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What is frequency response

So far we have described the response and performance of a
system in terms of complex frequency variable s=σ+jω and
Frequency Response Methods the location of poles and zeros in the s-plane. An important
alternative approach to system analysis and design is the
frequency response method.
•Polar Plot The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-
•Bode Diagram state response of the system to a sinusoidal input signal. We
will investigate the steady-state response of the system to
the sinusoidal input as the frequency varies.

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When the input signal is a sinusoid, the resulting output signal for LTI systems is
sinusoidal in the steady state, it differs from the input only in amplitude and For the system Y ( s)  T ( s) R( s) with r(t )  A sin t,
phase. the steady-state output is lim y (t )  A T ( j ) sin(t   ), where   T ( j ).
t 

That is, the steady-state response depends only on the magnitude and
A
Consider the system Y ( s)  T ( s) R( s) with r(t )  A sin t. R ( s )  L {r (t )}  2
s  2
phase of T(jω).
m( s )
If T ( s ) 
( s  p1 )( s  p 2 )  ( s  pn )
, where p1, p2,…,pn are distinctive poles, Advantages of the frequency response
then in partial fraction expansion form, we have method
k1 k2 k s    The sinusoidal input signal for various ranges of frequency
Y ( s)    n  2
s  p1 s  p2 s  pn s   2 and amplitude is readily available.
Taking the inverse Laplace transform yields  It is the most reliable and uncomplicated method for the
 s    experimental analysis of a system.
y (t )  k1e  p t  k 2 e  p t   k n e  p t  L -1  2
1 2 n
2 
s     Control of system bandwidth.
Suppose the system is stable, then all the poles are located in the left half plane and
thus the exponential terms decay to zero as t→∞. Hence, the steady-state  The TF describing the sinusoidal steady-state behaviour of
response of the system is the system is easily obtained by replacing s with jω in the
system TF.
 s   
lim y (t )  L -1  2 2 
 A T ( j ) sin(t   ), where   T ( j ).
t 
s   
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Frequency response plots Frequency response plots (cont’d)

Example – polar plot
Consider a simple RC circuit. The TF of the
• Polar plot system is
The TF G(s) can be described in the frequency domain by G( s) 
V2 ( s )

1
G ( j )  G ( s ) s  j  R( )  jX ( ), where R( )  ReG ( j ), X ( )  ImG ( j ) V1 ( s ) RCs  1
The sinusoidal steady-state TF is
The above equation is used for the polar polar plane 1 1 1
plot representation of the frequency G ( j )   , where 1 
j ( RC )  1 j  / 1   1 RC
response in the polar plane. 1  j  / 1 
The polar plot is obtained from G ( j )  R( )  jX ( ) 
 / 1 2  1
1 j  / 1 
polar plot  
1   / 1  1   / 1 
2 2

Alternatively, the TF G(jω) can be represented by

To draw the polar plot, R(ω) and X(ω) at
G ( j )  G ( j ) e j ( j )  G ( )  ( )
typical frequencies, e.g., ω=0, ∞, are to be
X ( ) determined.
where G ( )  R( )  X ( ) ,  ( )  tan 1
2 2 2

R( )
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Frequency response plots (cont’d) Bode diagram

Limitations of polar plots: Advantages of Bode plots:
 The addition of poles and zeros requires the recalculation of  Multiplication of magnitudes can be converted into addition by
virtue of the definition of logarithmic gain.
the frequency response.  Straight-line asymptotes are simple to be used for sketching an
 The effect of individual poles and zeros is not indicated. approximate log-magnitude curve.
A more widely used graphical tool to plot frequency response is the Bode
diagram.
The use of a logarithmic scale for the frequency is a more judicious
choice than a linear scale of frequency as this expands the low
 Bode plot frequency range, which is more important in practical systems.
The TF in the frequency domain can be written as
G ( j )  G ( )  ( ) An interval of two frequencies with a
For a Bode diagram, we normally use ratio equal to 10 is called a decade.
Logarithmic gain in dB  20 log10 G ( ) The slope of the asymptotic line in the
Magnitude versus ω and phase versus ω are plotted separately. figure is -20dB/decade.
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Bode diagram of poles (or zeros) at the

