Automatic Flight Control Systems Donald McLean Westland Professor of Aeronautics, University of Southampton, UK PRENTICE HALL New York London Toronto - Sydney Tokyo - SingaporeeT sew ge ty ee ee First published 1990 by Drentie Hall lnernational (UK) Ltd {66 Wood Lane End, Hemel Hempstead Hertordshire HPD 4RG Adiison of Simon & Schuster International Group © 1990 Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd ‘AI eights reserved. No part of this publication may be {eproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmited, {nvany form, or by any means, elettronic, mechanical photocopying, reconding or otherwise, without prior permission. i wating, from the publisher. For permission within the United States of America contact Premice Hall In, Englewood Chis, NI 07582 ‘Typeset in 10/12 pt Times bby Columns of Readin Printed and bound in Grest Bri University Press, Cambridge ‘Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data MeLean, Donald. 1936 ‘Ratomate ight contol systems/by Donald McLean, pcm Ibiopan: Ancludes men ISBN 0-15-05408-0 $0.0 1 igh contol 1 Tite uso tnts 190 fee se seas? ap ging in Publication Data McLean, D. (Dona, 1936-) ‘Autonratie fight contol systems Aweraft. