Analytical and Theoretical Studies of Lo

Analytical and Theoretical Studies of Low
Frequency Non-linear Waves in

Multi-Component Plasmas
By
MUSHTAQ AHMAD
2006
This work is submitted as a thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the award of the degree
Of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
PHYSICS
Department of Physics
Government College University
Lahore 54000, Pakistan
CERTIFICATE
It is certified that work contained in this dissertation is based on

theoretical investigation carried out by Mushtaq Ahmad under my
supervision. He has fulfilled all the requirements and is eligible to submit
the associated thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Physics.
The work presented in this dissertation is based on original research and
has not been carried out by other authors.
Research Supervisor:
Prof. Dr. Hassan A. Shah

G. C. University,
Lahore (Pakistan).
Submitted through:
Prof. Dr. Hassan A. Shah

Chairman
G. C. University,
Lahore, Pakistan.
DECLARATION
I, Mushtaq Ahmad, Reg. No.04-GCU-PhD-Phy-03, student of PhD in the
subject of Physics session 2002-2006 here by declared that the matter
printed in the thesis titled “Analytical and Theoretical Studies of Low
Frequency Non-linear Waves in Multi-Component Plasmas” is my
own work and has not been printed, published and submitted as research
work, thesis or publication in any form in any University, Research
Institution etc. in Pakistan or abroad.
Dated: ___________
Signature of Deponent
Dedicated to
My Mother, and daughters

Alina Mushtaq & Gul Rukh Mushtaq
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All praises and thanks are for Almighty ALLAH Who is the source of all knowledge
and wisdom endowed to mankind and to the Holy prophet Muhammad (peace be
upon him) who showed light of knowledge to the humanity as a whole.
Many people have helped me in one way or another in the preparation of this thesis,
and I take this opportunity to express my indebtedness to them. Especially I wish to
acknowledge irreparable indebtedness and my deep gratitude to my good natured and
devoted PhD supervisor Prof. Dr. Hassan A. Shah for constant encouragement and
invaluable supervision in the preparation of this thesis. This work would not have
been possible if it were not for the many long hours he spent in discussion to teach me
the linear and nonlinear plasma physics. His sympathetic attitude and encouragement
enabled me in broadening my knowledge and improving my research skill and
capability.
I am also very grateful to Dr. G. Murtaza, Salam Professor of Physics, G. C.
University Lahore and Prof. Dr. N. L. Tsindsadze for many fruitful discussions on
different aspects of plasma physics.
My heartiest thanks to all members of Plasma Physics Group at Physics
Department G. C. University Lahore. My cordial thanks to all my friends specially
Dr. Waqas Masood, Dr. Shahzad Mahmood, Dr. Qamar-ul-Haq, Mr. Shahid Ali,
Mazhar Shad, Sarfaraz, Ayub, Altaf, Zobia, Pinki and Nazish Rubab with whom
it had a great pleasure to work.
I would also like to thank and acknowledge the financial support by Higher
Education Commission (HEC) in accordance to the “Indigenous 200 merit
Scholarship Scheme (2002)” of Ministry of Science and Technology and four years
leave from Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC).
Finally I wish to express my deepest obligations to my mother, who always
prays for my success in all aspects of life. It is indeed because of the prayers of my
siblings that I have been able to complete my PhD Thesis.
MUSHTAQ AHMAD
List of Papers
1. Effects of positron concentration, ion temperature and plasma β- value on linear

and nonlinear two dimensional magnetosonic waves in electron-positron-ion
plasmas; Phys. Plasmas 12, 12301 (2005).
(A. Mushtaq, H. A. Shah)
2. Nonlinear Zakharov-Kuznetsov equation for obliquely propagating two
dimensional ion acoustic solitary waves in a relativistic, rotating magnetized
electron-positron-ion plasma; Phys. Plasmas 12, 72306 (2005).
3. Study of non-Maxwellian trapped electrons by using generalized (r, q)
distribution function and their effects on the dynamics of ion acoustic solitary
wave; Phys. Plasmas 13, 12303 (2006).
4. Study of an obliquely propagating dust acoustic solitary wave in magnetized
tropical mesospheric plasmas with effect of dust charge variations and rotation of
the plasma; Phys. Plasmas 13, 62903(2006).
(A. Mushtaq, H. A. Shah, N. Rubab and G. Murtaza)
List of Papers That Are Not Included
1. Ion acoustic solitary wave in homogeneous magnetized electron-positron-ion

plasmas; New Journal of Physics 5, 28.1-28.10 (2003).
(S. Mahmood, A. Mushtaq, and H. saleem)
2. Dust streaming effect on dust acoustic solitary wave in magnetized dusty plasmas;
Journal of Fusion Energy, 21, 199 (2003).
(S. Mahmood, and A. Mushtaq)
Abstract
In this thesis we discuss non-linear effects in multi-component plasmas. By multi-
component we mean electron-ion, electron-positron-ion, and dust-electron-ion etc.
type plasmas. Different types of solitary waves and soliton, are the main focus in this
work. A soliton is a solitary wave with constant profile that preserves its shape during
collisions. First of all we consider magnetosonic soliton propagating obliquely at an
angle θ to an external magnetic field in Electron-Positron-Ion plasma, using the
effective one fluid MHD model. Two separates modes (fast and slow) for the waves
are discussed in the linear approximation and the Kadomstev-Petviashvilli (KP)
equation is derived by using the reductive perturbation scheme for these modes in the
nonlinear regime. The KP equation is the two dimensional analogy of the KdV
equation and it admits solitary wave solution. We also obtain a nonlinear dispersion
relation that relates the nonlinear wave number with different parameters. It is
observed that for both the modes the angle θ, positron concentration, ion temperature,
and plasma β-value affect the propagation properties of solitary waves and are from
those of the simple Electron-Ion plasmas. Like wise current density, electric field and
magnetic field for these solitons are investigated, for their dependence on the above-
mentioned parameters.
Ion Acoustic wave (IAW) is a low frequency electrostatic wave, which is

supported by the ion inertia in plasma physics. The lighter particles (e.g. electrons or
positrons) play the role of restoring force to this wave. Due to the compressions and
rarefaction of ion number density these low frequency waves propagate in plasma. In
the third chapter we investigate the linear and nonlinear properties of the IAW,
propagating obliquely to an external magnetic field in weakly relativistic, rotating
magneto Electron-Positron-Ion plasmas. The Zakharov-Kuznetsov equation is derived
by employing again the reductive perturbation technique for this wave in the small
amplitude nonlinear regime. This equation admits solitary wave solution. The
amplitude and width of this solitary wave have been discussed with effects of
obliqueness, relativity, ion temperature, positron concentration, magnetic field and
rotation of the plasma and observed that for IAW these parameters affect the
propagation properties of solitary waves and behave differently from the simple
Electron-Ion plasmas.
Most often, the velocity distribution function of particles in space plasmas has
a non-Maxwellian superthermal tail. The distribution function decreases generally as
a power law of the velocity instead of an exponential decrease associated with a
Maxwellian distribution. A useful distribution to model plasma containing
suprathermal and superthermal particles is the generalized Lorentzian, or kappa,
distribution function. The kappa distribution indeed possesses the desired property
that particles with velocities greater than the thermal velocity obey a power law
distribution. Another Non-maxwellain distribution named (r,q) distribution, which is a
generalized version of the Lorentzian (kappa) distribution, and gives better fits to real
space plasma, has been introduced. In the third problem (4th chapter) we discuss the
basic properties of generalized (r,q) distribution function and then using this
distribution, we consider particle (electron) trapping in wave electrostatic potential
well. The effect of particle trapping on the linear and nonlinear evolution of an ion
acoustic wave in electron-ion plasmas has been discussed. The spectral indices q and r
represent the high-energy tails, flatness or pointedness on top of the distribution
function respectively. The generalized KdV equations with associated solitary wave
solutions for different ranges of parameter r are derived by employing a perturbation
technique. It is shown that spectral indices r and q affect the trapping of electrons and
subsequently the dynamics of ion acoustic solitary wave significantly.
Dusty plasmas (plasmas containing charged dust grains of micron to sub-

micron size) occur in a wide variety of space and laboratory environments. Dust-
acoustic wave on a very slow time scale of dust dynamics emerges as a result of the
balance between dust grain inertia and plasma pressure. In the fifth chapter we
examine the characteristics of obliquely propagating Dust Acoustic Waves (DAW) in
positively charged, rotating and magnetized dusty plasma, apply the results to the day
side tropical mesosphere by incorporating adiabatic dust charge fluctuation. The
nonlinear evolution equation here is the Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) equation that is
derived by employing the reductive perturbation technique. This KdV equation may
support nonlinear DAWs on a very slow time scale. The meteoritic dust in
mesospheric plasma on day side is charged positively due to plasma currents and
photo and thermionic emissions. The sum of Lorentz force frequency and rotational
frequency give the effective gyro-frequency. The dynamics of DAW with effect of
electronic, ionic, thermionic and photoelectric currents along with obliqueness and
effective gyro frequency are studied. It is observed that obliqueness θ and effective
gyrofrequency modify the width, in inverse proportion. Also the amplitude of dust
acoustic soliton modifies directly and width modifies inversely with positively dust
charge variation for this model.
Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Plasma Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Waves in Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Nonlinear Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Nonlinearity in Plasma Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Soliton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Reductive Perturbation Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Nonlinear Evolution Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.1 Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.2 Kadomtsev-Petviashvili (KP) Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.3 Zakharov-Kuznetsov(ZK) Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Electron-Positron-Ion Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6 Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.1 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.6.2 Non-Maxwellian Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7 Adiabatic Particle Trapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.8 Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2 Two-Dimensional Magnetosonic Waves in Electron-Positron-Ion plasmas 30

2.1 Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Derivation and Solution of KP-Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1
2.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 Ion Acoustic Waves in Relativistic, Rotating Magnetized Electron-Positron-

Ion Plasmas 48
3.1 Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2 Derivation and Solution of Zakharov-Kuznetsov Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4 Ion Acoustic Wave in the Presence of Non-Maxwellian Trapped Electrons 62

4.1 Basic Equations and Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2 Derivation of Generalized KdV equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5 Dust Acoustic Wave in Magnetized Tropical Mesospheric Plasmas 74

5.1 Mathematical Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.2 Derivation and Solution of Standard KdV Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6 Summary and Conclusion 86
2
List of Figures
1-1 The Maxwellian velocity distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1-2 Comparison of (r, q) distribution function for di.erent values of spectral index q
and for negative values of r with Maxwellian distribution function. . . . . . . . . 24
1-3 Field U(x) forms (a) a potential barrier and (b) a potential well. . . . . . . . . . 26
2-1 Phase velocity vs p(= npo /neo ) for both slow and fast modes. Other parameters
used are: β = 0.01, σ = 0.2 and θ = 15◦ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2-2 Dependency of amplitude of soliton as a function of α (a) on positron concen-
tration i.e. when p = 0 and when p = 0.4. (b) on the variation of ratio of ion
temperature to electron temperature σ (c) on the value of β-parameter, for both
modes of the magnetosonic wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2-3 Effects of the (a) Positron Concentration, (b) Ion Temperature, and (c) Plasma
Pressure, on the amplitude of Jz as a function of α for both slow and fast modes
of the two dimensional magnetosonic wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3-1 Linear dependency of phase velocity (λ−u0 lx) on the relativistic streaming factor
u0 /c for different valuesof (a) σ and (b) positron concentration p each marked
on the curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3-2 The amplitude of soliton potential φm against the relativistic streaming factor
u0 /c with the variations of (a) Ion-to-electron temperature ratio σ (b) Ratio of
positron back ground density to electron back ground density p and (c) oblique-
ness θ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3
3-3 Variation of the width of soliton ∆ with relativistic streaming factor u0 /c by
varying the parameters(a) Ratio of ion temperature to electron temperature σ
and (b) Positron concentration p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3-4 Variation of the width of soliton ∆ with Obliqueness θ by varying the parameters
(a) Rotational frequency Ω0 and (b) Cyclotron frequency ω ci . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4-1 The amplitude of solitary wave solution potential ϕm against the η for different
values of spectral index r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4-2 The effect of spectral index q on amplitude of solitary wave potential ϕm as a
function of velocity u0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4-3 Variation of the width of solitary wave solution ∆ with its velocity u0 for different
values of spectral index q. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4-4 Variation of the width of solitary wave solution ∆ with its velocity u0 for different
negative values of spectral index r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4-5 The effects of spectral indices q and r on width of solitary wave solution ∆ as a
function of velocity u0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5-1 Linear dependency of phase velocity λ on the non-dimensional parameter z for

different values of coefficients β th and β p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5-2 Effect of dust charge variation on soliton potential ϕ as a function of η. Bold
curve for low values, Dashed curve for intermedit values and solid curve for
higher values of all β’s respectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Plasma Physics
Based on introductory books about plasma physics [1-2], this section aims at giving a quick
background to plasma physics for the unfamiliar reader.
In physics and chemistry, a plasma is an ionized gas, and is usually supposed to be a
different phase of matter. “Ionized” means that at least one electron has been dissociated from
a significant fraction of the molecules. The free electric charges make the plasma electrically
conductive so that it couples strongly to electromagnetic fields. This fourth state of matter in
1879 was first identified by Sir William Crookes and named “plasma” by Irving Langmuir in
1928, because it reminded him of a blood plasma. The word plasma itself is Greek in origin
and means jelly like.
In the same way as the three states of aggregation coexist, there is always some small
degree of ionization in any gas. However, any ionized gas cannot be called a plasma. A useful
definition according to [1] is: “A plasma is a quasineutral gas of charged and neutral particles
which exhibits collective behavior”. The concepts of collective behavior and quasineutrality are
very well explained in[1, 2].
Thus a plasma is a gas comprising of charged particles, and neutral atoms, i.e. a partially
ionized gas. Inside fluorescent lamps, Rocket exhaust, Fusion energy research, the electric arc
in an arc lamp or an arc welder, and Plasma ball (sometimes called a plasma sphere or plasma
globe) are examples of artificially produced/man made plasmas. Flames (i.e. fire), Lightning,
5
and the ionosphere etc are considered to be examples of terrestrial plasmas. Stellar interiors
and atmospheres, gaseous nebulae and much of the interstellar media, are also in the plasma
states. It is even sometimes said that more than 99% of the matter in the visible universe
is in the plasma state. In the neighborhood of the Earth, the magnetosphere, the Van Allen
radiation belts and the solar wind blowing from the Sun, are also in the plasma state.
It seems that we live in 1% of the universe where plasmas do not occur naturally. However,
we can find an explanation for this in the Saha equation, which gives the expected amount of
ionization in a gas in thermal equilibrium according to
µ ¶3/2
ni 1 2πme kB T
≈ exp(−Ui /kB T ) (1.1)
nn ni h2
which is equivalent to
s
µ ¶3/2
ni 1 2πme kB T
≈ exp(−Ui /kB T ), (1.2)
nn nn h2
where ni and nn are, respectively, the number density of ionized and neutral atoms, me is the
electron mass, T is the absolute temperature of the gas, kB is Boltzmann constant, h is Planks
constant, and Ui is the ionization energy of the gas. For ordinary air at room temperature, it
is reasonable to have nn ≈ 3 × 1025 m−3 , T ≈ 300◦ K and Ui = 14.5eV (ionization potential
for nitrogen). If the density of ionized atoms is small, then the fractional ionization ni =
(nn + ni )/ni = nn for these values inserted into (1.2)[1] gives
ni
≈ 10−122 << 1 (1.3)
nn
As expected the degree of ionization of air at room temperature is totally negligible i.e. air is not
a plasma. For hydrogen in tokamak machine with T ≈ 108 K and n ≡ ne = ni = 1020 m−3 , one
ni
finds from (1.1) and (1.2) that Ui << kB T so that exp(Ui /kB T ) ≈ 1 and nn ≈ 2.4 × 1013 >> 1:
in such machines genuine plasmas are obtained. However for the core of the sun with T ≈
1.6 × 107 K and n = 1032 m−3 ,one finds that ni /nn ≈ 1.5. Surprisingly, although thermonuclear
reactions take place, but ionization is not complete in the core of the sun and plasma behavior
is not completely dominant. This is due to extremely high densities there. On the other
6
0
hand, in the corona of the sun, with typical values of T ≈ 106 K and n = 1012 m−3 , we have
ni /nn ≈ 2.4 × 1018 : matter in the corona is an excellent plasma.
1.1.1 Waves in Plasmas
Waves in plasmas are an interconnected set of particles and fields which propagates in a pe-
riodically repeating fashion. A plasma is an electrically conductive quasineutral, fluid. In the
simplest form, it is composed of electrons and of positive ions, but it may also contains multiple
ion species including negative ions, positrons or dust particles and neutral particles etc. Due to
its collective behavior, a plasma couples to electric and magnetic fields. This complex medium
of particles and fields, supports a wide variety of waves. The studies of these waves in plasma
are very beneficial for plasma diagnostics, because the wave modes of a plasma depend on the
plasma characteristics.
Waves in plasmas can be classified as electromagnetic or electrostatic according to whether
or not there is an oscillating magnetic field. According to Faraday’s law of induction by using
a plane wave solution, k × Ẽ = ω B̃, implying that an electrostatic wave must be purely
longitudinal and an electromagnetic wave, on other side have a transverse component, but may
also be partially longitudinal.
Waves can be further differentiated due the oscillating species of plasma. In most plasmas
Te > Ti . Due to this assumption and because of much smaller mass of the electron, implies that
electrons move much faster than the ions. The mode associated with electron motion depends
on the mass of the electrons, but because of larger inertia ions may be assumed to stationary. An
ion mode depends on the ion mass, but the electrons can then be assumed to be massless and to
redistribute themselves immediately according to the Boltzmann relation. Only rarely, e.g. in
the lower hybrid wave, will a mode depend on both the electron and the ion inertia. The various
modes can also be classified according to whether they propagate in an unmagnetized plasma or
parallel, perpendicular, or oblique to the stationary magnetic field. Since a plasma, is a complex
medium it can also support the nonlinear waves. Such nonlinear effects combine to produce
wavelike disturbances that are not of the form given above and interesting phenomena such
as solitons (solitary waves), double layers, vortices etc., are frequently observed in laboratory,
space and astrophysical plasmas.
7
1.2 Nonlinear Science
Nonlinear science, like quantum mechanics and relativity, delivers a whole set of fundamentally
new ideas and surprising results. Yet, unlike quantum mechanics and relativity, nonlinear
science covers system of every scale ranging from nanometers up to thousands of kilometers, or
in other words ranging from atomic physics up to the motion of Jupiter’s giant Red Spot, and
objects moving with any speed. For pedagogical purposes nonlinear science may be divided into
six areas of study, namely, fractals, chaos, pattern formation, solitons, cellular automata and
complex systems. The common theme underlying this diversity of subjects is the nonlinearity of
the systems under study. In this thesis we focus our self on solitonic structure of low frequency
waves in multi-component plasmas.
1.2.1 Nonlinearity in Plasma Physics
A plasma as mentioned above is inherently a nonlinear medium. In the linear approximation

