC Voltage Voltage (DC) No-load DC voltage Ideal no-load direct voltage Rated direct voltage Rated RMS AC voltage line side of transformer Phase voltage, Peak voltage of AC AC 3-phase voltages Rated RMS voltage (line) on valve or secondary side of transformer Line reactance, Capacitive reactance , Inductive reactance (respectively) Suseptance ImpedancecB ccc CEA CIA csc BAC EPC FACTS GTO IGBT IGCT PC MRTB MTDC PFC SCR Sic SSSC svc THEF TIF TSC/TSR VDCOL. vsc Abbreviations Circuit Breaker Constant Current Control Constant Extinction Angle (7) control Constant Ignition Angle Control Current Source Converter Control Extinction Angle Control Equidistant Pulse Control Flexible AC Transmission System Gate Turn-off Thyristor Insulated Gate Bipolar Thyristor Integrated Gate Commuted Thyristor Individual Phase Control Metalic Return Transfer Breaker Multiterminal DC System Pulse Frequency Control Silicon Controlled Rectifier Silicon Carbide Base Thyristor Static Series Synchronous Compensator Static VAR Compensator Telephonic Harmonic Factor Telephone Influence Factor Thyristor Switch Capacitor/Reactor Voltage Dependant Current Order Limit Voltage Source ConvertorINSIDE... is a comprehensive literature on “HVDC Transmission? - the following section provides a sneak-peek into the highlights of the content, its layout and its presentation, Location and history of HVDC projects around the world Important HVDC projects implemented in India including the longest bipolar HVDC transmission line from Thalcher (Orissa) to Kolar (Bangalore)Grounding and Ground Electrodes for HVDC. Systems Dedicated chapter on Grounding and Ground Electrodes ‘QUESTIONS Content presented with attractive pedagogyChapter One HVDC Transmission: B Developments 1.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The demand for large amount of electric power, today, necessitates transmission at increasingly high voltages. Until 1960, electrical power was transported through AC 3-phase system only. Voltage transformation from one level to another level is quite easy with AC through a suitable transformer. Also, power generation by large size generators (of 500 MVA capacity) is feasible with AC only. However, transport of bulk power and over long distances (500 km and above) gives rise to considerable problems like variation of voltage profiles, decrease in power transfer and generation of reactive power. As such, viability of power transfer using an alternate means is thought of. At this juncture, DC power transmission is considered, and in the last fifty ‘years, it has been developed for (i) Power transfer over long distances from point to point (ii) Underwater (sea) transmission (iii) Interconnection of two AC systems with two different frequencies (iv) Better power system stability as a parallel link with existing AC system 1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Electrical science and its applications gained momentum with the discovery of direct current. Originally, electric power generation and transmission was through direct current. In 1882, the first electric central station in the world was built by Thomas A. Edison in New York and was supplying direct current at 110 V through underground tubular mains to an area of about 1.6 km radius. This station had Edison bipolar DC generators driven by steam engines. In case of high voltages, the size of commutator increases which restricts the peripheral speed of the machine. Hence, low speed DC machines were found to be costlier. Due to limitations of cost and size of DC machines on one hand and the advent of transformers, polyphase circuits and induction motors (between 1880-1890) on the other hand, alternating current (AC) power transmission system gained supremacy and began to play a dominant role in the phenomenal growth of power transmission systems. When the length of the line is more than 500 km, reactive power generated by the AC line is more than its power transmitting capacity as shown in Fig. 1.12 | Hv0C Transmission Q= Reactive volt-amperes P= Active power Qipao | 30 ao 700 KV, 2000 MW, 60 Hz ‘AC line 10 DC line => Line length (km) 300 600 900 1200 Fig. 141 Reactive power requirements of long AC and DC transmission lines ‘Among DC power transmission systems, the Thury system of HVDC transmission as designed by a French engineer was the first one to be put into operation in Europe, when AC system was in its infancy. It