Bode diagram of constant gain K
origin (jω)
For a generalised TF, Q
K (1  j i )
The log magnitude of a pole at the origin is 20 log
1
 20 log  dB
G ( j )  i 1 j
 
M R
( j ) N  (1  j m )  1  ( 2 k / nk ) j  ( j / nk ) 2 The phase angle of 1/jω is constant and equal to -900, i.e., ()  900
m 1 k 1

there often exist four basic factors, i.e.,

The slope of the magnitude curve is -20dB/decade for the pole at the
 Constant gain K
origin. For a multiple pole at the origin, the log magnitude is
 Poles (or zeros) at the origin (jω) 1
20 log  20N log  dB
 Poles (or zeros) on the real axis (jωτ+1)  j N
and the phase is  ( )  900 N
 Complex conjugate poles (or zeros) [1+(2ζ/ωn)jω+(jω/ωn)2]
The log magnitude of a zero at the origin is 20 log j  20 log  dB
We will determine the Bode diagram for each of these factors. and the phase angle is  ()  90
0

Bode diagram of constant gain K

The logarithmic gain is a horizontal line on the Bode diagram, Bode diagram of
20 log K  constant in dB (jω)±N
and the phase angle is
 ( )  0
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Bode diagram of complex conjugate

Bode diagram of poles (or zeros) on the real axis
poles (or zeros)
1
1 ( j ) 2  2n ( j )  n2
The log magnitude of (1+jωτ)-1 is 20 log  20 log 1  () 2
1  j The normalised form of a pair of complex conjugate poles can be written as
The asymptotic curve for ω<<1/τ is -10log1=0 dB, and the asymptotic 
G ( )  1  j 2u  u 2 1
, where u   /  n
curve for ω>>1/τ is -20logωτ with a slope of -20dB/decade. The two
asymptotes intersect at the 0dB line when ω=1/τ, the break frequency The log magnitude is 20 log G ( )  10 log (1  u 2 ) 2  4 2 u 2 
or corner frequency. The log magnitude at ω=1/τ is -10log2≈-3dB.
and the phase angle is  2u 
 ( )   tan 1  2 
The phase angle of (1+jωτ)-1 is 1 u 

 ()   tan 
1

When u<<1, the log magnitude is -10log1=0 dB, and the phase angle approaches
Bode diagram of 00. When u>>1, the log magnitude approaches -10log(u4)=-40logu, which results
(1+jωτ)-1 in a curve with a slope of -40dB/decade. The phase angle, when u>>1,
approaches -1800. The magnitude asymptotes meet at the 0dB line when
The Bode diagram of (1+jωτ)
u   / n  1.
is obtained in the same 12

manner as that of (1+jωτ)-1.

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Bode diagram of complex conjugate Bode diagram of complex conjugate poles (or
poles (or zeros) (cont’d) zeros) (cont’d)
The magnitude asymptotes intersect at the 0dB line when
u=ω/ωn=1. Bode diagram of
[(1+(2ζ/ωn)jω+(jω/ωn)2]-1

asymptotes for The difference between

1  j2u  u 
2 1
,
the actual magnitude
where u   / n
curve and the asymptotic
approximation is a
function of ζ. The max
value of the frequency
response occurs at the
resonant frequency, ωr.
When ζ→0, ωr→ ωn.
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Bode diagram of complex conjugate poles (or

zeros) (cont’d)
Minimum phase transfer function
The resonant frequency ωr is A TF is called a minimum phase TF if all its zeros lie in the
determined by taking the derivative left hand s-plane. It is called a nonminimum phase TF if it
of the magnitude of has zeros in the right hand s-plane.
1  j2u  u  2 1
, where u   / n The meaning of the term minimum phase becomes clear
with respect to u, and setting it equal from the following example. Suppose z,p>0, the TF
to zero. The resonant frequency is G1(s)=(s+z)/(s+p) has no zero in the right hand s-plane, but
r  n 1  2 2 ,   0.707
TF G2(s)=(s-z)/(s+p) has a zero in the right hand s-plane.
The frequency response curves can be evaluated for real
and the max value of the magnitude frequency s=jω on the s-plane (with ω varying along jω-axis).
of |G(ω)| is Thus,