different types of instabilities are investigated by assuming that the amplitude of growing per-
turbations is small and it describes that the wave is either growing or is being damped. As
the amplitude becomes large, the linear approximation breaks down. Nonlinear effects tend to
limit the growth of instabilities (nonlinear saturation). Nonlinear effects also occur when a large
amplitude plasma wave is excited by external means. When for example, the dispersion in the
ion acoustic wave is counter-balanced by nonlinearity then an ion acoustic soliton (pulse-like
solitary perturbation) can propagate without appreciable deformation. Generally, three types
of nonlinearities are studied in plasmas
1. Scalar type nonlinearities (e.g. Solitons or Solitary wave, Solitons Envelopes etc.)
2. Vector or Rotational type nonlinearities (e.g., Vortices etc.)
3. Chaotic evolution of instabilities.
1.2.2 Soliton
Solitons are nonlinear structures which arise due to the interplay of nonlinear and dispersion
effects. Solitons have been known for a long time as a special kind of “solitary waves” that
occur in media where nonlinearity (the dependence of the propagation velocity on the wave
8
amplitude) and dispersion (the dependence of the propagation velocity on the wave frequency)
play equally important roles. Mathematically solitons can be considered to be self-localized
solutions of certain nonlinear partial differential equations describing the evolution of nonlinear
dynamical systems with an infinite number of degrees of freedom [3, 4]. Solitons preserve their
shape upon interaction and can be viewed as nonlinear modes of the corresponding physical
system. They are usually credited to the completely integrable models, which are normally
obtained as extreme simplifications of complex physical systems.
History of Solitons
Solitary waves and solitons for the first time were observed by a young Scottish engineer named
John Scott Russell [5, 6] in 1834, while he was performing experiments on the Union Canal
(near Edinburgh) to measure the relationship between the speed of a boat and its propelling
force, with the aim of finding design parameters for conversion from horse power to steam.
Russell gave the statement of his observations to the British Association in 1844. The following
statement is from J. Scott Russells Report on Waves [6, 7]:
“I believe I shall best introduce the phenomenon by describing the circumstances of my own
first acquaintance with it. I was observing the motion of a boat which was rapidly drawn along
a channel by a pair of horses, when the boat suddenly stopped not so the mass of water in the
channel which it had put in motion; it accumulated round the prow of the vessel in a state of
violent agitation,then suddenly leaving it behind, rolled forward with great velocity, assuming
the form of a large solitary wave elevation, rounded, smooth and well-defined heap of water,
which continued its course along the channel apparently without change of form or diminution
of speed. I followed on horseback, and overtook it still rolling on at a rate of some eight to nine
miles an hour, preserving its original figure some thirty feet long and a foot to a foot and a half
in height. Its height gradually diminished, and after a chase of one or two miles I lost it in the
windings of the channel.”
The sight of this wave inspired J. Scott Russell to further investigate this great wave of
translation. He set up experiments where he would drop weights at one end of a long, but
shallow water channel. He repeated this experiment to study the solitary wave in tanks and
canals over the following decade, finding it to be an independent dynamic entity moving with
9
constant shape and speed. Using a wave tank he demonstrated four facts [7]:
(i) Solitary waves have the shape h sech2 [k(x − vt)];
(ii) A sufficiently large initial mass of water produces two or more independent solitary
waves;
(iii) Solitary waves cross each other “without change of any kind”;
(iv) A wave of height h and travelling in a channel of depth d has a velocity given by the
expression
p
v= g(d + h), (1.4)
(where g is the acceleration of gravity) the above relation shows that a large amplitude solitary
wave travels faster than one of low amplitude (d/h < 1 has taken during these experiments).
The mathematical community did not accept the experimental results of Russell. Airy in
1845 in his book “Tides and Waves”published a theory of long waves, where he also found a
relation for the speed of a wave to its height and amplitude. Airy concluded from his results,
that a solitary wave could not exist; This led to a war of words between Russell and Airy. This
debate was finally solved in 1895 when Korteweg and de Vries derived their famous equation
(the so-called KdV equation) which illustrates the solitary nature of shallow water waves and
with this the existence of solitary waves was mathematically established[8].
Characteristics and Application of Soliton
For a solitary wave to be a soliton it should have the following properties:

◦ It is a balance of two forces acting in opposite direction: e.g. dispersing and focusing
◦ Localization and propagation without change of its properties (shape, velocity, energy,
etc.)
◦ Remarkable stability against disturbances and non-destructive mutual collisions
◦ Particle-like properties (attract or repel one another),
◦ Nonlinear superposition of waves (Backlund-transformation)
We can state that because of the discovery of solitons drastic changes took in the study
of wave phenomena in Physics[4]. These localized nonlinear waves have a number of unusual
properties compared to linear waves, which have formed the basis for most physical theories of
wave phenomena. The application areas where the soliton theories are studied are:
10
◦ Water waves(first observed by J. S. Russel in 1844) and now Tsunami
◦ Oscillating shock waves in optical fibers [9]
◦ Waves in plasma physics [10]
◦ Propagation of compressional waves through crystal lattice [11]
◦ Phonon packets in low-temperature nonlinear crystals [12]
◦ Elastic surface pulses [13] and non-propagating disturbances [14]
◦ Flexural modes of thin shells [15]
◦ Pressure waves in liquid-gas bubble mixtures [16]
◦ Deformation of a floating ice sheet under moving load [17].
1.3 Reductive Perturbation Technique
Reductive perturbation analysis is widely applicable to small amplitude nonlinear waves. By

means of this technique we can arrive at nonlinear evolution equations, like e.g. the Korteweg-de
Vries (KdV), Derivative Nonlinear Schrodinger (DNLS) equations, and many others. For any
physical system a nonlinear evolution equation is expressed through a single dependent variable
is look very simple in structure. However the original equations used to describe that physical
system are not simple and generally contain several dependent variables. For example in the
fluid description of plasmas the governing equations contain the fluid density ρ(x, t) and the
fluid velocity vector v̄(x, t) and perhaps several other variables and equations of state as well,
depending on whether thermodynamic considerations are taken into account or not. We need a
procedure which, in a systematic way, will reduce such sets of equations to simpler forms. Such
procedures are usually perturbative in nature and the reductive perturbation theory (RPT) is
one such method. The RPT is mostly applied to small amplitudes nonlinear waves and on the
mathematical level rescales both space and time in the original equations of the system in order
to introduce new space and time variables which are appropriate for the description of long wave
length phenomena. This rescaling gives the isolation from the system of the relevant equations,
which describe how the system reacts on the new space and time scales. It is noted that this
technique has a limitation that it rests on experience in knowing how to pick the relevant
scales [18]. The general principles of the reductive perturbation theory are based on multiple
11
scale expansion thus we expand all the dependent variables in terms of a small perturbation
parameter ². For example
ρ = ρ0 + ² ρ1 + ²2 ρ2 + · · · · · · (1.5)
v = ² v1 + ²2 v2 + · · · · · · · · ··
The presence or absence of a first term can usually be determined by the boundary condi-
tions. In most cases, for example, the density is normally perturbed about its equilibrium value
and so ρ → ρ0 as x → ∞ whereas v → 0 if there is background flow. How the choice is made
depends very much on the physical circumstances. The dispersion relation for harmonic waves
can easily be found to from the linearized version of the original set of equations. Solutions will
be proportional to exp[iΘ] where Θ = kx − ω(k)t. The function ω(k) satisfies the dispersion
relation in term of k (the wave number). For long waves, e.g. ion acoustic waves in plasma
physics we can write k as k = ²p K, where K is a new wave number of 0(1) and p is, as yet,
some unknown number which is to be determined later. Hence
Θ(x, t) = ²p Kx − ω(²p K)t (1.6)
We are considering here only dispersive and non dissipative systems thus a Taylor expansion
of ω(k) will yield either all even or all odd terms in k. Purely dispersive systems cannot have
a mixture of both odd and even terms [18]. For example for ion acoustic waves only odd
terms in k appear, and so the first two terms in a Taylor expansion for ω(k) gives ω(k) =
0 000
ω (0)²p K + ω (0)²3p K 3 . The Eq.(1.6) can then be written as
³ 0
´ 000
Θ(x, t) = ²p K x − ω (0)t − ²3p K 3 ω (0)t (1.7)
Since the first and third derivative terms in ω are constants, one of them can be scaled out and
Eq.(1.7) which then gives a natural scaling for x and t
ξ = ²p (x − λt) ; τ = ²3p t (1.8)
12
The new variables ξ and τ are long in the sense that it needs a large change in x and t
in order to change ξ and τ appreciably thus these are also referred to as stretched variables.
To find the value of p a credibility argument is needed. When the basic set of equations are
expanded in powers of ² and space and time are also rescaled as in Eq.(1.8), then a suitable
choice for the value of p often becomes apparent. It can be seen that if p is to taken too large
then derivatives in τ will not occur until higher orders of ², which would entail that many of the
dependent variables would appear to be independent. This is unwanted, since in order to obtain
an evolution equation it would be necessary to consider higher order terms in the perturbation
expansions. It often turns out that when the KdV like equation occurs then p usually takes
the value of 1/2. The scalings of the space and time variables may also change from region to
region which gives rise to the need to match across the boundaries[18].
To explain the RPT we take the example of linear dispersion of electrostatic modes (there
are no wave magnetic fields and electric fields are gradients of the electrostatic potential ϕ).
The Linear dispersion law for electrostatic mode is
X ω2pj
2 = 1, (1.9)
j
ω2 − k2 vthj
which is approximated for small ω and k as acoustic like
1 3
ω = λk − k , (1.10)
A
∙ ³ ´2 ¸
P 2 2 2 1
where A = 2 λ ωpj / λ − vthj and A will be co-efficient of dispersive term in KdV
j
or ∙Modified KdV equation. The linear phase velocity λ in the limit k → 0 obeys D ≡
P 2 ³ 2 ´2 ¸
2
ω pj / λ − vthj = 0, defines linear ion-acoustic velocity through λ2 = c2si ' kB Te /mi .
j
For ion-acoustic wave the properties of linear dispersion law for small k (long wavelengths)
translate for phase argument into
1 3
kx − ωt = k(x − λt) + k t + .....
A
13
and lead in natural way to standard KdV stretching
ξ = ²1/2 (x − λt) ; τ = ²3/2 t (1.11)
The variable stretching procedure assumes the possibility of introducing new coordinates and
variables such that the slowness of coordinate dependence and smallness of some of the physical
variables can be taken out in a uniform way.
1.4 Nonlinear Evolution Equations
1.4.1 Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) Equation
Two of the most important properties of a plasma are nonlinearity and dispersion. We begin
in this section by discussing a classic nonlinear partial differential equation, known as the
Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) equation, which arises in a variety of physical situations, including
problems relevant to plasma physics. The Korteweg-de Vries equation is given by
∂U ∂U ∂3U
+A U +B 3 =0 (1.12)
∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ
where ξ and τ are independent variables and A and B are real, nonzero constants. Equation
(1.12) is nonlinear through the convective term U ∂U/∂ξ, and dispersive through the term
∂ 3 U/∂ξ 3 . Historically, Eq. (1.12) was first derived by Korteweg and de Vries [8] in relation to
the problem of long surface waves in water channel of constant depth. Much later, Gardner and
Morikawa [19] derived Eq (1.12) from a cold-plasma hydromagnetic model describing the long
time behavior of disturbances propagating perpendicular to a magnetic field with velocity near
the Alfven velocity. Kruskal and Zabusky [20-23] derived this Eq. (1.12) for one-dimensional
acoustic waves in anharmonic crystals. Moreover, as a further example from plasma physics,
Washimi and Taniuti [24] have shown that Eq. (1.12) gives a weakly nonlinear description of
one-dimensional acoustic wave disturbances traveling near the ion sound speed. In view of these
many different applications of the KdV equation, it is obvious that some generalizations are
in order. In this regard, Su and Gardner [24] have shown that this equation arises in a broad
class of weakly nonlinear dispersive systems, just as Burgers’equation [25] arises in a broad
14
class of weakly nonlinear dissipative system. Eq. (1.12) may be rescaled with ξ −→ ξB 1/3 and
U −→ U/AB −1/3 to give coefficients of unity in front of each term, i.e.
∂U ∂U ∂3U
+U + =0 (1.13)
∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ 3
This form of KdV equation (standard form) is usually quoted in the literature. The steady state
solution of this KdV equation (Eq.1.13) is obtained by transforming the independent variables
ξ and τ into new coordinate η = (ξ − Vo τ ), where Vo is a constant. Eq. (1.13) may then be
integrated twice to give
1
[dU (η)/dη]2 = U 2 (η)[3Vo − U (η)] (1.14)
3
where boundary conditions U (η) → 0, dU (η)/dη → 0, d2 U (η)/dη 2 → 0, as |η| → ±∞ have

been used. Eq.(1.14) may be integrated to give
∙ p ¸
2 1
U (η) = 3Vo sec h (ξ − Vo τ ) Vo (1.15)
2
−1/2
In Eq. (1.15), the amplitude, width, and speed of solitary wave are proportional to Vo , Vo ,
and Vo , respectively. Computer simulation studies [22, 26, 27] of Eq. (1.13) show that the
solitary wave solutions (solitons) given by Eq. (1.15) play an intrinsic and important role in
the time evolution of the system for a variety of initial conditions. For localized initial data, a
finite number of solitons emerge with various heights 3Vo1 ,3Vo2 ,...each traveling to the right.
These solitons interact nonlinearly and preserve their soliton identity. As τ → ∞ the solitons
are arranged in order of increasing height with the tallest (fastest) soliton on the extreme right.
This result is also accessible analytically. In addition to the ordered solitary wave structure
mentioned above, in general, an oscillatory wave structure develops [28] which disperses to the
left, decreasing in amplitude.
1.4.2 Kadomtsev-Petviashvili (KP) Equation
The standard KP equation in two-dimensional case [29] is

∙ ¸
∂ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ 3 ϕ 1 ∂ 2ϕ
+ϕ + + = 0, (1.16)
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂x3 2 ∂y 2
15
Where x and y are independent spatial variables and t is the temporal independent variable.
Soliton solutions to KP equation are all of infinite extent in one direction (x−direction) and
never propagate along the y−direction. When they intersect at an angle they either just go
through one another, or there is a region of interaction at the intersection known as a virtual
soliton. At two critical angles the soliton merge to produce one. This phenomenon is known
as soliton resonance [94]. The solitons as defined here are stable. The equation can model the
dynamics of nonlinear waves and solitons in plasmas, superfluids, superconductors and other
media [30-33].
When deriving KP equation ( Eq. (1.16) ) in a wide range of physical contexts, it is assumed
that a wave or soliton is moving along (or almost along) the x−axis from left to right. Changes
in y−direction are taken to be much slower than along the line of motion.
1.4.3 Zakharov-Kuznetsov(ZK) Equation
The standard form of Zakharov-Kuznetsov (ZK) equation is
∂U ∂U ∂U
+U + ∇2 =0 (1.17)
∂t ∂x ∂x
where
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = 2
+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
The ZK equation describes the evolution of weakly nonlinear long waves in dispersive media
in which the transverse coordinates are also taken into account for a strongly magnetized plasma.
Zakharov and Kuznetsov [34] used this equation to study the behavior of weakly nonlinear ion
acoustic waves in a plasma comprising cold ions and hot isothermal electrons in the presence of
a uniform magnetic field. The ZK equation has retained much of the essential physics including
the E × B drift along z-axis and the polarization drift along y−axis[35].
The ZK equation is one of the better studied canonical three/two-dimensional extensions
of the KdV equation; the other being the Kadomtsev-Petviashvilli (KP) equation. It is noted
that for the nonlinear mode of the electrostatic wave (like ion acoustic wave) the KP-equation
is valid in an unmagnetized and un-rotating plasma where as the ZK equation is valid for a
magnetized and rotating plasma . Moreover, in contrast to the KP-equation the ZK-equation
16
supports stable lump solitary waves. This makes the ZK equation a very attractive model
equation for the study of vortex soliton in plasmas and fluid physics [35].
1.5 Electron-Positron-Ion Plasmas
Electron-positron (e-p) plasma is usually characterized as a fully ionized gas consisting of elec-
trons and positrons, the mass of which are equal and charges are opposite. The interest in the
theoretical investigations of an electron-positron plasma and of the dispersive properties of the
EM waves in it arises from numerous situations: it ranges from the astrophysical and cosmo-
logical applications to the laboratory experiments in connection with ultra intense laser pulses
interacting with matter. The e − p plasmas are likely to be found in Van Allen radiation belts,
around black hole and in the early universe [36, 99], in Pulsar magnetospheres [37], in the bipo-
lar outflows (jets) in Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) [38], and at the center of our own Galaxy
[39]. The presence of e − p plasma is also argued in the MeV epoch of the early Universe. In the
standard cosmological model, temperatures in the MeV range (T ˜1010 K − 1M eV ) prevail up
to times t = 1 sec after the Big Bang [40]. In this epoch, the main constituent of the Universe
is the relativistic e − p plasma in equilibrium with photons, neutrinos, and antineutrinos. The
pulsar plasma is most likely magnetized, while that of early universe may be magnetized. The
plasma in AGN may or may not be magnetized.
When the plasma becomes so hot that it becomes relativistic the temperature of the plasma
exceeds the rest mass energy of electrons (mo c2 = 0.5M eV ). In this relativistic regime the
processes of electron-positron pair creation and annihilation becomes important; 2γ À e+ +
e− . In AGN the ion temperature of plasma near black hole is expected to be 1013 K 0 , where
the electron temperature of plasma is to be 109 K due to the short cooling time. In such
relativistically high temperature plasmas the electron-positron pair creation/annihilation is
important, as has been pointed out by Tajima and Taniuti [41], who considered the process
of electron-positron creation and annihilation in a relativistic unmagnetized plasma at high
temperatures. Electron-positron pair production is also possible during intense short laser
pulse interaction with a plasma as this also lead to intense relativistic effects. When the
oscillatory electron energy exceeds 2mo c2 these electrons can create an electron-positron pair in
17
the presence of a background positive ions. And also it has been shown that powerful short laser
pulses can generate large amplitude waves in the plasma in which the electron plasma frequency
ω p is much smaller than the laser pumping frequency ω o . Since the amplitude of the excited
wake field can be very high (eϕ/mo c2 >> 1 where ϕ is the electrostatic potential), the plasma
electrons can also acquire longitudinal energy given by, EL = mo c2 (1 + p2q /mo c2 ) >> 2mo c2 ,
where pq is the relativistic momentum in the wake field.. Thus there is the possibility of creating
electron-positron pairs in those regions in which wake fields and short EM pulses are localized.
Tsytovich and Wharton [42] discussed the possibility of creating electron-positron plasma using
an intense relativistic electron beam and they have studied the waves and instabilities in such
plasmas.
Although the e − p pairs form the dominant constituent of the aforementioned astrophysical
and cosmic plasmas, a minority population of heavy ions is also likely to be present. For
example, in the MeV epoch of the early universe, the number of protons and neutrons is
roughly 10−9 − 10−10 (following from the present baryon asymmetry) of the number of light
particles (electrons, neutrinos and photons). Closer to the ”beginning,” at t < 10−2 sec there
were π mesons, K mesons, and proton-antiproton pairs as well as neutron-antineutron pairs in
the primordial plasma. The minority ion population imparts interesting new properties to the
composite system. It is well known that when positrons are introduced into electron-ion (e − i)
plasma, the response of the plasma changes significantly. The positrons can be used to probe
particle transport in tokamaks and, since they have sufficient lifetime, the two-component e-
i plasma becomes a three component electron-positron-ion (e − p − i) one [43, 44]. Three
component plasmas, have been studied, for example, in the context of pulsar magnetosphere
[45, 68]. In another study, theoretical investigations of relativistic collisionless shock waves in
e − p − i plasmas of relevance to astrophysical sources of synchrotron radiation were carried out
[46].
1.6 Distribution Function
Let f (p1 , p2 ...., ps , q1 , ......qs ) be a function of all the coordinates and momenta; which we shall
usually write for simplicity f (p, q) or simply f . The function f , which represents the density of
18
the probability distribution in phase space,and is called the statistical distribution function, or
simply the distribution function, for the concerned particles. This function normally satisfies
R
the normalization condition f dp dq = 1, the integral being taken over all phase space, which
simply expresses the fact that the sum of the probabilities of all possible states must be unity
[47a].
Since a plasma comprises of a very large number of interacting particles, thus in order to
provide a macroscopic description of plasma phenomena it is appropriate to adopt a statistical
approach. The distribution function for a specific particle species, f (r, v, t), is defined as the
density of the particles in phase space,
f (r, v, t) = dn(r, v, t)/drdv,
This function must be a continuous function of its arguments, positive and finite at any instant
of time, and must tend to zero as the velocity becomes infinitely large.
1.6.1 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Function
The dependence of the distribution function on the independent variables r, v, and t is governed
by an equation known as the Boltzmann equation. Liouville’s theorem is formed in the absence
of collisions in the system [47a]. In addition, a very useful approximate way to describe the
dynamics of a plasma is to consider that the motions of the plasma particles are governed by
the applied external fields plus the macroscopic average of internal fields, smoothed in space
and time, due to presence and motion of all plasma particles which gives the Vlasov equation
(derived from the Boltzmann equation). The Vlasov equation, together with the Maxwell
equations for the internal electromagnetic fields and equations for the plasma charge density
and plasma current density, constitute a complete set of self-consistent equations to be solved
simultaneously. An equilibrium distribution function, like the Maxwell-Boltzmann function, is
the time- independent solution of the Bolzmann equation in the absence of external forces.
Maxwellian velocity distribution represents the most probable distribution function satisfy-
ing the macroscopic conditions imposed on the system and occurs when particles are in thermal
19
Figure 1-1: The Maxwellian velocity distribution.
equilibrium. Its three dimensional form for particles of type s is given by [47b] as
µ ¶3/2
ms
fs (v) = ns exp[−ms v 2 /2kB Ts ] (1.18)
2πkB Ts
where fs (v) is the distribution function, v is the velocity, ms is the mass of the particles, kB is
Boltzmann constant, and Ts is the temperature. The distribution function is normalized such
that fs (v) integrated over all velocities gives the number density of particles of type s,
Z∞
fs (v)dvx dvy dvz = ns (1.19)
−∞
A plot of the Maxwellian distribution as a function of vx is shown in Fig. 1.1 (for vy =

