The Autonomic and Special Senses

The Autonomic
Nervous System
A Midterm Topic
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Autonomic Nervous System
▪ The involuntary branch of the nervous system
▪ Consists of only motor nerves
▪ Divided into two divisions
▪ Sympathetic division
▪ Parasympathetic division

Differences Between Somatic and
Autonomic Nervous Systems
▪ Nerves
▪ Somatic – one motor neuron
▪ Autonomic – preganglionic and
postganglionic nerves
▪ Effector organs
▪ Somatic – skeletal muscle
▪ Autonomic – smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands
Differences Between Somatic and
Autonomic Nervous Systems
▪ Nerurotransmitters
▪ Somatic – always use acetylcholine
▪ Autominic – use acetylcholine,
epinephrine, or norepinephrine

Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic
Nervous Systems
Figure 7.24
Anatomy of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Division

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
▪ Originates from T1 through L2
▪ Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the
spinal cord)
▪ Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long
postganglionic neuron transmit impulse from
CNS to the effector
▪ Norepinephrine and epinephrine are
neurotransmitters to the effector organs

Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous
System
Figure 7.25
Sympathetic Pathways
Figure 7.26
Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
▪ Originates from the brain stem and S1 through
S4
▪ Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs
▪ Always uses acetylcholine as a
neurotransmitter

Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous
System
Figure 7.25
Autonomic Nervous System
▪ Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
▪ Response to unusual stimulus
▪ Takes over to increase activities
▪ Remember as the “E” division = exercise,
excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment

Autonomic Functioning
▪ Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
▪ Response to unusual stimulus
▪ Takes over to increase activities
▪ Remember as the “E” division = exercise,
excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment

Autonomic Functioning
▪ Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites
▪ Conserves energy
▪ Maintains daily necessary body functions
▪ Remember as the “D” division - digestion,
defecation, and diuresis

Development Aspects of the Nervous
System
▪ The nervous system is formed during the first
month of embryonic development
▪ Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
▪ The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of
the brain to develop

Development Aspects of the Nervous
System
▪ No more neurons are formed after birth, but
growth and maturation continues for several
years
▪ The brain reaches maximum weight as a
young adult (3 lbs.)

The Special Sense
A Midterm Topic

Senses
Sense:
• ability to perceive stimuli
Sensation:
• conscious awareness of stimuli received by
sensory neurons
Sensory receptors:
• sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli
by developing action potentials
Classification of Senses
Figure 9.1
Types of Senses
General senses:
• receptors over large part of body that sense
touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and itch
• somatic provide information about body and
environment
• visceral provide information about internal
organs
Special senses:
• smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance
Types of Receptors 1
Mechanoreceptors:
• detect movement
• Example, touch, pressure, vibration
Chemoreceptors:
• detect chemicals
• Example, Odors
Photoreceptors:
• detect light
Types of Receptors 1
Thermoreceptors:
• detect temp. changes
Nociceptors:
• detect pain

Types of Touch Receptors 1
Merkel’s disk:
• detect light touch and pressure
Hair follicle receptors:
• detect light touch
Meissner corpuscle:
• deep in epidermis
• localizing tactile sensations

Types of Touch Receptors 2
Ruffini corpuscle:
• deep tactile receptors
• detects continuous pressure in skin
Pacinian corpuscle:
• deepest receptors
• associated with tendons and joints
• detect deep pressure, vibration, position

Sensory Receptors in the Skin
Figure 9.2
Sensory Receptors in the Skin
Figure 9.2
Pain
Pain is an unpleasant perceptual and emotional
experience ( ex. Free Nerve Endings of the skin)
Pain can be localized or diffuse.
Localized:
• sharp, pricking, cutting pain
• rapid action potential
Diffuse:
• burning, aching pain
• slower action potentials

Pain

Pain Control
Local anesthesia:
• action potentials suppressed from pain
• receptors in local areas
• chemicals are injected near sensory nerve
General anesthesia:
• loss of consciousness
• chemicals affect reticular formation