had a number of series-wound DC machines connected at the both ends of the transmission line and was operated at constant current. The first commercially successful DC system rated 100 kV, 20 kW was commissioned by the Gotland scheme in Sweden in 1954. Since then interest in HVDC power transmission has been increasing and many HVDC projects have been executed throughout the world (Table 1.1 to Table 1.5). Up to 1970, only mercury-valves were being used in HVDC projects in rectifier and inverter stations. Subsequently, thyristors and lately IGBTs have been developed and are being used extensively in bridge converters of HVDC systems. Locations of a few HVDC projects around the world are depicted in Fig. 1.2. The rapid advance in DC transmission technology has taken place because it has numerous advantages over EHVAC transmission in transporting bulk power through long-distance transmission lines. It reaps definite economic benefits when the transmission line length exceeds 500 km. Some advantages of HVDC transmission are listed below: (a) Interconnection of systems using long length of cables in particular while crossing sea water. (b) Interconnection of systems operating at different frequencies (as asynchronous tie). (©) Reduced transmission losses. (@ Rigid control over the magnitude and direction of power flow with easy reversibility of power flow. (e) Limiting the transfer of fault current. (f) Damping out oscillations and improving the stability margins when embedded in weak AC systems of low short circuit ratio (SCR). The strength of AC systems connected to the terminals of DC links is ‘measured in terms of short circuit ratio (SCR). [SCR is defined as the AC power transfer under short circuit at the converter bus or rated DC power. If SCR is less than 3, then AC system is said to be weak.] () HVDC transmission is most useful in areas requiring crossing of long waterways like crossing a sea to feed an island through submarine cables. The first major DC transmission line was established in 1960 in USSR for transmitting power of 750 MW at +400 kV, over a distance of 500 km. In USA, a DC line of 1360 km length operating at +400 kV for transmission of bulk power of 1440 MW was established in 1970. Several innovations in the development of DC conversion technology have enabled HVDC schemes look more attractive than AC systems when considering transfer of bulk power over long distances. The replacement of mercury valves with thyristors valves has reduced large requirements of land and civil engineering costs of convertor stations with attendant economic benefits.HVDC Transmission: Developments | 3 (pmeg) ssorsuctn paratiin-wqsy Sajsn ede sou2auos mau 4q ¢661 UEP2OEMeY S961 MINOOE —ANSTIF = — — —undey‘wumyes ——seuyyes, 8 -aBpuq sosutey st Z 9104 ABojouys01 Ss MpEA anUIOD 03 POM amp surais&s Yons Ise] aq Jo au ‘sxay puwyeaz au ae Ammououn Sast [IS WaysAs Ax OSE purjeaz may “weg purejsy STM JO [Od “1661 UI PaPEBd §—S9GT MIN OOTI AXOLT+ UMOLS UO” MAN ‘SPrEMAEH suoumsg §— FT AHL eissmy ssequog, ‘eceysA0] missy —praBo8]oq, = $961 MINOSL —ANOOPF UI SLE | — ARIA “eKEYSKZION OaAH 9 seuruag suorstudap Buisn siauanuoo wapoLt wapamg “Bussey Aq 9o0cssnSuy ut paoeidey F961 MINOST —ANOST —-UNGR ULL. “uayinuaig see, | WEXS-HUOY ¢ aouvsy peuuey p86 UrUMOPInYS 1961 MINODT AX OOF — wir ‘MA ‘PPAT = “aug -SSOIJDGAH spans 9861 Arenagag wr uMopINYs —HSEI_ ANN OZ = AN 00Z — wih86 Wapams ‘ouSA — “YIAIEISEA, Tpaepoy ¢ tumop ings 40afoud-0q1a. eyssmy earysey, OGAHJ© sued Jog — S61. 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AN OOSF WSFOT = tuHN ‘ORI HEN, seqnowzen, GAH I uapamg = 6861 MIN OOS AN OOF UH EE wy 00Z — Pueyury “euuney “oqeuueg, leyg-ouuey €1 s00sseg = 6861 MIN OOF AN OOTF UL 96 a eipul Yoosie = eIpUT“TUETIS = —N[ISOGAH ZI eMoyTeD gan = 9861 MIN OTST AN OOSF WA SRL = ‘omejepy __“wreyunowa1uy uyerumowsyey 11 waMog UT ut poayixg ajgoa foc uownyg Tuowwig oN syowsy —uoyounfinouy —-sunyy ayo foun ysBuaT —_sauasuod saysasuo aun s (pop) treiqerHVDC Transmission: Developments | 7 wo ‘Buopauen5) = O10z = AM000S- AN 00RF —WHOOPT = — ut) ueuNA ——“BuopuEn “ueume, 87 a ol0z MIN 00%9 = AXOOS UH [LOZ — Ruy “TeyBueYS — eUTYD ‘eqrfuerX —FeyBuEYS “equfuETX LZ spuepayieN _ L007 MIN OOL = AX OSPF _ wy 08S ‘uaneqswiag == KWAN “epag PONION 97 eyurpzeg _ 6/8007 MINOOOL — AX 00ST _ UI Sey “omega Aqey “wane y TadvS ST wy yensny vyensny = s00z MIN 009 AN OOP UL SIL €862 “Wao, 