vz = 0). It is a relatively simple matter to show that the root-mean-square velocity is given
√
by 3Vts , where Vts = kB Ts /ms is the thermal speed. The average kinetic energy is given by
[47b] ¿ À
1 3
ms v2 = kB Ts
2 2
The angular brackets here indicate an average. The above equation shows that the temperature
is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles.
20
1.6.2 Non-Maxwellian Distribution Function
Often the velocity distribution function of particles in space plasmas has a non-Maxwellian
superthermal tail. The distribution function decreases generally as a power law of the velocity
instead of exponentially [48]. The use of the Maxwellian distribution-and the associated wave
theory based on the plasma dispersion function-in modeling the tenuous and largely collisionless
plasmas found in space and astrophysics has occurred, despite the fact that they frequently
exhibit constituent particle distribution functions that are far from their equilibrium Maxwellian
or relativistic Maxwellian forms. Indeed, observation, either directly or by inference-such as
inferring the particle properties from the radiative signatures of the plasma, as is often done in
astrophysics-frequently suggests that particles whose energies exceed thermal energies obey a
power law distribution in the particle energy, momentum, and velocity, e.g.[133, 52],
4πv 2 f (v)dv ∝ v −α dv for |v| > vth , (1.20)
Examples of plasmas with particle distributions of the form (1.20) include solar flares[48]; the
solar wind [49]; the galactic cosmic ray distribution [50] and plasma in a super-thermal radiation
field [51].
Generalized Lorentzian (kappa) Distribution Function
Summers and Thorne [52] derived a useful distribution to model a plasma containing suprather-
mal and superthermal particles and is known now as the generalized Lorentzian, or kappa,
distribution µ ¶−(κ+1)
2 −3/2 Γ(κ + 1) v2
f (v) = (πκ θ ) 1+ (1.21)
Γ(κ − 1/2) κ θ2
where θ is a modified thermal speed related to the usual thermal speed, vth = (T /m)2 , by
θ = [(2κ − 3)/κ]1/2 × vth when κ > 3/2. The normalization of f has been chosen such that
R
f (v)d3 v = 1. The kappa distribution reduces to the ordinary Lorentzian distribution for
κ = 1, and to the Maxwellian distribution for κ → ∞. Summers and Thorne[52] introduced a
new plasma dispersion function, Zκ∗ , based on this distribution function, but they restricted
κ to strictly integer values. The kappa distribution indeed possesses the desired property that
particles with velocities greater than the thermal velocity vth ∼ θ obey a power law distribution
21
of the form (1.20).
Examples of plasmas whose particle velocity distributions can be described by (1.21) with
noninteger spectral index κ occur in the Earths plasma sheet and in the distant magnetotail,
among others. Christon et al.[53] have observed during plasma sheet temperature transitions-
periods (typically 30-60 min) of low plasma bulk velocity when the plasma thermal energy either
increases or decreases steadily-that the plasma sheet ion and electron velocity distributions can
be well fitted by (1.21). For example, they found that a kappa distribution with κ = 4.7
provided a good fit to plasma sheet ion data measured at 0549UT on day 169, 1978. On the
other hand, at 1948UT on day 043, 1978 they found that κ = 5.5 produced an excellent fit
to the electron data. They have further demonstrated the ability of the kappa distribution to
provide a reasonable description of the nonthermal high-energy tails of magnetospheric plasma
proton and helium spectra.
Generalized (r, q) Distribution Function
Non-Maxwellian (r, q) distribution function is a modified version of Generalized Lorentzian

(kappa) distribution function, which gives a better fitting to real space plasma data as compared
to other distribution functions. The three-dimensional version of (r, q) distribution function for
electron has the following form [55, 56]
" µ 2 ¶r+1 #−q

q n0 1 v
f(r) = a 1+ , (1.22)
vT q − 1 b vT2
2
here vT2 = Te /me is the thermal speed of electron and a and b are dimensionless functions of r
and q as follows
3
−
1 3(q − 1) 2(1+r) Γ(q)
a= 3 ³ h i h i´3/2 (1.23)
4πb 3 3
Γ q − 2(1+r) Γ 1 + 2(1+r)
⎧ h i h i ⎫1/2
3
⎨ Γ q − 2(1+r) 3 ⎬
√ Γ 2(1+r)
− 1
b= 3(q − 1) 2(1+r) h i h i (1.24)
⎩Γ 5 5 ⎭
2(1+r) Γ q − 2(1+r)
It is noted that the restrictions on the indices r and q result from the normalization
R
( f(r,q) d3 v = 1) and the definition of temperature for a given distribution function and are
22
q > 1 and q(r + 1) > 5/2 for real values of r and q. This distribution reduces to a kappa
distribution function if r = 0 and q → κ + 1, and to Maxwellian when q → ∞ and r = 0.
We note here that the spectral index q contributes to the high energy tails in the distribution
functions and r gives rise to the flatten or sharp top of the distribution function and it is the
same spectral index that appears in the Davydov-Druvestyen distribution functions [54] which
have been used to model low pressure electric discharge plasmas, and is responsible for the non
linear (anomalous) damping which may occur in plasmas in quasi thermodynamic equilibrium.
Recently using this distribution function Quershi et al and Zaheer et al [55] have investigated
some electrostatic and electromagnetic modes theoretically in e − i plasma. Mushtaq and Shah
[56] used this (r, q) distribution function to model electron trapping distribution and their ef-
fects on Ion-Acoustic solitary wave. Similarly using this distribution Rubab et al [57] have
studied the non-Maxwellian currents for negatively charged dust particle in dusty plasmas.
Data analysis for solar wind plasmas[58] suggests that such (r, q) distributions give better fits
to data than the simpler kappa distributions[58b].
To illustrate the behavior of (r, q) distribution we present in Fig. 1.2, the graphs of this
distribution function against the normalized velocity (Eq. 1.22) [55]. In these graphs it is shown
that rthe spectral index effects the shoulder and q effects the tail of the distribution function.
It is also shown that for negative values of r the function becomes more spiky as compared to
the positive values of r.
1.7 Adiabatic Particle Trapping
Trapping means that some of the plasma particles are confined to a finite region of the phase
space where they bounce forth and back, describing closed trajectories. The concept of trapping
of particle in plasmas came out when the resonant interaction between waves and particles was
treated rigorously and nonlinearly [59a].
Consider a slowly varying potential electric field ϕ (adiabatic approximation) and suppose
the plasma electrons are distributed Maxwellianly in it. Let L be the width or magnitude of
extent of the field and t be the characteristic time of variation of the wave field such that t is
small compared with the electron mean free time (collisionless plasma). One can consider the
23
Figure 1-2: Comparison of (r, q) distribution function for di.erent values of spectral index q
and for negative values of r with Maxwellian distribution function.
24
following inequality for electron trapping [59b]
t & L/vT e (1.25)
The magnitude of t is of order of few ω −1

pi and the spatial scale L is about several λDe . Thus
L/vT e ∼ ω −1
pe , and therefore inequality (1.25) normally holds. Also due to this relation the field
may be regarded as stationary during the passage of electrons through it. To the same accuracy
the electron distribution function in the field is also stationary. For a stationary distribution the
integrals of motion do not depend explicitly on the time. In one dimensional case the potential
ϕ depends only on one coordinate x. The equation of motion in the one dimensional case, has
two integrals, of only one is not dependent explicitly on the time (in a steady state), namely
the electron energy
E = p2x /2m + U (x), (1.26)
where U (x) = −eϕ(x). So the stationary distribution will be
f = f [E(x, px )], (1.27)
which mainly depends on the boundary condition. Let the field U (x) form a potential barrier
(Fig. 1.3a). The function f (E) is then determined by the distribution of electrons reaching
the barrier from infinity. For instance if the electrons far from the barrier have in equilibrium
distribution, uniform in space, with temperature Te then the Botlzmann distribution occurs
through out the space:
N0
f= exp(−E/Te ) (1.28)
(2πmTe )1/2
The density of electron gas is distributed accordingly is
Ne = N0 exp [−U (x)/Te ] (1.29)
N0 being the background density of electron gas.

Next let the field be a potential well (Fig. 1.3b). Then the distribution of electrons with pos-
itive energy E is again determined by that of particles coming from infinity, with an equilibrium
25
Figure 1-3: Field U(x) forms (a) a potential barrier and (b) a potential well.
distribution at infinity, the electrons with E > 0 have a Boltzmann distribution throughout
space. But when as there are some particles, with E < 0, which execute a finite motion within
the potential well, they are ”trapped”. At infinity there are no particles with E < 0 and so the
energy of particles there are inadequate to give the distribution of trapped particles.
The variation of energy in the non-stationary field has also to be taken into account, and
as a result the distribution of electrons is found to depend in general on previous events ( the
way in which the field has been applied) [60].
The inequality condition (1.25) implies that the field changes slightly during the period of
finite motion of the trapped particle. In such cases there is a conserved adiabatic invariant. So
26
for given E and t the integral
Zx2
1
I(E, t) = ·2 [2me (E − U (x, t)]1/2 dx, (1.30)
2π
x1
taken between the limits of motion. This quantity acts here as an integral of the motion, in
terms of which the trapped particle distribution is to be expressed as
ftr = ftr (I(E, t)), (1.31)
This form of distribution function is evaluated by the fact that the distribution function
is continues function of E when the field is applied slowly. Hence for the limiting value of
the trapped particle energy the function ftr (I) must be the distribution function for particles
executing an infinite motion above the well. The case of potential well as shown in Fig.1.3b,
ftr = f (0) because the limiting energy has the constant value zero if the field is applied slowly,
where f (E) is the distribution function for particles above the well.
Summing the numbers of electrons with E > 0 and E < 0 gives
Z∞ Zp1
Ne = 2 f (E)dpx + 2 f (0)dpx
p1 0
or
Z∞ Zp1 Z0
Ne = 2 f (E)dpx + 2 f (0)dpx + 2 f (E)dpx (1.32)
0 0 p1
p
The factor 2 is there, because of px > 0 and px < 0. It is noted that p1 = 2me |U |, where
U = −e |ϕ|. Normalizing the electrostatic potential ϕ as φ = e |ϕ| /Te and u = u/vth , then
using the value of f (E) from (1.28) into above Eq.(1.32) we get
⎡ ⎤
Zu1
Ne 2 2
= eφ ⎣1 − √ exp(−u2 )du⎦ + √ φ1/2 (1.33)
N0 π π
0
27
The distribution of electrons trapped in a shallow well (φ << 1) is
Ne 4 1
= 1 + φ − √ φ3/2 + φ2 + · · · · · (1.34)
N0 3 π 2
Note that, according to this equation, the trapping of electrons can change the ordering,
giving rise to a half integer rather than an integer power expansion (this is a particular charac-
teristic of trapping in a Maxwellian plasma) of the number density in terms of weak potential
energy φ.
Ru1
For a deep well (φ >> 1) the difference 1 − √2 exp(−u2 )du is exponentially small and
π
0
therefore only the second term of Eq. (33) is important i.e.
µ ¶1/2
Ne 2 2 |U |
= √ φ1/2 = √ (1.35)
N0 π π Te
It is obvious from this relation that as |U | increases the density increases much more slowly
as compare to the Boltzmann distributed number density.
1.8 Layout
My intention was to write as much a self-contained text as possible,which should be under-

standable for a reader with a general knowledge of plasma physics,and simultaneously contain
most of the information the expert might be interested in. This hopefully explains the size of
this thesis,which has been organized as follows.
In the second chapter we investigate nonlinear magnetosonic wave propagating obliquely
with respect to B0 in a three component plasma. We use effective one fluid MHD model, and
arrive at Kadomstev-Petviashvilli (KP) equation by employing reductive perturbation scheme.
We derive the solitary wave solution of this equation, known as KP-soliton. We discuss numer-
ically the dependence of KP-soliton on different plasma parameters.
In the third chapter we analytically investigate two dimensional ion acoustic waves, prop-
agating obliquely to an external magnetic field in a weakly relativistic, and rotating electron-
positron-ion pulsar magnetospheric plasma. We use the fluid model, and arrive at the nonlinear
Zakharov-Kuznetsov equation by employing reductive perturbation scheme again. We discuss
28
graphically the dependence of soliton amplitude and width on positron concentration, finite ion
temperature, obliqueness, relativity, magnetic field and rotation of the plasma. We compare
these results with simple electron-ion plasma.
In the fourth chapter first of all we discuss the characteristics of non-Maxwellian generalized
(r, q) distribution function by comparing with other distribution function. Then we analytically
investigate electron trapping in the potential of wave by using this (r, q) distribution function.
We study the effect of these non-Maxwellian electron trapping on the linear and nonlinear
dynamics of ion acoustic wave in electron-ion plasmas. We derive the generic form of KdV
equation associated with the solitary wave solution for different ranges of parameter r. We
investigate analytically and graphically the effect of spectral indices q and r of distribution
function on particle trapping and consequently on the dynamics of ion acoustic wave.
In the fifth chapter we theoretically investigate the oblique propagation of dust acoustic
wave in a rotating magnetized dusty plasma in a tropical mesospheric region of space plasma
on the day side by incorporating adiabatic dust charge fluctuation. The meteoritic dust in
the mesospheric plasma on the day side is charged positively due to photo and thermionic
emissions. We again use the fluid model and arrive at nonlinear evolution Korteweg—de Vries
(KdV) equation by employing the reductive perturbation technique. This KdV equation may
support nonlinear dust acoustic waves on a very slow time scale. We investigate mathematically
and graphically the dynamics of DAW in the linear as well as in the nonlinear regime with effect
of charging currents along with effects of obliqueness and effective gyro frequency.
29
Chapter 2
Two-Dimensional Magnetosonic
Waves in Electron-Positron-Ion
plasmas
A magnetosonic wave is a transverse wave of ions (and electrons) in a magnetized plasma