Referred Pain
Referred Pain
• originates in a region that is not source of pain
stimulus
• felt when internal organs are damaged or
inflamed
• sensory neurons from superficial area and
neurons of source pain converge onto same
ascending neurons of spinal cord

Areas of Referred Pain
Figure 9.3
The Ear
▪ Houses two senses
▪ Hearing
▪ Equilibrium (balance)
▪ Receptors are mechanoreceptors
▪ Different organs house receptors for each
sense

Anatomy of the Ear
▪ The ear is
divided into
three areas
▪ Outer
(external) ear
▪ Middle ear
▪ Inner ear
Figure 8.12
The External Ear
▪ Involved in
hearing only
▪ Structures of the
external ear
▪ Pinna
(auricle)
▪ External
auditory canal
Figure 8.12
The External Auditory Canal
▪ Narrow chamber in the temporal bone
▪ Lined with skin
▪ Ceruminous (wax) glands are present
▪ Ends at the tympanic membrane

The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity
▪ Air-filled cavity within the temporal bone
▪ Only involved in the sense of hearing

The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity
▪ Two tubes are associated with the inner ear
▪ The opening from the auditory canal is
covered by the tympanic membrane
▪ The auditory tube connecting the middle
ear with the throat
▪ Allows for equalizing pressure during
yawning or swallowing
▪ This tube is otherwise collapsed

Bones of the Tympanic Cavity
▪ Three bones span the cavity
▪ Malleus (hammer)
▪ Incus (anvil)
▪ Stapes (stirrip)
Figure 8.12
Bones of the Tympanic Cavity
▪ Vibrations from
eardrum move the
malleus
▪ These bones
transfer sound to
the inner ear
Figure 8.12
Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth
▪ Includes sense organs for hearing and balance
▪ Filled with
perilymph
Figure 8.12
Inner Ear or Bony Labrynth
▪ A maze of bony chambers within the
temporal bone
▪ Cochlea
▪ Vestibule
▪ Semicircular
canals
Figure 8.12
Organs of Hearing
▪ Organ of Corti
▪ Located within the cochlea
▪ Receptors = hair cells on the basilar
membrane
▪ Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of
bending hair cells
▪ Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells
transmits nerve impulses to auditory
cortex on temporal lobe

Organs of Hearing
Figure 8.15
Mechanisms of Hearing
▪ Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial
membrane
▪ Hair cells are bent by the membrane
▪ An action potential starts in the cochlear
nerve
▪ Continued stimulation can lead to adaptation

Mechanisms of Hearing
Figure 8.16a–b
Hearing Process 1
1. Sound travels in waves through air and is

funneled into ear by auricle.
2. Auricle through external auditory meatus to
tympanic membrane.

Hearing Process 1
3. Tympanic membrane vibrates and sound is amplified by

malleus, incus, stapes which transmit sound to oval
window.
4. Oval window produces waves in perilymph of cochlea.

Hearing Process 2
5. Vibrations of perilymph cause vestibular membrane and

endolymph to vibrate.
6. Endolymph cause displacement of basilar membrane.

Hearing Process 2
7. Movement of basilar membrane is detected by hair

hairs in spiral organ.
8. Hair cells become bent and cause action potential is
created.

Organs of Equilibrium
▪ Receptor cells are in two structures
▪ Vestibule
▪ Semicircular canals
Figure 8.14a–b
Organs of Equilibrium
▪ Equilibrium has two functional parts
▪ Static equilibrium
▪ Dynamic equilibrium
Figure 8.14a–b
Static Equilibrium
▪ Maculae – receptors in the vestibule
▪ Report on the position of the head
▪ Send information via the vestibular nerve
▪ Anatomy of the maculae
▪ Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic
membrane
▪ Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around the
hair cells
▪ Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair cells

Function of Maculae
Figure 8.13a–b
Dynamic Equilibrium
▪ Crista ampullaris – receptors
in the semicircular canals
▪ Tuft of hair cells
▪ Cupula (gelatinous cap)
covers the hair cells
Figure 8.14c
Dynamic Equilibrium
▪ Action of angular head
movements
▪ The cupula stimulates the
hair cells
▪ An impulse is sent via the
vestibular nerve to the
cerebellum
Figure 8.14c
Chemical Senses – Taste and Smell
▪ Both senses use chemoreceptors
▪ Stimulated by chemicals in solution
▪ Taste has four types of receptors
▪ Smell can differentiate a large range of
chemicals
▪ Both senses complement each other and
respond to many of the same stimuli