28109 “Bue, 5o7 auUIsse Pz, SuopGteng, —s0810) = £002 MIN O0OE AN OOSF WH OFG tag ‘noyzinyy wary ‘nowzsurp eaLOGAH & wa eur noyzBueqD-safI0D, _ £007 MINOOOE — AX OOSF — 4D} 068 _ ‘Buyd8uaqz “aenbBuoy aayLOGAH 7% 200015) s0aai)—Aye = Tooz MN OOS AN OOP MOTT MA OOT ‘somyoery Ape “eunefep OqAH Ic waMOd aT otssi pooyixg ajgog fo — cuownrg Tuowwig ON syouoy —wonnunSrouy —-sungy—aB0y04 foysBuaT—ypBUT —saysonuo-y aaysasuo uy s (pwop) cage,sioofoud SAH 40.87 se1podeytay 2040S, = 010Z = MIN DOE A 00S — — WHL6 = Haque eIqrUeN SSD -wIqrUTEN, uy] auded TT SM Sf ‘eosrouesy wes _ O10Z = MIN OOF —-AX007 — wise SM ‘oostouesy weg — “purlxO Avg sey AegsuesL O1 aria _ 6002 = MINOOF AXOST — wy Ez ‘umyog AmeuLiap) Aueuui3p) INO PION 6 nope _ 600z «= MNBL AMOST — wt 767 Sx0NSHO “TETRA, ABNION “ESET HeqIeA OGAH 8 _ 9007 MINOSE AX OST# — wy Sor Bros TH Paeyury ‘oodsy murnsa L sossarduros 08 aroysyo 105 Wulo, Aiddns smog SOOT = MINS AN O9F — wHOL uIORIe]d B404SHO —_KWAUON “SOUSTIOY, MLOGAH 9 sige puET Z00Z MIN OZ ANOSIF = HYLLTReSMY ‘SUID Pay —_wHENSMY “HDG sce ¢ aiqes puvjs] anoAsauUo) sayeauapun paying §—Z00Z_— MIN OFE AN OSTF — wor Bu0] “ureya10ys “UDARH MON 9IQED PUNOg SSI fp yeasny aiqeo puey 000Z «= MIN OST AX O8F — WES —BENSny “eiojeSung_ “Kquarquinyynyy surpoarig ¢ sexay, sa YSN ‘sseq ajeq ‘uonRis = oz MINE ANOSIF | — — ——‘sexay.‘sseg j8eq_‘sexay_‘sseg f8eq 4904-01-99 OGAH Z suoneis Sune ~roua8 samod pura speuruag Sruopauuosau] 0007 ANN TL AN GF = Ey ywuag “BoqualL “uogae{, — Bioqaze{L 9GAH | aMOd aur owes worsstut poaqiesg 21909 uous Tuowwis oN syiouoy -ninouy sung, ABO, fowsSua] foysSuat —sauasuoy say408U0) auoy s 8 | HV0C Transmission uo-emod as1y wou sig] pasn eia suuaishs £1 a1qeLHVDC Transmission: Developments | 9 stoofoad SAH Jo 81 sxpadeytay 2040S, (amy) Z1OZ m Pare|do0D 9q.0, —ANINO009 AXOOR= EY SLST (arn) ety Wourssig — wBY-ypoueasig g (womnsefex) (6002) wonomnsuos s9pun AWN OOST_AXOOS= OBL ‘pease, ta A poa-wuIeL L (exereury) 1eISIAU] ZO0T AMIN 0002 AX 00SF WL OSPL se|Oy, (ess! UPTEL TMNog weg 9 ph woymnog pue put aise Y9oG-O- UR SOOT AUN OOSA9LT - Cay) yeanfon Cary) mention rien s omsesoyeyy) ——_ (enseIeyPy) STeSIOHUT L661 AMIN OOS AOD? 1006 aura sandmspuey) aypeg-amdespumy “pa avesior¥] 7661 AMIN OOST AXOOS= UL DIS (aa) upea = (an) purwry = —puouy GAH € (aa) y9r9-o1-jore aresi2ru] 6861 MIN 0S AX 9LIF = eypecupary Carn) rHypesypINA Teypesypury (qefsmeq9) soosing, uy yewuouruads 6861 ANNO AXOOT WAL 96T s00st6¢1 —n0qS GAH | BUT poayiaO >1qDJ0—_E woHPIS ON spomoy tanog a8 fousdusy Jtoyiaiwe auey $ eIpul uIsawe4rs GAH Hb aIqeL410 | HvDc Transmission Table 1.5 HVDC back-to-back schemes S.No. ‘Name Location Voltage Power Year Remarks | HDC Back-to-back, Shin-Shinano, £125kV 600MW_ 1977 Interconnection Shin Shinano Japan S0Hz/60Hz 2 Acaray Acaray, 26.5 kV SOMW 1981 - Paraguay Vyborg, Vyborg, Russia 485kV 1065 MW _ 1982 — 4 Daimronr Durnrohar, MSkV SSOMW 1983 Austria 5 Chateauguay Chateauguay 140kV 1000 MW_ 1984 = Saint Constant 6 Virginia Smith US-Sidney 1S0kV-200MW_ 1988, - Nebraska 7 Btzenricht Btzenriteh, 160kV 600 MW 1993 Shut down in Germany 195 8 Minami Fukumitsu Minami— 125kV -300MW_ 1999 - Fukumitsu, Japan 9 Sharyland Sharyland, 21kV 1S0MW 2007 Texas, USA 10 ALRadhiti Al Fadhili, 1800 MW 2008 Saudi Arabia The thyristor valves offer the following advantages. (a) They are free from arc backs which are frequent in mercury arc valves. (b) Have low power loss and offer wide flexibility of design which helps arrive at an economical design for a particular project. (©) Low maintenance requirements. ‘The progressive increase in voltage and current ratings of thyristors and 12-pulse mode of operation has brought economy in filter requirements. Fairly good advances in this technology have taken place around the world, Advanced methods of cooling using Freon to keep the junction temperatures of SCRs at low values in order to enhance the power handling capabilities in thyristors have been developed. Gate turn-off thyristors and fiber optic triggering have also been developed in addition to improved control philosophies with microprocessor applications which have contributed to the development of reliable convertors and other power apparatus in HVDC systems. Nowadays IGBT Technology has induced further development of new HVDC projects. Several HVDC schemes projects that have come up in India have been listed in Table 1.4, ‘An experimental DC line between upper