M P  G (r )  2 1   2  ,   0.707
1

G1 ( j ) 
sz

j  z
G2 ( j ) 
sz

j  z
s p s  j
j  p s p s  j
j  p

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sz j  z sz j  z
G1 ( j )   G2 ( j )  
s  p s  j j  p s  p s  j j  p

The amplitude characteristics of G1(jω) and G2(jω) are the same as

can be seen from 2  z2 Asymptotic
G1 ( )  G 2 ( ) 
2  p2 curves for basic
However, the phase characteristics of G1(jω) and G2(jω) are factors
different because
1 ( )   j  z    j  p   1   2 2 ()   j  z    j  p   1*   2

Phase
characteristics
for minimum
phase &
nonminimum
phase TF

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5(1  j 0.1 )
G ( j ) 
Example of drawing the Bode diagram 
j (1  j 0.5 ) 1  j 0.6( / 50)   j / 50
2

We plot the magnitude characteristic for each factor in the TF.
1. The constant gain is 20log5=14dB.
2. The magnitude of the pole at the origin is a straight line with a slope
The Bode diagram of a TF G(s), which contains several poles of -20dB/dec and intersecting the 0dB line at ω=1.
3. The magnitude asymptote of the pole at ω=2 has a slope of -
and zeros, is obtained by adding the plot due to each 20dB/dec beyond the break frequency ω=2.
individual pole and zero. For example, the TF of interest is 4. The magnitude asymptote of the zero at ω=10 has a slope of
20dB/dec beyond the break frequency ω=10.
5(1  j 0.1 )
G ( j )  5. The magnitude asymptote for the complex poles is -40dB/dec

j (1  j 0.5 ) 1  j 0.6( / 50)   j / 50
2
 beyond the break frequency ω=ωn=50. But the actual magnitude
differs from this approximation as ζ=0.3.
The factors involved are:
1. A constant gain at K=5
2. A pole at the origin
3. A pole at ω=2
4. A zero at ω=10
5. A pair of complex conjugate poles at ω=ωn=50

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5(1  j 0.1 ) 5(1  j 0.1 )

G ( j ) 
G ( j ) 

j (1  j 0.5 ) 1  j 0.6( / 50)   j / 50
2
 
j (1  j 0.5 ) 1  j 0.6( / 50)   j / 50
2

The total asymptotic magnitude can be plotted by adding the The phase characteristic can be obtained by adding the phase due to
asymptotes due to each factor, as shown by the solid line in the each factor in the TF.
figure. We can also obtain the curve directly by plotting each 1. The phase of the constant gain is 00.
asymptote in order as frequency increases. 2. The phase of the pole at the origin is a constant -900.
3. We use the linear approximation of the phase characteristic for the pole
The magnitude characteristic of the given TF is shown in the figure. at ω=2, where the phase shift is -450 at ω=2.
4. We use the linear approximation of the phase characteristic for the zero
at ω=10, where the phase shift is 450 at ω=10.
5. The phase characteristic for the complex poles is obtained from the
known graph for ζ=0.3.
Phase
characteristic

When ω=46, the phase

angle is -1800.

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Summary of the example of drawing

the Bode diagram
We have drawn the approximate Bode diagram for the TF
5(1  j 0.1 )
G ( j ) 

j (1  j 0.5 ) 1  j 0.6( / 50)   j / 50
2

by finding the asymptotic magnitude and phase of each factor.
Although the magnitude and phase curves are approximate, they
give us good indication of important frequency ranges. After
plotting these approximate curves, we can use the equations to find
the exact magnitude & phase within a relatively small frequency
range, e.g., we are interested in the frequency at which the phase
angle is -1800. From the Bode diagram, this occurs when ω=46.
Using the equation  2u 
( )  900  tan 1   tan 1   tan 1    175
0

1 u 
  46 1 2 2

where  1  0.5, 2  0.1, u   / n   / 50

So there is an error of 50.

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