propagating perpendicular to the stationary magnetic field. Phase velocity ω/k for this wave
is given by
2 2
ω2 2 vs + vA
= c
k2 c2 + vA2
where vs is the speed of the ion acoustic wave, vA is the speed of the Alfvén wave, and c is
the speed of light in vacuum.
In the limit of low magnetic field (vA → 0), the wave turns into an ordinary ion acoustic
wave. In the limit of low temperature (vs → 0), the wave becomes a modified Alfvén wave.
Because the phase velocity of the magnetosonic mode is almost always larger than vA , the
magnetosonic wave is often called the ”fast” hydromagnetic wave.
In contrast to the usual plasma consisting of electrons and positive ions, it has been observed
that nonlinear waves in plasmas having an additional component of positrons behave differently
[61]. When positrons are introduced in the plasma, the response of the plasma to disturbances,
changes drastically. Recently, there has been a great deal of interest in studying linear and
nonlinear wave motions in electron-positron plasmas [62-64]. The nonlinear studies have been
30
focused on the nonlinear self-consistent structures, such as envelope solitons, vortices, etc.
Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) equation for magnetosonic waves and modified KdV equation for the
Alfven waves were also discussed [63] in this plasma.
Nonlinear waves propagating in electron-positron-ion plasmas have also attracted a great
deal of attention in examining the nonlinear structures [65-69]. Energy transfer in a shock wave
in an electron-positron-ion (e − p − i) plasma was studied using particle simulation in Ref. [65],
in which ions were assumed to be a minority population. The effect of the ion temperature on
large amplitude ion-acoustic waves in an electron-positron-ion plasma was studied theoretically
by Nejoh [66], where it was shown that the ion temperature increases the maximum Mach
number and decreases the amplitude of the ion-acoustic waves. The region of existence of
soliton structures sensitively depends on the ion temperature and the positron density and
temperature. Ion-acoustic waves propagating obliquely with respect to an external magnetic
field in a homogeneous magnetized electron-positron-ion plasma were studied by Mahmood et
al.[67], here the authors found that the amplitude of the solitary structure increases with the
percentage presence of positrons.
Berzhiani et al.[68] investigated envelope solitons of electromagnetic waves in three-component
electron-positron-ion plasmas, and it was shown that electromagnetic radiation of arbitrary am-
plitude in the presence of heavy ions, in contrast to the case of pure e-p plasma, may be localized
with the generation of a humped ambipolar potential in the plasma, i.e. the driving field in-
tensity creates intense solitons in the plasma with the generation of double hump ambipolar
potentials. With increase of the value of npo /neo , they found a tendency that a single hump
soliton becomes a double humped one. In their investigation they neglected the ion dynamics.
Ion-acoustic solitons in electron-positron-ion plasma were also studied by Popel et al.[69],
where they presented an investigation of the nonlinear ion-acoustic waves in the presence of
cold ions and hot electrons and positrons. In this case the ion dynamics were shown to be
governed by hydrodynamic equations, where as the electron and positron fluids followed the
Boltzmann distribution. Accordingly, the phase velocity of the oscillation was assumed to be
smaller (larger) than the thermal velocity of the electrons and positrons (ions). It was found
that the presence of the positron component in such a multi-species plasma resulted in the
reduction of the ion-acoustic soliton amplitudes.
31
Nonlinear characteristics of magnetosonic waves have been the subject of investigation by
many authors [70-74] due to their importance in space plasmas and also in fusion plasmas
where they are used in particle acceleration and heating experiments. Adlam and Allen [70]
and Davis et al. [71] found stationary solutions of finite amplitude magnetosonic waves propa-
gating perpendicular to a magnetic field. Gardner and Morikawa [72] showed that these waves
propagating perpendicular to a magnetic field can be described by the KdV equation. Mag-
netosonic waves propagating obliquely to an external magnetic field were also shown to obey
the KdV equation [73-74]. De Vito and Pantano [75] have investigated the propagation of two
dimensional nonlinear magnetosonic waves in a cold plasma where only one mode of this wave
is excited and it was shown that the propagation characteristics of these waves is governed
by the Kadomstev-Petvashvilli (KP) equation. Obliquely propagating nonlinear magnetosonic
waves in warm plasma were investigated by Shah and Bruno [76], it was found that for both
slow and fast modes the governing nonlinear evolution equation is the KP equation.
KP equation considered the evolution of weakly nonlinear long waves in dispersive media in
which the transverse coordinate is also taken into account. The KP equation is considered to
be a two dimensional KdV equation. We have theoretically and numerically investigated two
dimensional linear and nonlinear propagation of fast and slow modes for magnetosonic waves
in electron-positron- ion plasmas. It is shown that propagation of such waves is governed by
the KP equation. This equation is solved and a nonlinear dispersion relation relating different
parameters of the plasma is obtained. It is also shown that the effects of ion temperature, plasma
β (the ratio of kinetic energy to magnetic energy)-value and the concentration of positrons
modify the magnetosonic wave dynamics both in the linear as well as in the nonlinear regimes.
2.1 Mathematical Formulation
Consider a magnetized three component (e − p − i) plasma. In a Cartesian coordinate system,

the ambient magnetic field Bo lies in (x, y) plane making a small angle θ with the x−axis and
propagation is considered in the (x, z) plane. The basic equations used, are the effective one-
fluid isotropic isothermal Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) equations. To study the propagation
of magnetosonic waves in electron-positron- ion plasmas, we begin by following the work of Rao
32
[77] and use the following fundamental set of equations
d−→
vi → ni e ³−
− → →´ −
− →
mi ni = ni e E + v i × B − ∇pi (2.1)
dt c
→ np e ³−
− → →´ −
− →
0 = np e E + v p × B − ∇pp (2.2)
c
→ ne e ³−
− → →´ −
− →
0 = −ne e E + v e × B − ∇pe (2.3)
c
Where Eqs.(2.1)-(2.3) are the equations of motion for the ions, positrons and electrons respec-
tively with me = mp = 0 (in Eqs. 2.2 and 2.3).
For number density conservation, we use the continuity equations, which are given by
∂ns − →
+ ∇ · (ns −
→
v s ) = 0, (2.4)
∂t
and the Maxwell equations are given by
− −
→ → 4π
∇ × B = ~j (2.5)
c
→
−
− −
→ → 1 ∂B
∇×E =− , (2.6)
c ∂t
→
− P
where j = qs ns −
→
vs .
s=e,p,i
Here vs , ns (nso ) and ps is the fluid velocity, perturbed (unperturbed) particle density and
thermal pressure of s species respectively, where s = e, p, i stands for electron, positrons and
ions respectively, ps = ns Ts ,where Ts is the thermal energy, mi is the ion mass, q is the charge
~ is the electric field vector and B
on s, e is the electron charge, c is the speed of light, E ~ is
d ∂
the magnetic field vector, j is the current density and dt = ∂t + (v · ∇) is the hydrodynamic
derivative.
In order to derive the basic governing equations of the MHD model, we substitute for −
→
ve
33
in Eq.(2.3) from Eq.(2.5) to obtain,
−
→
−
→ 1 ³ − → →
− c − →´ −
→ − → ∇pe
E =− ni v i + np v p − ∇×B ×B− (2.7)
ne c 4π ne e
Using Eq.(2.1), Eq.(2.2) and Eq.(2.7) we obtain the momentum equations for ions and positrons
respectively
d−→
vi ni ³− →´ −
→ − → ni np e − → ni −
− → →
−
mi ni = ∇×B ×B+ (→
vi−−
→
v p) × B − ∇pe − ∇pi (2.8)
dt 4πne cne ne
→
− np −
→ ni np e − →
− np ³− →´ −
→ − →
0 = − ∇pp − ∇pe − (→
vi−−
→
v p) × B + ∇×B ×B (2.9)
ne cne 4πne
And further by using the quasineutrality condition,
ni + np ' ne , (2.10)
and adding Eqs.(2.8) and (2.9) we obtain the effective one-fluid momentum equation
2 ³ →´ −
d−→
vi nio vA − → →
− →
−
ni = 2
∇ × B × B − c2s (1 + σ) ∇ni − c2s (1 + ρ) ∇np (2.11)
dt Bo
→
−
On the other hand eliminating E between Eqs.(2.1) and (2.6), the magnetic field induction
equation takes the form
→
− µ ¶
∂B → ³−
− → →´ Bo −
− → d ~vi
= ∇× vi×B − ∇× (2.12)
∂t Ωi dt
Here the subscript zero represents the background quantities, vA = Bo /(4πnio mi )1/2 is the
Alfven velocity, cs = (Te /mi )1/2 is the ion sound speed, Ωi = eBo /mi c is the ion gyrofrequency,
σ = Ti /Te is the ratio of ion and electron temperature and ρ = T p/Te represents the ratio of
positron and electron temperatures.
It should be noted that the momentum conservation equation (2.8) have new forcing terms
proportional to the relative velocity between the ion and the positron fluids, which give rise
to an effective inertial resistivity [134] and results in the positron and electron number density
perturbations not being frozen to the magnetic field lines. This gives a new type of magnetosonic
34
waves with both slow and fast mode.
Under the above approximation Eq. (2.9) gives
−
→ → ³−
1 − → →´
− c → h³−
− → −→´ −→i c (ni + np ) ³−
→ − → ´ c ³− → − → ´
v p⊥ ≈ 2 B × v i × B − B× ∇ × B × B + B × ∇pp + B × ∇pe
B 4πeni B 2 ni np eB 2 ni eB 2
Here the last two terms are due to thermal effects. The first term which is essentially due to
E × B force is generally the dominant one. Neglecting the thermal correction terms as compare
to the first two terms and use the resulting expression for vp⊥ in the positron continuity equation
(Eq.(2.4)), we obtain,
∙ ¸
∂np − → → ³−
np − → →´
− cnp − → h³− →´ −
→ − →i
+ ∇⊥ · B × vi×B − B × ∇×B ×B =0 (2.14)
∂t B2 4πeni B 2
To satisfy the frozen-in-field approximation vpk has been neglected [135]. Equations (2.11) and
(2.14) together with the ion continuity equation (2.4) and the induction equation (2.12) are
the basic governing equations of the effective one-fluid model for electron-positron-ion (e-p-i)
plasmas.
2.2 Derivation and Solution of KP-Equation
We need a procedure which, in a systematic fashion will reduce the above sets of equations to
simpler forms so that linear and nonlinear analyses are possible. Such procedures are usually
perturbative in nature and the one we use is known as the reductive perturbation method.
The main significance of the reductive perturbation technique is that it enables us to look in
a natural way for long waves. This technique has been extensively used in plasma physics
[78-81] and is mostly applied to small amplitude nonlinear waves. The reductive perturbation
technique is a special form of multiple scale expansion (e.g. [81]). However in our case we follow
35
[75] and [76], by expanding the variables in the following manner
ni,p = ni,po + ²ni,p1 + ²2 ni,p2 + · · · ·
vix = ²u1 + ²2 u2 + · · · · · · · ·
viy = ²v1 + ²2 v2 + · · · · · · · ·
viz = ²3/2 w1 + ²5/2 w2 + · · · (2.15)
Bx = Bo cos θ
By = Bo sin θ + ²By1 + ²2 By2 + ·
Bz = ²3/2 Bz1 + ²5/2 Bz2 + · · · · ··
It is noted here that all perturbed quantities are functions of x, z and t, and ² is a small
parameter such that ² < 1. Stretched variables are introduced in the standard fashion
ξ = ²1/2 (x − vph t)
η = ²z (2.16)
τ = ²3/2 t
Where vph is the phase velocity and its exact expression is evaluated below. This variable
stretching procedure assumes the possibility of introducing new coordinates and variables such
that the slowness of coordinate dependence and smallness of some of the physical variables can
be taken out in a uniform way.
Substituting Eqs. (2.15) and (2.16) into ion continuity equation of Eq. (2.4) and in Eqs.
36
¡ ¢
(2.11), (2.12) and (2.14) and collecting terms of lowest order in ² i.e. ²3/2 we get
∂ui1 ∂ni1
nio = vA λ
∂ξ ∂ξ
λ ∂ui1 ∂ By1 ∂ ni1 ∂ np1
= sin θ + β(1 + σ) + β(1 + ρ)
vA ∂ξ ∂ξ Bo ∂ξ nio ∂ξ nio
λ ∂vi1 ∂ By1
= − cos θ (2.17)
vA ∂ξ ∂ξ Bo
∂ By1 ∂ui1 ∂vi1
vA λ = sin θ − cos θ
∂ξ Bo ∂ξ ∂ξ
∂ np1 ∂u i1 ∂vi1
vA λ = sin2 θ − sin θ cos θ
∂ξ npo ∂ξ ∂ξ
Here β = c2s /vA

2 and λ is the normalized phase velocity given by λ = v /v , and let make
ph A
the following supposition
ni1 np1 p
= φ, = np1 , npo /neo = p, npo /nio = ,
nio npo 1−p
By1
= By1 , (Bz1 /Bo ) = Bz1 , w1 = (wi1 /vA ) , u1 = (ui1 /vA ) ,
Bo
v1 = (vi1 /vA ) , γ = β(1 + σ), ζ = β(1 + ρ)
jµ
and jµ = (where µ = x, y, z).
enio vA
Using the set of Eqs (2.17), the fluctuating variables u1 , v1 , By1 and np1 can be expressed
in terms of φ as
u1 = λφ
⎡ ³ ´ ⎤
2 p 2
λ cos θ ⎣ λ − γ − ζ 1−p sin θ
v1 = − ³ ´ ⎦φ
sin θ 2 p
λ + ζ 1−p cos2 θ
⎡ ³ ´ ⎤
2 p 2
2
λ ⎣ λ − γ − ζ 1−p sin θ
By1 = ³ ´ ⎦φ (2.18)
sin θ 2 p
λ + ζ 1−p cos θ 2
⎡ ⎤
2 2θ
λ − γ cos
np1 = ⎣ ³ ´ ⎦φ
p
λ2 + ζ 1−p cos2 θ
37
Using (2.17) and (2.18) one can obtain
³ ´ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞1/2 ⎤
p
1+γ+ζ sin2 θ ⎢ 4γ cos2 θ ⎟ ⎥
2
λ =
1−p
⎢1 ± ⎜
⎝1 − ³ ³ ´ ´2 ⎠ ⎥ (2.19)
2 ⎣ p
⎦
1 + γ + ζ 1−p sin2 θ
Eq.(2.19) is the linear dispersion relation for two dimensional magnetosonic waves propa-
gating at an angle θ with external magnetic field in an electron-positron-ion (e − p − i) plasma.
This expression shows that phase velocity of magnetosonic wave depends on the angle θ, ra-
tio of ion to electron temperatures σ, the plasma β (the ratio of kinetic energy to magnetic
energy)-value and, the relative positron concentration p. For p = 0, we get the relation as given
in [82] for two component electron-ion plasmas. In expression (2.19) the upper (positive) sign
corresponds to the fast mode and the lower (negative) sign to the slow magnetosonic mode. We
note here that at θ = 0, Eq.(2.18) shows apparent divergences for v1 and By1 . The reasons for
this are the following. Firstly at θ = 0, the wave decouples into a parallel propagating Alfven
wave (λ2 = 1 or ω = kvA ) and an ion acoustic wave (λ2 = γ or ω = k cIA ); for the former case
v1 (vy1 ) and By1 6= 0 but ni1 = ne1 = np1 = 0 and for the latter, which is an electrostatic wave
v1 (vy1 ) = By1 = 0, but the fluctuating number densities are not equal to zero. Thus the set of
expressions given by Eq.(2.18) should not be used to obtain the limiting cases without taking
the above into account. However the linear dispersion relation yields the correct results in the
π
case when θ = 0. We further mention that at θ = 2 we obtain a perpendicularly propagating
magnetosonic wave with the effect of positron concentration.
To develop the nonlinear KP equation for both the slow and fast modes of the two dimen-
sional magnetosonic waves in (e − p − i) plasmas, we substitute Eqs. (2.15) and (2.16) into the
ion continuity equation (Eq. (2.4)) and in Eqs. (2.11), (2.12) and (2.14) and then collecting
terms of order ²2 and ²5/2 , we have in order ²2
µ ¶
∂w1 ∂By1 ∂Bz1 ∂φ p ∂np1
λ = sin θ − cos θ +γ +ζ
∂ξ ∂η ∂ξ ∂η 1−p ∂η
∂Bz1 ∂w1 λvA ∂ 2 v1
−λ = cos θ + (2.20)
∂ξ ∂ξ Ωi ∂ξ 2
38
From Eqs. (2.18), and (2.19), we get the following two equations for w1 and Bz1 in terms
of φ and λ.
∂w1 λ3 ∂φ λ2 vA sin θ cos2 θ ∂ 2 φ

= − ¡ ¢
∂ξ λ − cos2 θ ∂η Ωi λ2 − cos2 θ 2 ∂ξ 2
2
∂Bz1 λ2 cos θ ∂φ1 λ3 vA cos θ sin θ ∂ 2 φ

= −¡ 2 ¢ + ¡ ¢2 2 (2.21)
∂ξ λ − cos2 θ ∂η Ωi λ2 − cos2 θ ∂ξ
From term of order ²5/2 we obtain the following set of equations
∂By2 ∂u2 ∂v2