Sileru in Andhra Pradesh and Barsoor in Chattisgarh with 400 MW at 4200 KV was commissioned in 1989. At present it is operating at ~200 kV and 200 MW only.HVDC Transmission: Developments | 14 AN OOT 2008108-1U9IS, NOOSE ‘ey6ped-indespueys "MT 0OF youu, MN Ozer sseq BOYED mV Oss pqeus-P6u) ee iy vex0s8 MIN OOO BV euBpegrundeipueyo AN 0008 InoyzBueyg-se6105 ee pueICOZ MON ‘MAN 008 \weedeureusin ‘MN 008 reUDehypUIn ‘NWN 0035 wwlec-pueuiy "Mn OOzF leubueus-eqnouzes MIN OZL 100-peA606j0n| lnysvo}4-opre9,oH ‘TV 008 MIN OSS TWN 092 NDS a028i5-Ae MAN 00S co me, MN Oss yong, TAN 0501) Boa) + ‘AAW 0S ueys-ouueS mn Budde, pues UeYsNOUZ MW 06 ous mn Jouueyo $8019 see Fig.1.2 Location of some HVDC projects around the world* ‘*Rudervall Roberto etal, HVDC Transmission Systems Technology (Review Paper), ABB Power Systems, Sweden. ‘wvwabb.com.in42 | Hvoc Transmission 1.2.1 Types of HVDC Systems ‘There are mainly three types of HVDC links that are in use as shown in Fig. 1.3. Converter transformer-1 — lt Converter waratomor2 HCO] eater —— tment AC f if AC Bus-2 wos ust Ac Bus-2 COAK HOO L4 l < to (&) Bipolar nk (unbalanced operation) AC Bus-1 AC Bus-2 oO (€) Homopolar link Fig.13 Types of DC links (a) Monopolar Link A monopolar system has only one conductor with ground as return conductor, and it is usually of a negative polarity. It is suitable in submarine systems where sea water can be used as a return conductor. (b) Bipolar Link (Unbalanced Operation) A bipolar system has two conductors, one of positive and other of negative polarity. The mutual or ground point is maintained at the mid-potential. Each terminal of a bipolar system has two converters of equal voltage ratings connected in series. If both neutrals are grounded then two poles operate at equal current and there is no ground current. In the event of fault in one conductor, the other conductor with ground retum can be used up to half the rated load or power with the rated current of the pole. (©) Homopolar Link —Homopolar system has two or more conductors with the same polarity, usually negative, and they always operate with ground return, In the event of fault in one conductor, the wholeHVDC Transmission: Developments | 13 converter can be connected to a healthy pole and can carry more than half the power (2-pole) by overloading but at the expense of increased line loss. However, this is not possible in a bipolar system due to the use of graded insulation for negative and positive poles. When continuous ground currents are inevitable, homopolar system is preferable. The additional advantage is lower corona loss and radio interference due to negative polarity on the lines. 1.3. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR HVDC SYSTEMS Sources and generation of power is usually in AC mode. An essential requirement of a DC system is conversion of AC to DC at one end and inversion back to AC at the other end. This naturally demands recti- fiers and inverters of high power ratings. The advent of power thyristors have made this job easier. Nowadays all HVDC schemes prefer to employ 12-pulse conversion because of less ripple and reduction in harmonics. A typical layout of HVDC transmission system is shown in Fig. 1.4. Smoothing reactor _ DC tine oe Conv. transt. = Tvaive f CO {errr 4 Lent Ae ters - Cine FEE wee HL ee Communion chanel ac bus capector ] Control system Fig. 1.4. Atypical HVDC transmission scheme Essential requirements of HVDC system are (a) 6/12-pulse converters (b) Converter transformer with suitable ratio and tap changing (c) Filters both on the AC side and on the DC side to take care of the harmonic generation at the converters and to reduce the harmonics (@) Asmoothing reactor in the DC side to reduce the harmonic currents in the DC line and possible transient overcurrents44 | HvDc Transmission (©) Shunt capacitors to complement the reactive power generated by the converters as they operate on lagging power factor and take lagging current (®) DC transmission line or DC cables for power transmission (a) Converters In all HVDC schemes that evolved after 1970, only thyristor valves are being used in converters. New techniques using Freon for cooling the junction of thyistors, to enable the temperature of the junctions of the valves to go as low as possible have been developed. This has increased the power handling capacity of the devices. New developments like gate turn-off thyristor, (GTO, 8 KV, 4000 A), IGBTs (6.5 KV, 1000 A) and light triggered thyristors with reliable cesium-mercury flash lamp for high power light sources have made control schemes not only more reliable but also appear to have reduced 2000 electronic compo- nents per valve according to Jack L. Tink, Manager of HVDC Marketing at General Electric. Thyristors are now available in the market with blocking voltage ratings of 6 KV which is six times the ratings of the first thyristors used in converter stations in the early 1970s. This means only one-sixth of the valves need to be ‘used now, saving considerable space and cost. Today, HVDC valves have entered a new phase with the development of IGBT valves. From a basic ‘chip’ with a PIV rating of 4 to 6 kV and around 1000 A, a module is made with a few thyristors or IGBTs connected in series parallel combination for 10 to 15 kV voltage rating and required current rating (1 kA to 3 KA) giving suitable redundancy. A valve is built with such modules in series up to 500 KV. With IGBTs, which are self commuted (unlike thyristors) the modules are arranged into stak-paks, with which the IGBT stack valves are built. In Fig. 1.5 HVDC converter arrangement using thyristor valves as well as IGBTs is shown. The developments in HVDC valves are pictorially shown in Fig. 1.6. Nowadays, IGBT valves are used mainly in underwater cable and cable schemes in the power range 100 to 500 MW with voltage rating up to 200 kV. (b) Converter Transformers The transformers used in HVDC systems before rectification of AC are termed as converter transformers. They differ in their design as compared to one used in AC systems because of superimposed DC voltages. The insulation system ofa converter transformer has to withstand AC voltages, short time overvoltages and also superimposed DC voltages with polarity reversals. An understanding of the breakdown of solid interfaces in liquids is needed in the design of transformers. The tolerance on the impedance of converter transformers is more stringent since any variation in impedance has more effect on the cost of the associated DC terminal equipment. The content of harmonics in a converter transformer is much higher than conventional AC transformer. These harmonics cause additional leakage flux resulting formation of local hot-spots in the windings. Suitable magnetic shunts, directed oil flow for effective cooling along with additional cooling arrangements would be necessary to avoid such hot spots. (© Filters Harmonics are generated in HVDC transmission lines due to repetitive firing of thyristors. ‘These are transmitted to the AC network in which a DC link is embedded. This may cause overheating of the equipment and interference with communication systems. In addition to this, noncharacteristic harmonies are also generated due to an unbalance in converter transformer reactance, AC supply voltage and errors in the firing angle of the phases. It is necessary to regulate the harmonics through filtering techniques. (d) Reactive Compensation (Shunt Capacitors) Reactive volt-amperes are generated in the process of conversion, due to delay in the firing angle of the converter stations. As DC system does not generate or require reactive volt-amperes, this must be suitably compensated by connecting shunt capacitorsHVDC Transmission: Developments | 15 Thyristor module HVDC classic = Thyristor valves = Thytistor modules = Thyristors / \ 1 Line commutated Single Double Quadruple valve valve valve HvDc-vsc = IGBT valves = IGBT valve stacks = StakPaks IGBT vaive stack. Tide | Fig.1.5 HVDC converter arrangements Performance Second generation thyristor valve a geoonten generation thyristor valve, mercury arevae Year 1970 1980 2000 Fig.1.6 Development of HVDC valves46 | HvDC Transmission at the both ends of the system. The compensation of static vars depends upon short circuit ratio (SCR) of AC systems. For weak AC systems (low SCR) which are common in India, proper choice of reactive power compensation must be seriously considered. (©) DC Transmission Line or DC Cable It requires only two conductors as compared to three conductors in a 3-phase AC system. Consequently losses are also less. The size of the structure of the towers is also less in DC transmission. There is no skin effect in the conductors because there is no variation of current in time (zero frequency). For the same power handling capacity, the size of the conductors required in DC transmission is small. Typical HVDC cables used in NorNed cable project are shown in Fig. 1.7. Conductor Seppe oF uminum k ‘Aluminium or copper Conductor sereen Conductor screen ._— ‘Semi-conduetive polymer ‘Semi-conducting polymer —— Insulation Dry cured HVDC polymer Dry cured polymer Insulation screen Insulation screen Semi-conductive polymer Semi-conducting polymer iustatte vereon i Swelling tape Copper wires IS Lead alloy sheath Inner jacket ‘Swelling tape Polyethylene Aluminium laminate a Outer covering >~ Galvanized steel wires Outer cover Polyethylene Polypropylene yarn @ ¢ ks oko Flat Mass-impregnated ‘submarine cable LA I~ | Corpor prot wies, 70 mn? a a at ms @ ® r % caomarte cable [7 Copper profile wires, 700 mm? @Wtrr.: Cmyare” Fig.1.7 HVDC cablesHVDC Transmission: Developments | 17 1.4 COMPARISON OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION The relative merits of the two modes of transmission of AC and DC should be compared based on the following facts to assess the suitability: (1) Economics of transmission (2) Technical performance (3) Reliability 1 1 Economics of Power Transmission DC transmission of bulk power over long distances has certain distinct advantages over conventional AC power transmission such as the following: (1) InDC transmission, inductance and capacitance of the line has no effect on the power transfer capability of the line and the line drop. Also, there is no leakage or charging current of the line under steady conditions. DC has more decided advantages when power is transmitted through cables as there is no charging current in the cable. (2) For long distance power transmission over 500 km, the saving in cost is substantial as shown in Fig. 1.8(a). A DC line requires only 2 conductors whereas an AC line requires 3 conductors in 3-phase AC systems. The cost of the terminal equipment is more in DC lines than in AC line. Break-even tance is one at which the cost of the two systems is the same. It is understood from Fig. 1.8(a) that a DC line is economical for long distances which are greater than the break-even distance. The break-even distance also varies with the power transmitted over the line as shown in Fig. 1.8(b). Table 1.6 below shows the comparative capability of HVDC systems for power transfer over various distances with that of an EHVAC system at different voltages. *Table1.6 Power transfer capability of HVDC and HVAC lines Distance Capability in MW for HVDC Capability of EHVAC Transmission in MW: i kaa 400 kV £800 kV 400K 750 kV 1000 KY 1200 kV 500 250 9000 405 1660 3680 5790 700 1690 7000 313 1250 2770 4340 900 1460 6000 261 1080 2400 3770 1100 1360 5000 219 900 1987 3125 *The above figures refer to fair weather conditions Table 1.7 Gives typical line loading figures for different voltages with alternating current and with direct current Alternating Current Direct Current Highest System Voltage (KV) ‘Typical Load (MW) Highest System Voltage (kV) Typical Load bipole (MW) 360) 300-1000 =250 200-500" 420 400-1200 = 300 400-1000 550 800-2000 +400 ‘800-1600 800 2000-4000 = 600 2000-4000 200 4000-8000. +800 4000-800048 | HVDC Transmission (3) The choice of DC transmission voltage for a given power has a direct impact on the total instal- lation cost. The cost of losses is very important in the evaluation of energy losses cost and the time horizon for utilisation of the DC system. Hence, to estimate costs of an HVDC system, a life cycle cost analysis is done, Here a comparison between (i) EHVAC system and Thyristor valve DC system, and (ii) EHV AC system and VSC (IGBT) valves with cable is carried out. For the first one (i), the capital costs for HVDC converter are higher than that of EHVAC substations. On the other hand, the cost of transmission for lines, cables land cost, ete, are lower for a DC system. In Fig. 1.8 (c) and (4), the break-even distance arrived at is larger (>500 km). The break-even distance depends on several factors such as line or cable, cost of materials, labour costs, etc. Similar comparison is made for VSC based Cost Break-even distance Terminal cost — (km) 200 400 «600800 ———— Distance Fig. 1.8(a) Relative costs of AC and DC transmission lines vs distance 200 = § | 600 3 $400 4 3 é 200 400 800 1200 ~—«1600 __**, Power transmitted (MW) Fig. 1.8(b) Variation of break-even distance with power transmittedHVDC Transmission: Developments | 19 900) 800 700 600 g 500. —AC price © 400+ |—DC price "ge esee8E2 8288 Distance (kr) Fig. 1.8(c) Break-even distance for thyristor HVDC schemes Cost Total AC DC line cost JAC tine cost DC terminal cost - fac terminal ‘cost Distance Fig. 1.8() Break even distance for total cost of AC and DC schemes HVDC and AC systems for smaller power transport (50 to 200 MW) and for shorter distances few tens of km to about 200 km (Fig. 1.9). The subdivision of costs for HVDC schemes for 2000 MW is given in Fig. 1.10. 1.4.2 Technical Performance DC transmission has some positive features which are not present in AC transmission, but are mainly due to the fast controllability of power in DC lines through converter control. Following are some technical advantages: (1) Full control over power transmitted in either direction.20 | HvDc Transmission VSC + cable Distance from the AC grid Fig. 1.9 Breakeven distance for VSC (IGBT schemes) Erection, commissioning 8% Other equipment 10% Engineering 10% Control 7% Freight insurance 5% AC filters 10% Converter transformers 16% Civil works, buildings 14% Valves 20% Fig.1.10 Cost subdivision for a typical 2000 MW HVDC scheme (2) The ability to improve the transient and dynamic stability of AC system when embedded with DC link. (3) Fast control to limit fault currents in DC lines, (4) ADC link can be used as an asynchronous tie which can tie down the small variations in system frequency of different AC systems. (5) Two large AC systems when interconnected by AC link may sustain instability. But DC link may dampen the system oscillations due to its inherent short over load capacity. (© The choice of high voltage DC transmission system mainly depends on the economic suitability for a particular application. Primarily economy lies in the fact that DC transmission requires only two conductors per circuit (bipolar) rather than three conductors required for an AC system. Consequently, the towers carry less conductor weight in DC system and are smaller in size and hence are less costly. Comparison of Single-Phase AC Line and Monopolar DC Line While comparing the perfor- mance of monopolar DC line with single-phase AC line, it is presumed that the size of the conductor is same in both the systems. The maximum system voltage to ground is also same. Let J, be the rms AC current of single-phase system.HVDC Transmission: Developments | 24 Let J, be the direct current of the monopolar DC system, Lal, a) Since the system maximum voltage is same in both cases, V,=2V, (1.2) where V, is the DC voltage of the pole w.r.t. ground. where V, is the rm. line to ground voltage of AC system. ‘The power transmitted through DC line = P,= V, 1, ‘The power transmitted through AC line = P,. = V1, 0s P, Vy 1, The ratio of DC power/AC power = —4 = 4-4 _ (1.3) Pro Vy, 0080 Assuming the power factor cos $= 0.945 P, P. ac v2/0.945 =1.5 (4) Itmeans a monopolar DC line can transmit 1.5 times the power an AC line can transmit for the same conductor size and system maximum voltage. 1.4.3(a) Comparison of Bipolar DC Line with 3-phase AC Line for Power Transfer Capability (For same current and power level) It is presumed in the comparison that the insulation levels are the same, i.e., the maximum system voltage in both the cases is the same and the size of the conductor also the same with the above conditions. Leh, v= viv, where Vis the DC voltage of the pole wrt. ground The DC power transmitted by a bipolar line is P,=2Vd, AC power transmitted by a 3-phase system = P,..= 37, J, cos Pa power transmitted by 3-phase AC line Pc Val 35] V,, 1, 0086 V,, 1, 0086 ¢ Bower transmitted by bipolar DC li The ratio o' as) WW yly 2 3V, 1, cos @ 322 | Hvoc Transmission with cos $ = 0.945 Pa? V2 Pac 3 0.985 It means that the power transmitted by a bipolar line is the same as that of a 3-phase AC line. 1.4.3(b) Comparison of a Bipolar DC System with 3-phase AC System for Same Insulation Levels (For same power transmitted and equal losses) ‘A comparison of a bipolar DC system with that of a 3-phase AC system transmitting the same amount of power with same percentage of losses and with the same size of the conductor is given below. From this, the insulation strength of DC and AC systems can be compared. Let _V, = Phase voltage ofa 3-phase AC system Phase current of a 3-phase AC system 1,= Conductor current of a DC system V, = Voltage of one pole w.rt. ground = Resistance of each conductor Assuming the power factor to be unity in the AC system, we have P,.= Total AC power P,_= Total DC powei v1, (1.6) VL, (a7) For equal losses it follows that 32R=2xI5R 1,=N2Bx1, (as) Since power transmitted is the same in both the cases, we have (9) W, 1p = Waly If we compare the insulation in both the cases, the breakdown of the system insulation depends upon the maximum voltage, then DC insulation level ___Vs BRxv, B (10) ACinsulation level J2xV, V2xV, 2 = 0.866HVDC Transmission: Developments | 23 An important conclusion that can be derived from the above is that the DC insulation level required is only 86.66% of that required in an AC system. It means that the number of insulators required in DC system is 86.6% that of 3-phase AC system. This results in lower cost of transmission. 1.4.3(c) Comparison of Bipolar DC with 3-phase AC System (For same power transmitted and same insulation level) Another basis of comparison is to assume equal power transmission with equal peak voltage in both AC and DC systems. The conductor size is assumed to be the same. The power losses can be compared in both the systems. When power transmitted is the same in both the cases Power transmitted in AC = P,.=3Y,1, Power transmitted in DC = P,.= 2V,, Since the peak voltage is same in both the systems V,,,, = The maximum conductor to ground voltage = V,, Assuming the same maximum voltage from line to neutral in AC V, = Vx |V2=¥,/V2 aay V,= V2 v, (1.12) Given the total power transmitted in both the cases is same. Wehave Py. = Pye a WL = Wel, 14 =1.061, Hence, power loss in AC system _ 345 R (4) power los inDCsystem 2/3 R It follows from Eq. 1.14 that the power loss in an AC system is 33% more than a DC system. 1.4.3(d) Comparison of 3-phase Double Circuit AC Line with 3 Circuit DC Homopolar Line with Same Power Loss Let (a) Insulation levels be the same in both the systems, and (b) Percentage line losses be the same. Hence, the peak voltage from line to ground in both the systems is the same.24 | HvDC Transmission V2 V, =¥, (from Equation 1.12) ie 203, Pro= WV, 1, Py = Vy Ly Percentage losses in DC (due to bundling) 613 R/6V, Ly =1, R/V2V, (11s) Percentage losses in AC = 61} R/6V,, 1, =1,, R/V, (1.16) Equating the percentage losses in both the systems, we have (7) e (DC) eee = OV, 1g [Vy 1 = V2 x V2 =2 (1.18) power transmitted in double circuit 3@ AC line 4 /' pty NIX The power that can be transmitted by a double circuit 3-phase AC line is one half of the power transmitted by 3-circuit DC line. 1.4.3(e) Other Factors in Favour of HVDC Transmission System ‘These are as follows: 1, Overvoltages—Switching surges levels in EHVAC system are of the order of 2.5 p.u., whereas for DC it is less than 2.0 pu. Earlier, DC lines were designed for a switching overvoltage of 1.7 p.u. 2. Reliability —The reliability of power supply is more in a DC line compared to AC. A single conductor to ground fault on bipolar DC line enables it to supply at least 50% power. But in 3-phase AC system more than 50% capacity is lost. 3. Stability of Power System—The power transfer capacity of a DC system is limited only by thermal conditions and current carrying capacity of the conductor and it isa function of difference of voltages at the two ends of the line, However in AC system, power transmitted depends on the sending end voltage V,, receiving end voltage V,., line reactance X and phase angle difference between V, and V,, (i.) P= V-¥, sin 6/X and is reduced with increase in line length due to increase in reactance (X). It is necessary to provide shunt reactors and series capacitors to compensate this. Stability limits: The power transfer capability vs distance is shown in Fig. 1.11. The power transfer capability of an AC line is a function of distance and it decreases with increase of the inductance, whereas DC line is not affected because it is governed by DC resistance of the line (conductors), thermal conditions and current carrying capability of the conductor. 4, Corona and Radio Interference and Skin Effects—Corona loss and radio interference are lower in DC systems. Further, there is no skin effect in the conductors of a DC system, whereas it increases the effective resistance of the AC system. 5. Towers and Tower Sizes—As shown, the DC insulation level is lower than AC insulation for a given power transmission. Therefore, the size of the towers and the corresponding right-of-way are also less.