Olfaction
Olfaction is the:
• sense of smell
• occurs in response to
odorants
• receptors are located
in nasal cavity and
hard palate
• we can detected
10,000 different
smells
Figure
9.4a
Olfaction – The Sense of Smell
▪ Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the nasal
cavity
▪ Neurons with long cilia
▪ Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for
detection
▪ Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory
nerve
▪ Interpretation of smells is made in the cortex

Olfactory Epithelium
Figure 8.17
Olfaction Process
1. Nasal cavity contains a thin film of mucous

where odors become dissolved.
2. Olfactory neurons are located in mucous.
Dendrites of olfactory neurons are enlarged
and contain cilia.
3. Dendrites pick up odor, depolarize, and
carry odor to axons in olfactory bulb (cranial
nerve I).
4. Frontal and temporal lobes process odor.
Taste
Taste buds:
• sensory structures that detect taste
• located on papillae on tongue, hard palate,
throat
Inside each taste bud are 40 taste cells
Each taste cell has taste hairs that extend
into taste pores

The Sense of Taste
▪ Taste buds house
the receptor
organs
▪ Location of taste
buds
▪ Most are on
the tongue
▪ Soft palate
▪ Cheeks
Figure 8.18a–b
The Tongue and Taste
▪ The tongue is covered with projections called
papillae
▪ Filiform papillae – sharp with no taste
buds
▪ Fungifiorm papillae – rounded with taste
buds
▪ Circumvallate papillae – large papillae
with taste buds
▪ Taste buds are found on the sides of papillae

Structure of Taste Buds
▪ Gustatory cells are the receptors
▪ Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
▪ Hairs are stimulated by chemicals
dissolved in saliva

Structure of Taste Buds
▪ Impulses are carried to the gustatory complex
by several cranial nerves because taste buds
are found in different areas
▪ Facial nerve
▪ Glossopharyngeal nerve
▪ Vagus nerve

Anatomy of Taste Buds
Figure 8.18
Taste Sensations
▪ Sweet receptors
▪ Sugars
▪ Saccharine
▪ Some amino acids
▪ Sour receptors
▪ Acids
▪ Bitter receptors
▪ Alkaloids
▪ Salty receptors
▪ Metal ions
Taste Process
1. Taste buds pick up taste and send it to

taste cells.
2. Taste cells send taste to taste hairs.
3. Taste hairs contain receptors that initiate
an action potential which is carried to
parietal lobe.
4. Brain processes taste.

Vision
Accessory Structures
Eyebrow:
• protects from sweat
• shade from sun
Eyelid/Eyelashes:
• protects from foreign objects
• lubricates by blinking

The Eye and Accessory Structures 1
Figure
6.7a (a) ©Eric Wise
The Eye and Accessory Structures 2
Conjunctiva:
• thin membrane that covers inner surface of
eyelid
Lacrimal apparatus:
• produces tears
Extrinsic eye muscles:
• help move eyeball

Lacrimal Gland Structures
Figure
9.7c
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Figure 9.8
Anatomy of Eye
Hollow, fluid filled sphere

Composed of 3 layers (tunics)
Divided into chambers

The Eye
Figure 9.9
Fibrous Tunic
Outermost Tunic
Sclera:
• firm, white outer part
• helps maintain eye shape, provides attachment
sites, protects internal structures
Cornea:
• transparent structure that covers iris and pupil
• allows light to enter and focuses light
Vascular Tunic 1
Middle tunic
Contains blood supply
Choroid:
• black part (melanin)
• delivers O2 and nutrients to retina
Ciliary body:
• helps hold lens in place
Suspensory ligaments:
• help hold lens in place
Vascular Tunic 2
Lens:
• flexible disk
• focuses light onto retina
Iris:
• colored part
• surrounds and regulates pupil