λ − sin θ + cos θ = f1
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ
∂ni2 ∂u2 1 ∂φ ∂ ∂w1
−λ + + + (u1 φ) + = 0
∂ξ ∂ξ vA ∂τ ∂ξ ∂η
∂v2 ∂By2 ∂v1
λvA + vA cos θ − = 0 (2.22)
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂τ
µ ¶
∂u2 ∂By2 ∂ni2 p ∂np2
λvA − vA sin θ − vA γ − vA ζ = f2
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ 1−p ∂ξ
∂np2 ∂u2 ∂v2
λ − sin2 θ + sin θ cos θ = f3
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ
where
1 ∂By1 ∂w1 ∂ λvA ∂ 2 w1 λvA ∂ 2 u1

f1 = + sin θ + (u1 By1 ) + −
vA ∂τ ∂η ∂ξ Ωi ∂ξ 2 Ωi ∂ξ∂η
∂u1 ∂By1
f2 = + vA By1
∂τ ∂ξ
1 ∂np1 ∂ ∂
f3 = + 2 sin θ cos2 θ (u1 By1 ) + cos θ(1 − 2 cos2 θ) (v1 By1 )
vA ∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ
∂ ∂
+ sin2 θ (u1 np1 ) − sin θ cos θ (v1 np1 ) + f4
∂ξ ∂ξ
µ ¶
∂w1 vA 2
∂ Bz1 ∂ 2 By1
f4 = − cos θ sin θ + cos θ
∂η Ωi ∂ξ 2 ∂η∂ξ
By eliminating quantities with subscript 2 and terms containing Bz1 and w1 from Eq. (2.22)
by using Eqs. (2.18) and (2.19) we obtain
∙ ¸
∂ ∂φ ∂φ ∂3φ ∂2φ
+ lφ −q 3 +r 2 =0 (2.23)
∂ξ ∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂η
39
Eq. (2.23) is the KP equation for the propagation of magnetosonic solitons in two dimensions
for (e − p − i) plasmas. In the above Eq. (2.23) the coefficients l, q,and r are given by
b
l = ,
a
c
q = , (2.24)
a
d
r = ,
a
where a, b, c and d are given by
p
a = λ6 (1 + sin2 θ) + λ4 {γ − 2 cos2 θ + ζ( ) cos2 θ sin2 θ} + λ2 {(1 − 2γ) cos2 θ +
1−p
p ζ p
ζ( )(1 + cos2 θ sin2 θ)} + (γ cot2 θ − ) cos2 θ sin2 θ
1−p 1−p
7ζp 2ζp
b = 3λ7 vA sin2 θ + λ5 vA {( − 2) cos2 θ sin2 θ + 2γ} + λ3 vA {
1−p 1−p
(sin2 θ − cos4 θ) sin2 θ + 2 cos2 θ(1 − γ)}
λ5 vA
3 cos2 θ sin2 θ{(ζ + 1) p − 1}
c = ¡ ¢
Ω2i (1 − p) λ2 − cos2 θ
³ ´¡ ¢
p
λ5 vA λ2 + ζ( 1−p ) cos2 θ λ2 − cos2 θ
d = ¡ 2 ¢
λ − 2 cos2 θ
Following [83], the solution of Eq. (2.23) can be written as
φ = φo sec h2 α (2.25)
Where φo = − (12q/l) Kξ2 ,and α = Kξ ξ + Kη η − Ωτ . Where Kξ and Kη are the nonlinear wave
number along x-and z-axes respectively, such that Kξ2 + Kη2 = K 2 and Ω is the nonlinear fre-
quency for the KP soliton. The KP equation and its solution, that we have obtained are for low
frequency magnetosonic waves. Which are partially electrostatic and partially electromagnetic.
From the point of view of the reductive perturbation method that has been used to obtain
the KP equation, we pointed out that the this scheme is valid only in the long wave length
approximation and secondly the KP equation is valid only for small angle of propagation (since
the coordinate η is of a higher order than the coordinate ξ).
40
The nonlinear dispersion relation is obtained by using Eqs.(2.23) and (2.25), we get
ΩKξ + 4qKξ4 − rKη2 = 0 (2.26)
Eq. (2.26) is the nonlinear dispersion relation which relates Kξ Kη , and Ω to each other. In
the expressions for l, q, and r the upper (positive) sign for λ represents the fast magnetosonic
solitons and the lower (negative) sign represents the case of slow magnetosonic solitons with
two dimensions in e − p − i plasmas. The magnetosonic soliton which makes an angle θ (θ is
taken as small due to the way we have used the stretched variables) with the x − axis and
propagates with a phase velocity which is obtained from Eq. (2.26) as
Ω rKη2 4qKξ3
= ³ ´1/2 −³ ´1/2 (2.27)
K
Kξ Kξ2 + Kη2 Kξ2 + Kη2
Using Eqs. (2.21) and (2.25) the w1 and Bz1 in terms of φ can be calculated as
µ ¶
λ3 Kη 2λ2 Kξ vA cos2 θ sin θ
w1 = + tanh α φ (2.28)
(λ2 − cos2 θ) Kξ Ωi (λ2 − cos2 θ)2
µ ¶
λ2 cos θ Kη 2λ3 vA Kξ cos θ sin θ
Bz1 = − + tanh α φ (2.29)
(λ2 − cos2 θ) Kξ Ωi (λ2 − cos2 θ)2
With the application of Eqs. (2.7), (2.9), and (2.19), we find the expressions for the nor-
malized electric field components of the two dimensional obliquely propagating magnetosonic
waves in e − p − i plasmas as
cEx 2vA Kξ £ ¤
= w1 sin θ + β(1 − p)Π1 + Π2 sin2 θ φ tanh α
Bo Ω
µi ¶
cEy 2vA Kξ Π2 cos θ sin θ
= −w1 cos θ − φ tanh α (2.30)
Bo Ωi
cEz −λ3 sin θ
= φ
Bo (λ2 − cos2 θ)
41
where
λ2 + p(ζ − γ) cos2 θ
Π1 =
(λ2 − λ2 p + ζp cos2 θ)
µ ¶
λ2 pβ(ζ + p)(λ2 − γ cos2 θ)
Π2 = + pβ +
(λ2 − cos2 θ) (λ2 − λ2 p + ζp cos2 θ)
Using Eqs. (2.5), (2.18), (2.25), (2.28) and (2.29) we find the expressions for the normalized
current density components of the two dimensional obliquely propagating magnetosonic waves
in e − p − i plasmas
2λ2 vA Kη sin θ tanh α

jx = φ
Ωi (λ2 − cos2 θ)
∙ ¸
2λ2 vA Kξ cos θ Kη λvA Kξ cos θ sin θ ¡ 2
¢
jy = − tanh α − 1 − 3 tanh α φ
Ωi (λ2 − cos2 θ) Kξ Ωi (λ2 − cos2 θ)2
2λ2 vA Kξ tanh α
jz = − φ (2.31)
Ωi (λ2 − cos2 θ)
2.3 Results and Discussion
Eqs. (2.19), (2.25), and (2.31) are investigated graphically under the required conditions for
the existence of the localized solution. It is assumed in all cases that the electron temperature
is equal to the positron temperature i.e. ρ = Te /Tp = 1. The plot of linear phase velocity
(ω/k) for both slow and fast modes of magnetosonic waves against p(= npo /neo ) is shown in
Fig.2.1. The figure shows that the phase velocity of slow wave is decreasing and the fast wave
is increasing as the positron concentration increases.
The graphical representation of the solution given by Eq. (2.25) is shown in the plots of
Fig. 2.2. The amplitude of soliton against α by varying p is shown in Fig. 2.2(a), for β = 0.01,
σ = 0.2, ρ = 1, Kξ = 0.48 × 10−5 m−1 and Kη = 0.12 ×10−5 m−1 by varying the value of p from
0 to 0.4. In this figure the solid curve shows the ion density hump in the presence of positrons
i.e. p = 0.4 and the dashed curve represents the density structure in the absence of positron
i.e. p = 0. A similar behavior of variation of amplitude for slow and fast modes are shown in
Fig. 2.2(b) and Fig. 2.2(c) by varying ion temperature and plasma β respectively. The plots
of Figs. 2.2(b) and 2.2(c) have been obtained for β = 0.1(Fig.2.2(b)), σ = 0.2 (Fig.2.2(c)),
42
ρ = 1, p = 0.4, Kξ = 0.48 × 10−5 m−1 and Kη = 0.12 ×10−5 m−1 . The set of Fig. 2.3 are
the graphical representation of the solution given by the Eq. (2.31) for x-component of current
density as a function of α. From Figs. 2.3(a), 2.3(b) and 2.3(c) it is clear that the amplitude
of x-component of current density Jx increases for slow mode and decreases for fast mode for
negative values of Jx by varying the values of p, σ and β respectively. Like wise Jy , Jz , Ex , Ey ,
Ez , Bz and By follow a similar behavior for fast and slow modes, however these plots are not
shown here.
2.4 Conclusion
We have theoretically studied linear and nonlinear propagation of obliquely propagating magne-
tosonic waves in a three component e− p −i plasmas and have presented our results graphically.
The linear dispersion relations of the two modes have been discussed in detail and it is noted
that when magnetosonic waves propagate obliquely to the magnetic field the phase velocity of
the waves becomes appreciably different from the case when purely parallel or perpendicular
cases are considered. We assume that the angles at which the waves propagate relative to mag-
netic field are small so that the dispersion is determined by the fact that the ion Larmor radius
is finite and also satisfies the limitations imposed by the reductive perturbation technique. It
is also found that for β < 1 both modes of the wave are supersonic (Ma = vp /cs > 1) where
Ma is the Mach number and for β ≥ 1, the fast mode is supersonic and slow one is subsonic
(Ma < 1).
In the nonlinear regime the solitons of these magnetosonic waves are described by the KP
equation given by Eq.(2.21), which are obtained by using reductive perturbation technique. This
technique imposes restrictions on the amplitude of the wave, which means that this method
can be applied for small amplitude waves and not for arbitrary amplitudes. According to this
technique, we have used, the angle of propagation which will be small, because the effect of the
perpendicular direction is small and the maximum contribution comes from the longitudinal
direction (x-axis). It is also noted that for oblique propagation of the magnetosonic waves, if
the frequency is not very high and the wave length is not very short, then in the whole range,
except |θ − π/2| ≤ (m/mi )1/2 (where m = me = mp ), the contribution of the terms containing
43
m/mi is negligible, that is m/mi = 0, and that is why under this limitation, for θ ∼ 0, no
contribution from positron occurs i.e.. p ∼ 0 otherwise it can give some contribution even at
θ ∼ 0.
It has also been observed that for small angle of propagation, the fast magnetosonic soliton
propagates as a negative pulse and the slow soliton as a positive pulse. We found that the
amplitude of the solitary structure depends in a complicated fashion on the different plasma
parameters i.e. the positron concentration, the ratio of ion temperature to electron temperature
and the plasma β-value. From the graphical representations it is found that by increasing
the values of positron concentration, ion temperature and plasma β, for the slow mode, the
amplitude increases and the opposite is observed for the fast mode. We also note that for β ∼ 0,
we obtain only one mode of the magnetosonic wave. Nonlinear characteristics of magnetosonic
waves in multi-species plasmas may find application in space plasmas and also in fusion plasmas
where they are used in particle acceleration and heating experiments [70-74].
44
Figure 2-1: Phase velocity vs p(= npo /neo ) for both slow and fast modes. Other parameters
used are: β = 0.01, σ = 0.2 and θ = 15◦
45
Figure 2-2: Dependency of amplitude of soliton as a function of α (a) on positron concentration
i.e. when p = 0 and when p = 0.4. (b) on the variation of ratio of ion temperature to electron
temperature σ (c) on the value of β-parameter, for both modes of the magnetosonic wave.
46
Figure 2-3: Effects of the (a) Positron Concentration, (b) Ion Temperature, and (c) Plasma
Pressure, on the amplitude of Jz as a function of α for both slow and fast modes of the two
dimensional magnetosonic wave.
47
Chapter 3
Ion Acoustic Waves in Relativistic,

Rotating Magnetized
Electron-Positron-Ion Plasmas
An ion acoustic wave is a longitudinal oscillation of the ions in an unmagnetized plasma or in a

magnetized plasma when the propagation is parallel to the magnetic field. Relativistic plasmas
in physics are plasmas for which relativistic corrections to a particle’s mass and velocity are
important. Such corrections typically become important when a significant number of particles
reach to speeds greater than 0.86c (Lorentz factor γ = 2). Such plasmas may be created either
by heating a gas to very high temperatures or by the impact of a high-energy particle beam or
laser interaction with plasma etc.
Relativistic plasmas can be found in many situations. Under the influence of high-power
laser radiation, for example, plasma particles may attain relativistic speeds[84, 85]. A num-
ber of nonlinear phenomena occur in relativistic plasmas and thus relativistic Langmuir and
electromagnetic waves have been studied as subjects of laser-plasma interaction[86] and space-
plasma phenomena[87]. In the nonlinear regime relativistic effects can significantly effect the
wave character.
Plasmas with high-energy ion beams occur in the plasma sheet boundary layer of the Earth’s
magnetosphere[88] and in the Van Allen radiation belts[89]. Propagation of waves in a rela-
48
tivistic plasma having streaming ions have been found to be most interesting [90]. These results
were later rederived by the use of the pseudo potential method [91], with assumption that ions
are cold i.e.Ti ≈ 0. Since the ion temperature is very high in the relativistic plasmas of solar
flare [92], solar wind [93], and inter planetary space, the ratio of the ion-to-electron tempera-
ture is sometimes more than unity. In such situations both the relativistic effects and the ion
temperature appreciably affect the propagation characteristics of the soliton. It is therefore
important to take into account the finite ion temperature in this present work. In previous
theories like those discussed in Refs.90, and 91, the investigations made were restricted only
to the one-dimensional flow of the ions and the electrons. Kadomtsev and Petviashivili [30]
made the first attempt to model a soliton in a two-dimensional system and later Zakharov and
Kuznetsov [34] made the first attempt to model a soliton in a three-dimensional system. For
a nonrelativistic magnetized plasma with Ti ≈ 0, a three-dimensional differential equation was
obtained [34] which is known as the ZK-equation. However this ZK-equation may also be used
for a two-dimensional magnetized system [94].
The rotating flows of an electrically conducting fluid ( like a plasma) in the presence of
a magnetic field is encountered in cosmic and geophysical fluid dynamics. It can provide an
explanation for the observed maintenance and secular variation of the geomagnetic field [95].
It is also important in solar physics involved in the sunspot development, the star cycle and
the structure of rotating magnetic stars [96]. When a star is transformed into a neutron star,
the moment of inertia decreases strongly, thus the conservation of angular momentum causes
a high rotation of the star. Under the condition of frozen force lines, magnetic flux is also
conserved, thus the field varies in proportion to r−2 (r is the radius of the star). Therefore,
as a rule, neutron stars should rotate quite rapidly and should be strongly magnetized. The
nonlinear evolution of the electrostatic wave propagation in this type of highly rotating and
strongly magnetized e-p-i plasma is the aim of this chapter.
We theoretically investigate two dimensional propagation of ion-acoustic waves in electron-
positron-ion (e-p-i) plasmas and show that the propagation of these waves is governed by the
ZK equation. The effects of ion temperature, relativity, the external magnetic field, rotation of
the plasma and the concentration of positrons on the IAW dynamics, both in the linear as well
as in the nonlinear regimes are studied.
49
3.1 Mathematical Formulation
Consider a two-dimensional, magnetized, rotating and collisionless weakly relativistic three-

component (e − p − i) plasma. The external magnetic field is directed along the x − axis, i.e.
B0 = B0 x̂, and propagation is considered in the (x, y) plane. The electrons and positrons are
assumed to be isothermally hot while the ions are treated as a fluid with finite temperature. The
phase velocity of the IAW is assumed to be much larger than the ion thermal velocity and much
less than the electron (positron) thermal velocities, i.e. vti << ω/k << vte , vtp (where vtj =
(Tj /mj )1/2 is the thermal speed of jth species while j = e, p, i ). Since we consider low frequency
IAWs, we neglect the effect of the electron (positron) inertia. To maintain quasineutrality, the
dimensions of the system are assumed to be much larger than the electron Debye length. In
the absence of perturbations we assume the plasma to be in an equilibrium condition with
the relativistic ion streaming only in the x−direction. The y− and z−components of the ion
velocity are considered to be nonrelativistic. We neglect any transport properties like viscosity
and heat conduction etc. Under these conditions the nonlinear dynamics of the low frequency
IAW in a rotating magnetized three-component plasma are governed by the following set of
equations: the ion continuity equation
∂ni −→
+ ∇ · (ni −
→
v i ) = 0, (3.1)
∂t
and the ion momentum equation in a rotating frame of reference
d−→
vi →
− σ− →
= − ∇φ + ω ci (−
→
v i × x̂) − ∇pi + 2 (−
→
v i × Ω) (3.2)
dt ni
The electrons and positrons in the electrostatic potential perturbation are assumed to follow
the Boltzmann distributions, respectively, as
ne = exp(φ) (3.3)
np = exp(−αφ) (3.4)
50
The Poisson equation for this system becomes
∇2 φ = µ eφ + (1 − µ)e−αφ − ni (3.5)
→
− →
− →
−
We have assumed that E = − ∇φ (where E is the electric field and φ is the electrostatic
wave potential normalized by T /e), −
→
v is the ion fluid velocity normalized by the ion acoustic
i i
speed csi = (Te /mi )1/2 , nj is the number density of particle species j normalized by their
unperturbed density njo . The rotational frequency (angular velocity) Ω = Ω0 x̂ (where x̂ is
the unit vector along x−axis and Ω0 is the magnitude of rotation frequency) and the ion
gyrofrequency ω ci = eB0 /mi c (where e is the magnitude of electron charge, mi is the mass
of ion, B0 is the magnitude of the ambient magnetic field and c is the speed of light) are
p
normalized by ion plasma frequency ω pi = (4πni0 e2 /mi ). The space and time coordinates
p
∇ and t are normalized, respectively, by Debye length λd = Te /4πni0 e2 and the ion plasma
period ω −1
pi . We note that µ = 1/1 − p where p(= npo /neo ) is the ratio of positron background
density to electron background density, σ(= Ti /Te ) is the ratio of ion temperature to electron
temperature and α(= Te /Tp ) is the ratio of electron temperature to positron temperature. Here
Tj is the temperature of jth species. The last term in Eq. (3.2) represents the Coriolis force
due to rotation of the plasma with frequency Ω0 .
Eqs.(3.1), (3.2) and (3.5) in components form in the xy− plane can be written as
∂ni
+ ∂x (ni vix ) + ∂y (ni viy ) = 0 (3.6)
∂t
σ
∂t (γvix ) + (vix ∂x + viy ∂y )γvix + ∂x φ + ∂x ni = 0 (3.7)
ni
σ
∂t viy + (vix ∂x + viy ∂y )viy + ∂y φ + ∂y ni − Ωc viz = 0 (3.8)
ni
∂t viz + (vix ∂x + viy ∂y )viz + Ωc viy = 0 (3.9)
∂2 ∂2
( + )φ = µ eφ + (1 − µ)e−αφ − ni (3.10)
∂x2 ∂y 2
³ 2
´−1/2 ¡ ¢
vix
Where γ = 1− c2 w 1 + vix
2 /2c2 in the weakly relativistic regime, and Ω =
c
(ωci + 2Ω0 ) is the effective gyro frequency.
51
3.2 Derivation and Solution of Zakharov-Kuznetsov Equation
We apply the Reductive Perturbation Technique [78] to Eqs. (3.6)-(3.10) to obtain the nonlinear
Zakharov-Kuznetsov equation for two dimensional finite amplitude ion-acoustic solitary waves.
The plasma parameters can be expanded as a power series in ² as
ni = 1 + ²n1 + ²2 n2 + · ·
vix = u0 + ²u1 + ²2 u + · ·
viy = ²2 v1 + ²3 v2 + · · · · (3.11)
viz = ²3/2 w1 + ²5/2 w2 + · ·
φ = ²φ1 + ²2 φ2 + · · ··
Note that the transverse velocity components (v, w) appear at a higher order of ² than that
of the parallel component u. This anisotropy is introduced by the influence of a strong magnetic
field. It is noted here that ² is a small (0 < ² ≤ 1) expansion parameter characterizing the
strength of the nonlinearity, such that the stretched variables are introduced in the standard
fashion
ξ = ²1/2 (lx x − λt)
η = ²1/2 ly y (3.12)
τ = ²3/2 t
Where λ is the normalized phase velocity of the ion-acoustic wave and lx (= kq /k = cos θ),
and ly (= k⊥ /k = sin θ) are the direction cosines respectively, such that lx2 +ly2 = 1, where θ is the
angle between propagation vector k and the external magnetic field B0 . Substituting Eqs. (3.11)
¡ ¢
and (3.12) into Eqs. (3.6)- (3.10) and collecting terms of lowest order in ² i.e. ∼ ² and ²3/2
52
we obtain
∂u1 ∂φ ∂n1
−(λ − lx u0 )γ 1 + lx 1 + σlx = 0
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ
∂n1 ∂u1
−(λ − u0 lx ) + lx = 0 (3.13)
∂ξ ∂ξ
n1 − ά φ1 = 0
∂φ ∂n1
ly 1 + σly − Ωc w1 = 0
∂η ∂η
Where γ 1 = (1 + 3u20 /2c2 ) and ά = µ − α(1 − µ). Using the first three equations of the
above set of Eq.(3.13) we obtain
−(λ − lx u0 )γ 1 u1 + lx φ1 + σlx n1 = 0
n1 − άφ1 = 0 (3.14)
u1 − lx−1 (λ − u0 lx )άφ1 = 0
The linear phase velocity for ion acoustic wave can be written as
1 σ
λ = u0 lx + lx ( + )1/2 (3.15)
γ 1 ά γ 1
It can be noted from Eq. (3.15) that the linear phase velocity is influenced by the relativistic
effect, positron concentration, obliqueness and the ion temperature, but not by the external
magnetic field ωci and rotation of the plasma Ω0 . In the case when θ = 0 and positron
concentration p = 0 then we obtain Eqn. (11) of [97] and Eqn. (24) of [92] in electron ion
¡ ¢
plasmas. In the next order ∼ ²2 by using Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10) we obtain
∂w1
−(λ − u0 lx ) + Ωc v1 = 0
∂ξ
µ 2 2
¶ µ ¶
2 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 2
lx 2 + ly 2 φ1 − άφ2 + β́φ1 − n2 = 0 (3.16)
∂ξ ∂η 2
53
where β́ = µ + α2 (1 − µ)/2, by using Eq.(3.14) and Eq.(3.16) we get
∂φ1
w1 = Ω−1
c ly (1 + σ ά) (3.17)
∂η
∂ 2 φ1
v1 = Ω−2
c ly (λ − u0 lx )(1 + σ ά) (3.18)
∂ξ∂η
Eq.(3.17) is the E × B drift along zaxes and Eq.(3.18) is the polarization drift along y−axis.
These drifts appear in the higher orders also.
From terms of order ²5/2 we obtain the following set of equations
∂u2 ∂φ ∂n2 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2

(λ − u0 lx )γ 1 − lx 2 − σlx = γ1 − λγ 2 1 + u0 γ 2 lx 1 +
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ
∂u1 ∂n1
γ 1 lx u1 − σlx n1
∂ξ ∂ξ
∂n2 ∂u2 ∂n1 ∂ ∂v1
(λ − u0 lx ) − lx = + lx (u1 n1 ) + ly (3.19)
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂τ ∂ξ ∂η
∂φ2 ∂n2 ∂n1 ∂v1
ly + σly − Ωc w2 = σly n1 − (λ − u0 lx )
∂η ∂η ∂η ∂ξ
Where γ 2 = 3u0 /2c2 . By eliminating quantities with subscript 2 and terms containing v1
and w1 from Eqs. (3.19) and Eq.(3.16) by means of Eqs. (3.14) and (3.15) we obtain the
following nonlinear equation
∂φ1 ∂φ ∂3φ ∂ 3 φ1
+ lφ1 1 + r 31 + q =0 (3.20)
∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ∂η 2
Eq. (3.20) is the Zakharov-Kuznetsov (ZK) equation for the ion acoustic soliton in a two-
dimensional, magnetized, rotating and collisionless weakly relativistic three-component (e−p−i)
plasma. The ZK equation describes the evolution of weakly nonlinear long waves in dispersive
media in which the transverse coordinate η is also taken into account for a strongly magnetized
plasma. In Eq. (3.20) the coefficients l, r and q are given by
54
⎡ ⎤
µ ¶
γ λ − u0 lx lx2 (2β́ + ά3 σ) ⎦
l = ά (λ − u0 lx ) ⎣3/2 − 2 − 2 (3.21)
γ1 lx 2ά γ 1 (λ − u0 lx )
lx4
r = (3.22)
2γ 1 ά2 (λ − u0 lx )
∙ ¸
lx2 ly2 άγ 1 (1 + ά σ)(λ − u0 lx )2
q = 1+ (3.23)
2γ 1 ά2 (λ − u0 lx ) lx2 Ω2c
The steady state solution of the ZK-equation (Eq. 3.20) is obtained by transforming the
independent variables ξ, η and τ into new coordinate χ such that χ = (ξ + η − v0 τ )/∆, here v0
is a constant velocity normalized to csi . Following [83] the solution of Eq. (3.20) is
φ1 = φm sec h2 χ (3.24)
Where ∆ and φm are the normalized, width and amplitude of soliton respectively and are
given as
¶ µ
3v0
φm =
l
s
4 (r + q)
∆ = (3.25)
v0
By using Eqs. (3.14) and (3.24) we can find the solution for n1 and u1 as
n1 = nm sec h2 χ
u1 = um sec h2 χ (3.26)
ά (λ−u0 lx )
Where nm = ά φm and um = lx φm are respectively the peak soliton ion density and
peak soliton x−component of ion velocity. The soliton energy εs can be calculated by using the
R∞ 2
integral εs = u1 (χ)dχ and is obtained as
−∞
4
εs = u2m ∆ (3.27)
3
55
With the application of Eqs. (3.17), (3.18), and (3.24) w1 (the E × B drift along z-axis) and
v1 (the polarization drift along y−axis) can be calculated and yields
" 3/2
#
−3v0 (1 + άσ) ly
w1 = p tanh χ sec h2 χ (3.28)
Ωc l (r + q)
" ¡ ¢#
2φm ly (1 + ά σ) (λ0 − u0 lx ) 3 sec h2 χ − 2
v1 = − 2 sec h2 χ (3.29)
∆ Ω2c
The graphical results in this chapter are presented under the required conditions for the exis-
tence of the localized solution. It is assumed in all cases that the electron temperature is equal
to the positron temperature i.e. α = Te /Tp = 1. The dependence of linear phase velocity of
2-D IAW on the relativistic streaming effect u0 /c, the ratio of the ion-to-electron temperatures
σ and positron concentration p is shown in Fig.3.1. It is noted that phase velocity decreases
against u0 /c for all the values of σ and p, but for a fixed value of u0 /c phase velocity increases
as σ increases and decreases for the higher values of p. The plots of Fig. 2.2 are the graphical
results of the amplitude of electrostatic potential of soliton φm against the relativistic streaming
factor u0 /c for different values of (a) σ (b) p and (c) θ. It is evident that amplitude increases
with u0 /c for all values of σ, p and θ, however at fixed value of u0 /c it decreases with increasing
values of σ and p and increases with higher value of θ. The variations of width ∆ versus u0 /c
and obliqueness θ are shown respectively in the plots of Fig. 3.3 and Fig. 3.4. From Fig. 3.3
it is clear that width of soliton decreases with u0 /c for all values of σ and p, and increases
for decreasing values of σ and p for a fixed value of u0 /c. Fig. 3.4 shows that how the width
of soliton changes with obliqueness (θ) with variation of (a) rotation Ω0 and (b) the external
magnetic field ω ci . In these two cases it is observed that width (∆) increases with θ for its lower
range but decreases for its higher value. The variation of width in this set of figures has been
shown for arbitrary value of θ. The numerics of the physical parameters used for all figures are
v0 = 1, p = 0.4, σ = 0.01, θ = π/12, α = Te /Tp = 1, β(= u0 /c) = 0.2, ω ci = 1, Ω0 = 0.001.
56
3.4 Conclusion
The properties of linear and nonlinear IAW with effects of different independent parameters in
relativistic rotating magnetized e − p − i plasma have been studied. Some salient features of
the results of this chapter may be summarized and concluded as follows.
1. We have shown that in the linear study of IAW, phase velocity is inversely related to
positron concentration and relativistic ion streaming factor, while it is directly proportional to
the ion temperature and cosine of the angle θ.
2. It has been found that for given values of the parameters in the system, φm is positive
which shows that the ion acoustic wave admits only positive potential (compressive solitary
wave).
3. The effects of ion temperature and positron concentration modify the height and width of
the soliton. It is found that for increasing values of ion temperature and positron concentration
the height of soliton decreases with increasing u0 /c while width decreases with decreasing u0 /c.
4. It is shown that obliqueness θ modifies the amplitude and width of the soliton. This
is obvious from relations (3.19) and (3.25) and also from graphical results (Fig. 3.4) that
amplitude is inversely related to the cosθ. It is observed that width increases with θ for its
lower range and decreases for its higher values. It should be pointed out that for large angles the
amplitude becomes ∞ and width goes to zero. It is likely that for large angles the assumption
that the waves are electrostatic is no longer a valid one and in that case we should look for
fully electromagnetic structures of the wave. It means there is some restriction imposed on the
angle θ which according to our perturbation scheme, the angle should be small. The maxima for
width was calculated and the angle for which the width becomes maximum in Fig. 3.4 is 54.67◦
∂2∆
and at this value ∂θ2
<< 0. Thus θc = 54.67◦ is the critical angle below which the electrostatic
nature is stable and above there is some instability in the wave nature i.e. it becomes more
electromagnetic.
6. Rotation of the plasma (around the axis of external magnetic field) considerably effects
the nature of the nonlinear structure of IAW. The magnitude of rotational frequency and
external magnetic field give the effective gyro frequency, which has no direct effect on the
amplitude of the soliton, however they do have a direct effect on the width of these solitary
waves. It is shown that as we increase the effective gyro frequency the width of these solitary
57
Figure 3-1: Linear dependency of phase velocity (λ − u0 lx) on the relativistic streaming factor
u0 /c for different valuesof (a) σ and (b) positron concentration p each marked on the curve.
waves decreases, it means that the effective gyro frequency makes the solitary structures more
spiky.
Such IAWs with finite amplitude and narrow width generated in a rotating plasma could
illustrate the motion of high energy protons which are believed to be present in the Van Allen
radiation belts [89] and in the pulsar magnetosphere[45]. Rotating magnetized plasma are also
believed to exist in cosmic and solar atmosphere [98].
58
Figure 3-2: The amplitude of soliton potential φm against the relativistic streaming factor u0 /c
with the variations of (a) Ion-to-electron temperature ratio σ (b) Ratio of positron back ground
density to electron back ground density p and (c) obliqueness θ.
59
Figure 3-3: Variation of the width of soliton ∆ with relativistic streaming factor u0 /c by
varying the parameters(a) Ratio of ion temperature to electron temperature σ and (b) Positron
concentration p.
60
Figure 3-4: Variation of the width of soliton ∆ with Obliqueness θ by varying the parameters
(a) Rotational frequency Ω0 and (b) Cyclotron frequency ω ci .
61
Chapter 4
Ion Acoustic Wave in the Presence

of Non-Maxwellian Trapped
Electrons
The ion-acoustic wave (IAW) in a two or three-component plasmas has long been studied, and
both the linear [67, 99] and nonlinear [67, 100] dynamics associated with this wave have been
investigated. It can propagate in both unmagnetized and magnetized plasmas.
Most studies of the waves in plasmas are based on the assumption of a Maxwellian distri-
bution function. The Maxwellian distribution is the most popular plasma distribution and has
become the default assumption when the detailed distribution function is unknown. However,
with more and more empirical data becoming available from space plasma systems, it is real-
ized that in real such systems, the particles distributions deviate significantly from Maxwellian
distributions[58, 59,101] implying that when we use theoretical models using these distribution
functions to explain or to predict different waves and instabilities, the ensuing results do not
give good quantitative fits with observations[52, 55, 102-105]. It means that a Maxwellian is
not a realistic distribution under all circumstances and other distributions such as kappa[52],
or generalized (r, q) [55] distributions fit better for observed results.
Non-Maxwellian distributions are common both in natural and laboratory plasmas[48-51].
These observed distribution functions contain a plentiful supply of superthermal particles that
62
exhibit high or super thermal energy tails with approximate power-law distributions in velocity
space, e.g. 4πv2 f (v)dv ∝ v −α dv for |v| > vth and can often be modelled by other distributions
such as Lorentzian (kappa) distributions or generalized (r, q) distribution and have been found
to be more useful as compared to the Maxwellian distribution functions [50, 55, 106]. The use
of the family of kappa distributions to model the observed non-thermal features of electron and
ion structures was frequently criticized due to lack of its formal derivation. A classical analysis
addressing this problem was performed by Hassegawa et. al. [51] who demonstrated how the
kappa distributions emerge as a natural consequence of the presence of super thermal radiation
fields in plasmas. Non-Maxwellian ,(r, q) distribution function is on the other hand a modified
version of the Lorentzian (Kappa) distribution function, and on the other a generalization of the
Davydov-Druvestyen distribution[54]. Its three-dimensional version for electron has the form
as given in Eqs.(1.39-1.41).
In this chapter we want to discuss the effect of particle trapping on the nonlinear evolution
of an ion acoustic wave, when the plasma background is represented by a Non-Maxwellian (r, q)
distribution. It has been known from the early days of plasma physics that trapped particles
exert a considerable influence on the nonlinear dynamics of plasma waves [107], although in
this pioneering work the trapping was considered directly by the longitudinal wave it self.
However trapping as a microscopic process was considered in 1967 by Gurevich [60] and involved
the solution of the Vlasov equation together with the Maxwell equations. This microscopic
formalism subsequently became the topic of investigation in [108], here different aspects of
wave particle interactions were considered to show the effect of trapping while using Maxwellian
distribution functions. The simulation of a one dimensional Vlasov-Poisson equations has also
confirmed the existence of trapped particles [109] as have experiments carried out in the last
two decades [110].
We discuss here the linear and nonlinear dynamics of IAW in the presence of electron
trapping (for detail see section 1.8), when the electron plasma background is represented by
(r, q) distribution. We derive the general form of KdV equation by using RPT. We feel that
using a more realistic distribution function will provide a better insight into the dynamics and
effects of trapping on various wave particle interactions.
63
4.1 Basic Equations and Formulation
We consider a one-dimensional, unmagnetized, two-component plasma consisting of massive

cold ions and adiabatically free and trapped electrons. The free and as well as trapped electrons
are assumed to follow the non-Maxwellian (r, q) distribution. The propagation is considered
in the x−direction. Thus at equilibrium we have neo = nio = no . We neglect any transport
properties like viscosity and heat conduction etc. Under these conditions the dynamics of the
low frequency IAW in such a plasma are governed by the following set of normalized equations:
∂ni ∂
+ (ni vi ) = 0, (4.1)
∂t ∂x
∂vi ∂ ∂
+ vi vi + ϕ = 0, (4.2)
∂t ∂x ∂x
∂2ϕ
− ne + ni = 0, (4.3)
∂x2
where ne and ni are the electron and ion number densities normalized by equilibrium density
p
no , vi is the ion fluid velocity normalized by the ion-acoustic speed csi = Te /mi , and ϕ is
the electrostatic wave potential due to charge separation normalized by Te /e, where Te is the
electron temperature, mi is the mass of ion and is e the magnitude of electron charge. The time
p
and space variables are normalized by the ion-plasma period ω −1pi = mi /4πno e2 and Debye
p
length λD = Te /4πno e2 respectively.
The expression for the number density of adiabatically free and trapped electrons with
Maxwellian distribution[59] for the case of weak potential i.e. ϕ ¿ 1 is:
4
ne = 1 + ϕ − √ ϕ3/2 (4.4)
3 π
Note that, according to Eq.(4.4), the trapping of electrons can change the ordering, giving
rise to a half integer rather than an integer power expansion (this is a particular characteristic
of trapping in a Maxwellian plasma) of the number density in terms of weak potential energy
ϕ. Using this type of expression Eq.(4.4), the KdV type of nonlinear equation has been derived
for electrostatic waves for e − i plasma [111]. We consider the case when free and trapped
q
electrons follow the distribution function f(r) as given in Eq.(1.39). Thus by following the
64
procedure developed in [101], the expression for the electron number density (ne = nq(r) ) in
term of potential energy ϕ is:
∙ ¸ ∙ ¸
2a 1 − 2r+5 1 2 3 3
nq(r) = (q − 1) 2r+2 − ϕ Γ 1− Γ q+
b3 Γ(q − 1) 2 2(1 + r) 2(1 + r)
∙ ¸ ∙ ¸
1 1
+b4 (q − 1)2/(1+r) Γ q − Γ 1+
2(1 + r) 2(1 + r)
∙ ¸ ∙ ¸
2 1/(1+r) 1 1
+ϕb (q − 1) Γ q+ Γ 1−
2(1 + r) 2(1 + r)
" µ ¶1+r #
a q 1 2 1
−4 ϕ−B ϕ ,1 − , −q (4.5)
b (1 − q)1/2(1+r) 1 − q b2 2(1 + r)
µ ¶1/(1+r) " µ ¶1+r #
1 ϕ 1 2 3
+ rB ϕ ,1 − , −q
1−q b2 1 − q b2 2(1 + r)
" µ ¶1+r #
1 2 3
+(1 + q)(1 + r)B ϕ ,2 − , −(1 + q)
1 − q b2 2(1 + r)
" µ ¶1+r #
√ 1/2 1 1 1 2 √
−4 2aϕ 2 F1 q, ,1 + ; ϕ + 2 2aϕ1/2
2(1 + r) 2(1 + r) 1 − q b2
Here Γ, B, and 2 F1 are the, gamma, beta and hypergeometric functions respectively. Expanding
Eq. (4.5) for small ϕ and for −1/2 < r < 1/2, the following general form is obtained,
nq(r) = 1 + αqr ϕ − β qr ϕr+3/2 (4.6)
here the coefficients αqr and β qr are positive functions of q and r and are listed for different values
of r in the Table given in Ref.56.
4.2 Derivation of Generalized KdV equation
We now use the Reductive Perturbation Technique (RPT) and construct a weakly nonlinear the-
ory for one dimensional small but finite amplitude ion-acoustic waves. The stretched variables
for this model in terms of spectral index r are:
2r+1
ξ = ² 4 (x − vo t) (4.7)
2r+1
τ = ²3( 4
)
t
65
Where ² is a small (0 < ² ≤ 1) expansion parameter characterizing the strength of the
nonlinearity and vo is the phase velocity of the ion-acoustic wave normalized by csi . The ion
number density, fluid velocity and potential are expanded in the following manner
ni = 1 + ²n1 + ²r+3/2 n2 + · · ·
vi = ²u1 + ²r+3/2 u2 + · · · · · · (4.8)
ϕ = ²ϕ1 + ²r+3/2 ϕ2 + · · · · ·
Substituting Eqs. (4.7) and (4.8) into Eqs. (4.1)- (4.3) and Eqs. (4.6) and collecting terms
³ r 5
´
of lowest order in ² i.e. ∼ ² and ² 2 + 4 we obtain
∂u1 ∂ϕ1
−v0 + = 0
∂ξ ∂ξ
∂n1 ∂u1
−v0 + = 0 (4.9)
∂ξ ∂ξ
n1 − αqr ϕ1 = 0
Using the boundary conditions n1 → 0, u1 → 0, and ϕ1 → 0 as |ξ| → ±∞, from Eq.(4.9)

we have
n1 = αqr ϕ1
u1 = v0 αqr ϕ1 (4.10)
which in turn can be solved to give us the dispersion relation
1
v0 = p q (4.11)
αr
This is the dispersion relation for IAW when the (r, q) distribution function is used. If r = 0
and q → ∞, then using the Table 4.1, we retrieve the Maxwellian result v0 = 1, i.e. ω/k = csi
of [111].
¡ ¢
In the next order ∼ ²r+3/2 combining Eq. (4.3) and Eq.(4.6), we obtain
66
∂ 2 ϕ1 r+3/2
= αqr ϕ2 − n2 − β qr ϕ1 (4.12)
∂ξ 2
3r 7
From terms of order ² 2 + 4 of Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2) we obtain the following set of equations
∂u2 ∂ϕ2 ∂u1

−v0 + = − (4.13)
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂τ
∂u2 ∂n2 ∂n1
− v0 = − (4.14)
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂τ
By eliminating quantities with subscript 2 from Eqs. (4.12), (4.13) and (4.14) by means of
Eqs. (4.10) and (4.11) we obtain
∂ϕ1 r+ 1 ∂ϕ1 ∂ 3 ϕ1
+ A ϕ1 2 +B =0 (4.15)
∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ 3
This is a generalized KdV equation for the case of −1/2 < r < 1/2. Here the coefficients A
and B are given by
(r + 3/2) β qr
A = 3/2
2 (αqr )
1 q −3/2
B = (α ) (4.16)
2 r
If in Eq. (4.15), r = 0 then we get the KdV equation of [111] in a maxwellian plasma. The
steady state solution of the generalized KdV equation (Eq. 4.15) is obtained by shifting to a
co-moving frame of reference η = (ξ − u0 τ )/∆, where u0 is a normalized constant velocity and
finally the steady state solution of Eq. (4.15) in general form can be written as
4
ϕ1 = ϕm sec h 2r+1 [(ξ − u0 τ )/∆] , (4.17)
The amplitude ϕm and the width ∆ (normalized by λD ) in generic form are given by
" # 2
u0 (1 + 4 4
2r+1 )(2 + 2r+1 ) (2r + 1)2 2r+1
ϕm =
16A
s
16B
∆ = (4.18)
u0 (2r + 1)2
67
In Eq. (4.17), if we take r = 0 and q → ∞ we retrieve Eq. (16) of [112]. We note here that
the above results are valid only in the range −1/2 < r < 1/2.
We now expand Eq. (4.5) for small ϕ again but this time for range r > 1/2, then we have
the following generic form for the electron number density (ne = nq(r) ) in term of weak potential
energy ϕ
nq(r) = 1 + αqr ϕ − γ qr ϕ2 , (4.19)
here αqr and γ qr are positive functions of q and r which are listed in Table 4.1 for r = 1 and
2. For this case we have the stretched variables are ξ = ²1/2 (x − vo t) and τ = ²3/2 t and the
quantities are expanded in term of ² in the following manner
ni = 1 + ²n1 + ²2 n2 + · · · · · · · ·
vi = ²u1 + ²2 u2 + · · · · · · · · · · · (4.20)
ϕ = ²ϕ1 + ²2 ϕ2 + · · · · · · · · ·
Then using the same procedure as was followed for the case −1/2 < r < 1/2 the nonlinear
evolution equation for r > 1/2 is obtained as
∂ϕ1 ∂ϕ1 ∂3ϕ

+ C ϕ1 + D 31 = 0, (4.21)
∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ
which is the standard KdV equation, and the coefficients C and D here are given by
2
γ qr + 32 (αqr )
C = 3/2
(αqr )
1 q −3/2
D = (α ) (4.22)
2 r
The steady state solution of Eq. (4.21) can be written as
ϕ1 = Ψm sec h2 [(ξ − u0 τ )/δ] , (4.23)
The normalized amplitude Ψm and the width δ are given by
68
" #
3/2
3u0 (αqr )
Ψm = 2 (4.24)
γ qr + 32 (αqr )
s
−3/2
2 (αqr )
δ= (4.25)
u0
We note here that although equations (4.21-4.25) do not include trapped particle effects
but these do however contain the spectral indices of the (r, q) distribution function. So the
non-Maxwellian (r, q) distribution even in the untrapped case has affected the dynamics of
IAW.
We have derived in computable form the expressions for solitary ion acoustic waves propagating
in an unmagnetized e-i plasmas with electron trapping with a generalized (r, q) particle distri-
bution. The dependence of solitary wave solution amplitude on different values of r against η
for fixed value of q = 5 is shown in Fig. 4.1. It is observed that for decreasing values of r the
amplitude of solitary wave solution increases. Fig. 4.2 shows the dependence of solitary wave
solution amplitude on q as a function of velocity uo . It shows that the amplitude increases with
increased values of q. Fig. 4.3 and Fig. 4.4 are the graphical results of the width of solitary wave
solution ∆ against the solitary wave velocity uo for different values of positive q and negative r
respectively. These figures show that a decreasing trend for uo when plotted against width for
a fixed value of uo increases with respect to q (for fixed r = 1/4) and decreases for increased
negative value of r (for fixed q = 0) respectively. Fig. 4.5 shows the dependence of width on
positive r and q. It is evident that for increasing q and decreasing r the width of IA solitary
wave increases.
4.4 Conclusion
We have studied the ion acoustic solitary wave solution with electron trapping by using a gen-
eralized (r, q) distribution function. By using the well-known reductive perturbation technique,
the generalized KdV equation with a solitary wave solution has been derived for different ranges
69
of the parameter r which appears in the power of the nonlinear term. Both from the analytical
and graphical results it is concluded that for positive values of the r ion acoustic wave becomes
supersonic and for negative values of r it is subsonic and for r = 0 and q → ∞ the dispersion
relation, KdV equation along with solution and expressions for amplitude and width reduces
to those with a maxwellian distribution function of Refs. 113 and 114. The amplitude of the
solitary wave solution increases for decreasing r and increasing q with respect to its velocity
uo . Width of solitary wave solution increases for decreasing positive values of r and increasing
q with decreasing velocity uo . However we also see that for negative values of the r width
decreases, which in turn means that negative r makes the solitary wave solution more spiky
and energetic. In a nutshell we conclude that the spectral index r of the trapped electrons
distribution effects the shoulder of the ion acoustic solitary wave solution (makes the profile
slightly spiky for positive r and more spiky for negative r in the range −1/2 < r < 1/2) and
spectral index q effects the tail of it making the solitary wave faster than the thermal soliton.
which are believed to be exist in near plasma shock waves[48, 49] and in the solar wind [50,
106].
70
Figure 4-1: The amplitude of solitary wave solution potential ϕm against the η for different
values of spectral index r.
Figure 4-2: The effect of spectral index q on amplitude of solitary wave potential ϕm as a
function of velocity u0 .
71
Figure 4-3: Variation of the width of solitary wave solution ∆ with its velocity u0 for different
values of spectral index q.
Figure 4-4: Variation of the width of solitary wave solution ∆ with its velocity u0 for different
negative values of spectral index r.
72
Figure 4-5: The effects of spectral indices q and r on width of solitary wave solution ∆ as a
function of velocity u0 .
73
Chapter 5
Dust Acoustic Wave in Magnetized

Tropical Mesospheric Plasmas
The mesosphere (Greek words mesos means middle and sphaira means ball) is the layer of
the Earth’s atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the ther-
mosphere. The mesosphere is located about 50-80/85 km above Earth’s surface. Within this
layer, temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The main dynamic features in this region
are the atmospheric tides which are driven by momentum propagating upwards from the lower
atmosphere and extend into the lower thermosphere. Temperatures in the upper mesosphere
fall as low as 200K (≈-99◦ F), varying according to latitude and season. Millions of meteors
burn up daily in the mesosphere as a result of collisions with the plasma particles contained
there, leading to a high concentration of iron and other metal atoms. The collisions almost
always create enough heat to burn the falling objects long before they reach the ground.
Thousands of millions of interplanetary meteoroids enter the Earth’s atmosphere daily with
initial velocities in the range of 11.2-72.8 km s−1 . While the critical size of the meteoroid to
become dust depends on the entry velocity, those with radii typically in excess of about 10
µm produce observable luminous phenomena (”meteors”). During their impact with Earth’s
atmosphere the meteoroids vaporize and recondense into dust particles suspended in the Earth’s
mesosphere [113].
The very first instrument launched to study charged dust in the tropical mesosphere detected
74
a layer of fine dust (radius ≈10 nm) near the mesopause. The dust in the thinner lower part
of the layer carried a negative charge and the dust in the thicker upper part carried a positive
charge[114]. The negative charge on the dust was expected, while the positive charge was not,
because the observation was taken half hour after local astronomical sunset. The observers
sought to resolve the problem by suggesting that the positive grains were still carrying their
pre-sunset positive charge acquired by photoemission. Mendis et al [115] have reinvestigated
this phenomenon to explain the positive charge on the upper part of the layer. They have
suggested that micrometeoroids that enter the earth’s atmosphere at sufficient entry speeds,
even on the night side, acquire substantial positive charges due to thermionic electron emission
high up in the mesospheric region before they start ablating in the mesopause region. According
to [115] the charging equation of a micrometeoroid entering the earth’s atmosphere on its night
dQ
side is dt = Ie + Ii + Ith + Is , where Q is the total charge on the micrometeoroid and Ie ,
Ii , Ith are the electron collection, ion collection and thermionic (electron) collection currents,
respectively, and Is is the ablating (secondary) electron current which has been introduced
because the frictionally heated micro meteoroid surface evaporates, and the evaporated particles
carry away the accumulated surface charge at a certain rate. Mendis et al [116] and Sorasio
et al [117] have also studied the positively charged dust grain due to thermionic emission of
electrons from a fractionally heated meteoroid, as it enters the earth atmosphere. It may be
pointed out that these authors limit their treatment to the night side of the Earth so as to
avoid the role of photoemission while emphasizing the role of thermionic emission, but our
consideration here in this work is relevant to Earth’s day side, where the contribution to the
current from photoemission is also taken into account.
Dusty plasmas (plasmas containing charged dust grains of micron to sub-micron size) occur
in a wide variety of space and laboratory environments. The presence of dust, with a much
smaller charge-to-mass ratio than the plasma ions, can both modify the properties of known
ion waves and instabilities and give rise to new low frequency dust waves and instabilities.
Collective waves in dusty plasmas have attracted a great deal of attention in recent years.
Dust-acoustic wave(DAW) on a very slow time scale of dust dynamics emerges as a result of
the balance between dust grain inertia and plasma pressure [118] and can easily become highly
nonlinear [119]. It has recently been shown by several authors that these nonlinear waves can
75
form solitons of either positive or negative electrostatic (ES) potential [118, 120-122]. It has also
been shown theoretically and observed experimentally that dust charge fluctuations introduce
new eigen modes [123] both in the linear and nonlinear regimes. In plasmas with positive
dust particles, the electron density would be larger than that of ions, and different types of
instabilities and waves are likely to occur[124]. Plasmas with positive charged particles occur
widely in space and also in the earth’s mesosphere[125].
In this chapter, we present an analytical model for obliquely propagating DAWs in a rotating
magnetized dusty plasma with adiabatic dust grain charge variations in the day side tropical
mesospheric region. We employ the reductive perturbation technique, to derive the Korteweg—
de Vries (KdV) equation for these waves. Finally we discuss the effects of obliqueness and
effective gyrofrequency on the dynamics of this wave.
5.1 Mathematical Treatment
Consider a one-dimensional, rotating magnetized electropositive dusty plasma whose constituents

are Boltzmann-distributed electrons and ions, and cold dust grains having charge fluctuation.
The external magnetic field is directed along the x-axis, i.e. B0 = B0 x̂ and the plasma is taken
to be rotating along the magnetic field due to the Coriolis force with a rotational frequency Ωo .
The normalized basic equations for low phase velocity DAWs are
The continuity equation:
∂nd − →
+ ∇ · (nd −
→
v d) = 0 (5.1)
∂t
The equation of motion in a frame rotating with angular frequency Ωo can be written as
∂−vd ³−
→ →´ →
− →
−
+ →
vd · ∇ −vd = −(1 + ∆Q) ∇ϕ + (1 + ∆Q)Ωcd (−
→
v d × x̂) + 2Ωo (−
→
v d × x̂) (5.2)
∂t
and the Poisson’s equation
∇2 ϕ = µeϕ + (1 − µ)e−ρϕ − (1 + ∆Q)nd (5.3)
76
In deriving these equations, we use the charge neutrality condition eni0 = eneo − Qd0 nd0 ,
where Qd0 (= Zdo e) is the dust charge at equilibrium, ∆Q is the perturbed part of the normalized
dust charge Qd , i.e. Qd = 1 + ∆Q, Zdo is the number of charged particles on the dust surface at
equilibrium, and njo is the equilibrium number density of jth spices where j = e, i, d (electron,
ion, dust). The number density nj is normalized by equilibrium density njo . The dust fluid
velocity vd and electrostatic wave potential ϕ are normalized by dust acoustic speed csd =
(Zdo Te /md )1/2 and Te /e respectively. The dust charge Qd is normalized by the equilibrium value
→
−
Qd0 . The rotational frequency Ω and the dust gyrofrequency Ωcd = Zdo eBo /md c are normalized
q
by dust plasma frequency ωpd = (4πndo Zdo 2 e2 /m ). The space and time coordinates are
d
p
normalized, respectively, by Debye length λD = Te /4πZdo ndo e2 and the dust plasma period
ω −1
pd . We note that ρ = Ti /Te , where Te (Ti ) is the electron (ion)temperature, µ = 1/(1 − p) and
p = nio /neo .
We assume that dust sized micrometeoroid is charged positively when it enters the earth’s
atmosphere on the day side. So for Qd > 0 the normalized dust charging equation is
ω pd Ie + Ii + Ith + Ip
∂t ∆Q = (5.4)
ν ch Zdo eν ch
Where Ie , Ii , Ith are the electron collection, ion collection and thermionic (electron) collec-
tion currents, respectively. Here Ip is the photoelectric current of electrons emitted from the
dust grain surface due to the action of solar radiation. The normalized expressions of these
currents for spherical dust grain of radius rd are [116, 119, 126]
Ie = −Je ne (1 + zQd )
Ii = Ji ni exp (−ρzQd ) (5.5)
Ith = Jth (1 + αz Qd ) exp (−αzQd )
Ip = Jp exp (−δzQd ) ,
Te Te
where Jl = 4πrd2 eβ l (l = e, i, th, p), α = Td , δ= Tp (Tp is being the average temperature of
77
the grain during photoemission process). Where
Vthe
β e = neo √
2π
Vthi −ρ z
β i = nio √ e
2π
r µ ¶3
2 me Te 2 −Wf
β th = 2
Vthe exp[ − αz]
π 2π~ Td
Jp Y
βp( = ) exp[−δz],
4
are the coefficients due to electronic(Ie ), ionic(Ii ) thermionic (Ith ), and photoelectric (Ip ) cur-
rents respectively. In the expressions of β th and β p , Wf denotes the work function of dust
material, Jp is the photon flux, Yp is the yield of photoelectrons, and h is Planck’s constant.
eQd0
Also z = 4πεo rd Te denotes the non-dimensional dusty plasma parameter. In expression (5.4)
£ ¤
ν ch = αo α2 zβ th exp (−αz) + δβ p exp (−δz) + β e + ρβ i exp (−ρz) ,
is the dust-charging frequency, with αo = 4πrd e2 /kB Te .

We are interested in dust perturbations in mesospheric plasmas which lead to soliton for-
mation. KdV solitons are formed as a balance between the nonlinearity and dispersion effects.
However, in the present context of a complex plasma we take into account the dust grain charg-
ing processes, which are faster (typically of the order of 10−8 seconds) than other characteristic
processes(tens of milliseconds for micro sized dust grain) of the DA wave formation and propa-
gation. Therefore on hydrodynamic time scale the dust charge quickly reaches local equilibrium
which means that dust grain charge will be fixed in each point of the DA soliton and determined
there by the plasma parameters at this point. Thus at different points of the soliton the dust
ω pd
grain charges will be, in general, different. It follows that ν ch ≈ 0, and this reduces the current
balance equation [127, 128], to
Ie + Ii + Ith + Ip ≈ 0 (5.6)
In this case the dust charge instantaneously reaches its equilibrium value at each space-time
point determined by the local electrostatic potential ϕ(r, t) and hence does not give rise to any
dissipative effect and this is known as adiabatic dust charge variation. Eq.(5.6) in terms of
78
∆Qd and ϕ can be written as
β th (1 + αz∆Q)e−αz∆Q + β p e−δz∆Q − β e eϕ (1 + z∆Q) + β i e−ρϕ e(−ρz∆Q) ≈ 0 (5.7)
5.2 Derivation and Solution of Standard KdV Equation
In order to examine the dynamics of finite amplitude obliquely propagating dust acoustic wave
in the presence of adiabatic dust charge variation, we derive an evolution equation from Eqs.
(5.1)-(5.3) and Eq. (5.7), by employing the reductive perturbation technique which entails the
introduction of stretched coordinates
1
ξ = ² 2 (lx x + ly y + lz z − λt)
3
τ = ²2 t ,
where ² is a small parameter characterizing the strength of the nonlinearity, λ is the normalized
solitary wave velocity, and lx, ly and lz are the direction cosines of the wave vector k along
the x, y and z axis respectively such that lx2 + ly2 + lz2 = 1. The plasma dependent variables are
expanded as
∞
X
Θ = Θ(0) + ²i Θi ,
i=1
where Θ ≡ [nd , vdx , ϕ, ∆Q]T where T is the transpose of matrix, and Θ(0) = [ndo , vdxo , ϕo , ∆Qdo ]T =
[1, 0, 0, 0]T , while transverse velocities are expanded as
∞
X
vds = ²(χ+1)/2 vs(χ−1) ,
χ=2
79
where s = y, z. Applying the perturbation scheme given above to Eqs.(5.1)-(5.3), and Eq.(5.7)
and then collecting terms of different powers of ². In the lowest order we obtain
v1x = (lx /λ)ϕ1
nd1 = (lx /λ)2 ϕ1
∆Q1 = −γ 1 ϕ1
∂ϕ1
v1z = Ω−1
c ly
∂ξ
∂ϕ1
v1y = −Ω−1
c lz ,
∂ξ
Here
¡ ¢
γ 1 = (β e (z + 1) + β i ρ) /z α2 zβ th + δβ p + ρβ i + β e ,
is the co-efficient due to dust charge fluctuation in the linear regime and Ωc = (Ωcd + 2Ω0 ) is
the effective gyrofrequency due to Lorentz and Coriolis forces. Combining these above results
with lowest order terms of the Poisson equation given by Eq.(5.3) we have
lx
λ= p (5.8)
µ − ρ(1 − µ) + γ 1
The Eq. (8) is the linear dispersion relation of the DAW, which is modified due to the
dust charge variation γ 1 and obliqueness θ with respect to the external magnetic field B0 . For
θ = 0 and γ 1 = 0, we get the relation (17) of [129] in the limit (k2 λ2D << 1). It is shown in
Fig. 5.1 that for given values of β i and β e the phase velocity λ is higher in the presence of
photoelectric and thermionic currents. Generally the effect of positive dust charge variation
appears to decrease the wave velocity whatever the changes occur in other parameters. We also
note that as obliqueness θ increases the phase velocity decreases.
¡ ¢
In the next order ∼ ²2 we obtain from Eqs.(5.1)-(5.3) and Eq.(5.7) the following
∂v1y
−λ − Ωc v2z = 0
∂ξ
∂v1z
−λ + Ωc v2y = 0
∂ξ
80
∙ µ ¶ ¸
∂ 2 ϕ1 1 ρ2 2
− (µ − ρ(1 − µ) + γ 1 ) ϕ2 − nd2 + γ 2 + µ + (1 − µ) ϕ1 + γ 1 nd1 ϕ1 = 0 (5.9)
∂ξ 2 2 2
∆Q2 + γ 1 ϕ2 + γ 2 ϕ21 = 0,
where the coefficient γ 2 is due to dust charge variation in nonlinear regime and is given by
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
β e (z + 1 − 2γ 1 z) + β i 2γ 1 z − 1 − z 2 γ 21 ρ2 + β th α2 z 2 − α3 z 3 γ 21 − β p δ 2 z 2
γ2 = ¡ ¢
2z β e + ρβ i + α2 zβ th + δβ p
From terms of order ²5/2 we obtain the following set of equations
∂v2x ∂ϕ ∂v1x ∂v1x ∂ϕ

−λ + lx 2 = − − lx v1x − lx ∆Q1 1 (5.10)
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ
∂nd2 ∂v2x ∂nd1 ∂ ∂v2y ∂v2z
−λ + lx = − − (v1x nd1 ) − ly − lz
∂ξ ∂ξ ∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ
By eliminating quantities with subscript 2 and terms containing v1y and v1z from Eqs. (5.9),
and (5.10) we get the KdV equation in terms of electrostatic potential as
∂ϕ1 ∂ϕ1 ∂ 3 ϕ1
+ Aϕ1 +B = 0, (5.11)
∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ 3
where the nonlinear coefficient A and dispersive coefficient B are given by
lx h ¡ ¢i
A= 3 (µ − ρ + ρµ + γ 1 ) − γ 1 − (µ − ρ + ρµ + γ 1 )−1 2γ 2 + µ + ρ2 − ρ2 µ
(µ − ρ + ρµ + γ 1 )1/2
∙ ¸
lx 1 − lx2
B= 1+
2 (µ − ρ + ρµ + γ 1 )3/2 Ω2c
The steady state solution of the KdV equation (Eq. 5.11) is obtained by transforming the
independent variables ξ and τ into new coordinate η = (ξ −V0 τ ), where V0 is a constant velocity
normalized by csd . The steady state solution is given by
ϕ1 = ϕm sec h2 [(ξ − V0 τ )/w] , (5.12)
where the normalized maximum amplitude ϕm and the width w are
81
¸ ∙
3V0
ϕm =
A
r
4B
w = (5.13)
V0
The above results can be used to find expression for n1 and v1x which are
nd1 = nm sec h2 [(ξ − V0 τ )/w] (5.14)
v1x = vm sec h2 [(ξ − V0 τ )/w]
¡ ¢ lx
Where nm = lx2 /V02 ϕm and vm = V0 ϕm are respectively the peak soliton dust density and
peak soliton x- component of dust velocity. The soliton energy εs can be calculated by using
R∞ 2
the integral εs = v1x (η)dη. By substituting v1x from Eq. (14) in this integral we obtain for
−∞
the soliton energy
4
εs = u2m w (5.15)
3
5.3 Discussion
From the expressions of ϕm and w, it is clear that as V0 increases the soliton amplitude increases,
but the width decreases. It is obvious from Eq.(5.12) that there exists compressive (rarefactive)
solitary waves if A > 0 (A < 0). We have numerically analyzed ϕm and w for parameters
corresponding to mesospheric dusty plasma parameters [115, 119, 130] with rd ∼ (1 − 10)nm,
ndo =103 cm−3 , wf ∼2-5 eV, Te w Ti =0.022 eV. A 1nm dust mass is 5000 a.m.u., Zdo ∼ 100−500,
z(= Zdo e2 /rd Te ) lies in the range −1.5 to −2.5 for positively charged dust, and Tp ∼1-2 eV.
Values for some parameters are taken arbitrarily i.e.: u0 = 1, ω cd = 0.1, Ωo = 0.01, lx = 0.1.
We found that for above mentioned parameter values, A > 0, thus ϕm is always positive (see
Fig. 5.2). This means that dusty plasma for the parameters that we have considered supports
only compressive solitary waves (solitary waves with ϕm > 0), which is in agreement with
[127], for a two component dust-electron plasmas induced by ultraviolet irradiation, and with
positively charged dust case in the work by Kopnin et al.[128], in which different soliton profiles
related to different signs of the dust charge have been investigated. In the calculation of [128]
82
Kopnin et al have studied the positively charged dust case with three currents (electronic, ionic,
photoelectric) in an unmagnetized mesospheric plasmas. But in our case we have additionally
investigated the effect of thermionic emission in a magnetized plasma. In our case we obtain
larger amplitude soliton as compared to those in Ref. 128 and this is may be due to the
additional thermionic current. Fig. 5.2 and Eq (5.13) show that due to dust charge variation,
amplitude of the soliton increases, whereas their width decreases.
It should be noted here that the perturbation method, is only valid for small but finite
amplitude limit, is not valid for large propagation angle θ (which makes the wave amplitude
large enough to break the condition 1 < ²n1 ). We also note that as we decrease lx , i.e., increase
the angle between magnetic field (B0 ) and propagation vector k, the amplitude of the soliton
increases, whereas its width decreases for Ωc >> (1 − lx ) and increases for Ωc << (1 − lx ), while
for small values of θ the amplitude of the soliton decreases. A decreasing soliton amplitude
may therefore be attributed to the decreasing soliton energy which may be possible due to the
reflection of ions and positively dust particles from the electrostatic field generated inside the
plasma. Another reason for the decrease of soliton amplitude may be due to the wave particle
energy exchange mechanism, the calculations of which are possible from kinetic theory and
beyond the scope of the present work.
It is seen that the effective gyro frequency Ωc has no direct effect on the amplitude of the
solitary waves. However, it does have an effect on the width of these solitary waves. It is shown
that as we increase the effective gyro frequency, the width of the soliton decreases, which in turn
increases the amplitude and hence the soliton energy. It means that the effective gyrofrequency
makes the solitary structures more spiky.
To summarize, we have investigated in this chapter the properties of DAW with adiabatic
dust charge fluctuation in general and thermionic and photoelectric currents in special, in a
magnetized rotating mesospheric plasma. We have also discussed the effect of obliqueness of
propagation and effective gyrofrequency on the dynamics of this wave. It is observed that for
given parameter values with mesospheric dusty plasma, DAW admits a compressive soliton
structure. Dust charge variations modify the soliton amplitude directly and width inversely.
The effective gyrofrequency is inversely proportional to the width of soliton and hence makes the
soliton more energetic and spiky as the effective gyrofrequency increases. Rotating magnetized
83
Figure 5-1: Linear dependency of phase velocity λ on the non-dimensional parameter z for
different values of coefficients β th and β p .
plasmas along with variable charging currents are believed to exist in planetary magnetospheres
of the Jupiter and Saturn [131], rotating interstellar clouds and dusty magnetoplasmas[132],
and of course the tropical mesosphere.
84
Figure 5-2: Effect of dust charge variation on soliton potential ϕ as a function of η. Bold curve
for low values, Dashed curve for intermedit values and solid curve for higher values of all β’s
respectively.
85
Chapter 6
Summary and Conclusion
In this thesis we have investigated the low frequency linear and nonlinear electrostatic and elec-
tromagnetic waves in multicomponent plasmas. We have considered different plasma medium
through which these waves propagate. Using the reductive perturbation technique we have
derived different integrable nonlinear evolution equations. These nonlinear evolution equations
admit solitary wave solution. The characteristics of different solitonic nature have been studied
by considering electron-ion, electron-positron-ion, and dusty plasmas.
In chapter 2 we have theoretically studied linear and nonlinear properties of obliquely propa-
gating magnetosonic waves in a three component e−p−i plasmas. The linear dispersion relation
of the wave has been discussed analytically and as well as graphically, and it has been noted
that when magnetosonic waves propagate obliquely to the magnetic field the phase velocity of
the wave becomes appreciably different from the case when purely parallel or perpendicular
cases are considered. In this work we assumed that the angle at which the waves propagate
relative to magnetic field is small, so that the dispersion is determined by the fact that the ion
Larmor radius is finite and also satisfies the limitations imposed by the reductive perturbation
technique. It has also been found that for β < 1 both modes of magnetosonic wave are super-
sonic and for β ≥ 1, the fast mode is supersonic while the slow one is subsonic. In the nonlinear
regime the solitons of these magnetosonic waves are described by the KP equation, which is
obtained by using the reductive perturbation technique. This technique imposes restrictions on
the amplitude of the wave, which means that this method can be applied for small but finite
amplitude waves and not for arbitrary amplitudes. According to this technique, the angle of
86
propagation will be small, since the effect of the perpendicular direction is small and the main
contribution comes from the longitudinal direction (x−axis). It has also been observed that for
small angle of propagation, the fast magnetosonic soliton propagates as a negative pulse and
the slow soliton as a positive pulse. We have found that the amplitude of the solitary structure
depends in a complicated fashion on the different plasma parameters i.e. the positron concen-
tration, the ratio of ion temperature to electron temperature and the plasma β-value. From
the graphical representations it has been found that by increasing the values of positron con-
centration, ion temperature and plasma β, for the slow mode, the amplitude increases however
the opposite is observed for the fast mode.
Nonlinear characteristics of magnetosonic waves in multi-species plasmas may find applica-
tion in space plasmas and also in fusion plasmas where they are used in particle acceleration
and heating experiments [70-74].
In chapter 3 we have analytically and graphically studied the characteristics of IAW propa-
gating obliquely to the external magnetic field in a weakly relativistic rotating e − p − i plasma.
The system consists electrons and positrons as Boltzmannian particles, and ions provides the
dynamics of the system. In the absence of perturbation we have assumed the plasma is in
the equilibrium condition with the relativistic ion streaming in one dimension. The nonlinear
ZK-equation has been derived for this wave by employing the reductive perturbation technique.
It has been noted that the finite ion temperature, positron concentration, obliqueness of the
propagation direction, relativistic ion streaming term, and the magnitude of effective gyrofre-
quency effect significantly the nature of the solitary structure. We have observed from the
linear dispersion relation that phase velocity decreases with respect to positron concentration
and relativistic ion streaming factor, and increases due to ion temperature and obliqueness θ.
It has been found that for given values of the parameters in the system, the ion acoustic wave
admits only positive potential (compressive solitary wave). It has shown that with increasing
values of effective gyrofrequency, the width of soliton decreases, it means that the effective
gyrofrequency makes the solitary structures more energetic.
Thus such IAWs with finite amplitude and narrow width, generated in a rotating plasma
could illustrate the motion of high energy protons which are believed to be present in the Van
Allen radiation belts [89] and in the Pulsar magnetosphere[45]. Rotating magnetized plasma
87
are also believed to exist in cosmic and solar atmosphere [98].
In chapter 4 we have studied analytically the dynamics of ion acoustic solitary wave in the
presence of electron trapping. It has been assumed that free and as well as trapped electrons
follow the generalized non-Maxwellian (r, q) distribution function. By using the well-known
reductive perturbation technique, the generalized KdV equation with a solitary wave solution
has been derived for different ranges of parameter r. Both from the analytical and graphical
results it was concluded that for positive values of r ion acoustic wave becomes supersonic and
for negative values of r it has a subsonic nature. It has also observed that for r = 0 and q → ∞
the dispersion relation, KdV equation along with solution and expressions for amplitude and
width are reduced to those with a Maxwellian distribution. We have noted that the amplitude
of the solitary wave solution increases for decreasing r and increasing q with respect to its
velocity uo , and also width of solitary wave solution increases for decreasing positive values of
r and increasing q with decreasing velocity uo . However we have also seen that for negative
values of r, the width decreases, which in turn means that negative r makes the solitary wave
solution more spiky. The application of such a wave with electron trapping in non-Maxwellian
distribution are believed to be exist in the near earth plasma shock waves[48, 49] and in the
solar wind [50, 106].
In chapter 5 we have investigated the properties of DAW with adiabatic dust charge fluctua-
tion in a magnetized rotating mesospheric plasma. We have also discussed the effect of oblique-
ness of propagation and effective gyrofrequency on the dynamics of this wave. In this work
we have considered electropositive dusty plasma whose constituents are Boltzmann-distributed
electrons and ions, and cold dust grains with charge fluctuation. The meteoritic dust in meso-
spheric plasma on day side is charged positively due to photo and thermionic emissions. The
nonlinear evolution equation here is the KdV equation, which has been derived by the applica-
tion of reductive perturbation technique. It has observed that for given parameter values with
mesospheric dusty plasma, DAW admits the compressive soliton structure. We have noted that
with propagation angle θ the amplitude of the soliton increases, whereas its width decreases
for Ωc >> (1 − lx ) (lx is the direction cosine along x-axis) and increases for Ωc << (1 − lx ).
It has also noted that dust charge variations modify the soliton amplitude directly and width
inversely. It was seen that the effective gyro frequency Ωc has no direct effect on the am-
88
plitude of the solitary waves. However, it does have an effect on the width of these solitary
waves. It was shown that effective gyrofrequency is inversely proportional to the width of
soliton and hence makes the soliton more energetic and spiky as the effective gyrofrequency
increases. Rotating magnetized plasmas along with variable charging currents are believed to
exist in planetary magnetospheres of the Jupiter and Saturn [131], rotating interstellar clouds
and dusty magnetoplasmas[132], and of course the tropical mesosphere.
89
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Analytical and Theoretical Studies of Low

Frequency Non-linear Waves in

It is certified that work contained in this dissertation is based on

Prof. Dr. Hassan A. Shah

Prof. Dr. Hassan A. Shah

I, Mushtaq Ahmad, Reg. No.04-GCU-PhD-Phy-03, student of PhD in the

subject of Physics session 2002-2006 here by declared that the matter

printed in the thesis titled “Analytical and Theoretical Studies of Low

Frequency Non-linear Waves in Multi-Component Plasmas” is my

work, thesis or publication in any form in any University, Research

Institution etc. in Pakistan or abroad.

My Mother, and daughters

1. Effects of positron concentration, ion temperature and plasma β- value on linear

List of Papers That Are Not Included

1. Ion acoustic solitary wave in homogeneous magnetized electron-positron-ion

Ion Acoustic wave (IAW) is a low frequency electrostatic wave, which is

Dusty plasmas (plasmas containing charged dust grains of micron to sub-

2 Two-Dimensional Magnetosonic Waves in Electron-Positron-Ion plasmas 30

3 Ion Acoustic Waves in Relativistic, Rotating Magnetized Electron-Positron-

4 Ion Acoustic Wave in the Presence of Non-Maxwellian Trapped Electrons 62

5 Dust Acoustic Wave in Magnetized Tropical Mesospheric Plasmas 74

6 Summary and Conclusion 86

1-1 The Maxwellian velocity distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5-1 Linear dependency of phase velocity λ on the non-dimensional parameter z for

1.1 Plasma Physics

1.1.1 Waves in Plasmas

1.2.1 Nonlinearity in Plasma Physics

A plasma as mentioned above is inherently a nonlinear medium. In the linear approximation

Characteristics and Application of Soliton

For a solitary wave to be a soliton it should have the following properties:

1.3 Reductive Perturbation Technique

Reductive perturbation analysis is widely applicable to small amplitude nonlinear waves. By

Θ(x, t) = ²p Kx − ω(²p K)t (1.6)

ξ = ²p (x − λt) ; τ = ²3p t (1.8)

which is approximated for small ω and k as acoustic like

ξ = ²1/2 (x − λt) ; τ = ²3/2 t (1.11)

1.4 Nonlinear Evolution Equations

1.4.1 Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) Equation

where boundary conditions U (η) → 0, dU (η)/dη → 0, d2 U (η)/dη 2 → 0, as |η| → ±∞ have

1.4.2 Kadomtsev-Petviashvili (KP) Equation

The standard KP equation in two-dimensional case [29] is

1.4.3 Zakharov-Kuznetsov(ZK) Equation

The standard form of Zakharov-Kuznetsov (ZK) equation is

1.5 Electron-Positron-Ion Plasmas

1.6 Distribution Function

f (r, v, t) = dn(r, v, t)/drdv,

1.6.1 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Function

A plot of the Maxwellian distribution as a function of vx is shown in Fig. 1.1 (for vy =

4πv 2 f (v)dv ∝ v −α dv for |v| > vth , (1.20)

Generalized Lorentzian (kappa) Distribution Function

Generalized (r, q) Distribution Function

Non-Maxwellian (r, q) distribution function is a modified version of Generalized Lorentzian

" µ 2 ¶r+1 #−q

1.7 Adiabatic Particle Trapping

t & L/vT e (1.25)

The magnitude of t is of order of few ω −1

where U (x) = −eϕ(x). So the stationary distribution will be

f = f [E(x, px )], (1.27)

Ne = N0 exp [−U (x)/Te ] (1.29)

N0 being the background density of electron gas.

ftr = ftr (I(E, t)), (1.31)

My intention was to write as much a self-contained text as possible,which should be under-

A magnetosonic wave is a transverse wave of ions (and electrons) in a magnetized plasma

2.1 Mathematical Formulation