Vascular Tunic 3
Pupil:
• regulates amount of light entering
• lots of light = constricted
• little light = dilated

Lens and Ciliary Body
Figure
9.10
The Iris
Figure
9.11
Nervous Tunic 1
Innermost tunic
Retina:
• covers posterior 5/6 of eye
• contains 2 layers
Pigmented retina:
• outer layer
• keeps light from reflecting back in eye

Nervous Tunic 2
Sensory retina:
• contains photoreceptors (rods and cones)
• contains interneurons
Rods:
• photoreceptor sensitive to light
• 20 times more rods than cones
• can function in dim light

Nervous Tunic 3
Cones:
• photoreceptor provide color vision
• 3 types blue, green, red

Retinal Rod 1
Figure
9.12c
Retinal Rod 2
Figure
9.12d
Pigments and Pigment Protein
Rhodopsin:
• photosensitive pigment in rod cells
Opsin:
• colorless protein in rhodopsin
Retinal:
• yellow pigment in rhodopsin
• requires vitamin A

The Retina 1
Rods and cones synapse with bipolar cells

of sensory retina
Horizontal cells of retina modify output of
rods and cones
Bipolar and horizontal cells synapse with
ganglion cells
Ganglion cells axons’ converge to form optic
nerve

The Retina 2
Figure
9.12a
The Retina 3
Macula:
• small spot near center of retina
Fovea centralis:
• center of macula
• where light is focused when looking directly at
an object
• only cones
• ability to discriminate fine images
The Retina 4
Optic disk:
• white spot medial to macula
• blood vessels enter eye and spread over retina
• axons exit as optic nerve
• no photoreceptors
• called blind spot

The Retina 5
Figure
9.14
Chambers of the Eye 1
Anterior chamber:
• located between cornea and lens
• filled with aqueous humor (watery)
• aqueous humor helps maintain pressure,
refracts light, and provide nutrients to inner
surface of eye
Posterior chamber:
• located behind anterior chamber
• contains aqueous humor
Chambers of the Eye 2
Vitreous chamber:
• located in retina region
• filled with vitreous humor: jelly-like substance
• vitreous humor helps maintain pressure, holds
lens and retina in place, refracts light

Functions of the Eye 1
The eye functions much like a camera.

The iris allows light into the eye, which is
focused by the cornea, lens, and humors
onto the retina.
The light striking the retina produces action
potentials that are relayed to the brain.
Light refraction and image focusing are two
important processes in establishing vision.

Light Refraction
• Bending of light
Focal point:
• point where light rays converge
• occurs anterior to retina
• object is inverted

Focusing Images on Retina

Accommodation:
• lens becomes less rounded and image
can be focused on retina
• enables eye to focus on images closer
than 20 feet

Focusing by the Eye
Figure
9.15
Visual Defects 1
Myopia:
• nearsightedness
• image is in front of retina
Hyperopia:
• farsightedness
• image is behind retina
Presbyopia:
• lens becomes less elastic
• reading glasses required
Visual Defects 2
Astigmatism:
• irregular curvature of lens
• glasses or contacts required to correct
Color Blindness:
• absence or deficient cones
• primarily in males
Glaucoma:
• increased pressure in eye
• can lead to blindness
Chart to Determine Color Blindness
Figure
6.16
(a) ©Steve Allen/Getty Images RF; (b) ©Prisma Bildagentur AG/Alamy
Developmental Aspects of the Special
Senses
▪ Formed early in embryonic development
▪ Eyes are outgrowths of the brain
▪ All special senses are functional at birth

The Autonomic and Special Senses

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The Autonomic

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

1. Sound travels in waves through air and is

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

3. Tympanic membrane vibrates and sound is amplified by

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

5. Vibrations of perilymph cause vestibular membrane and

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

7. Movement of basilar membrane is detected by hair

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

1. Nasal cavity contains a thin film of mucous

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

1. Taste buds pick up taste and send it to

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Hollow, fluid filled sphere

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Rods and cones synapse with bipolar cells

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The eye functions much like a camera.

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Focusing Images on Retina

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings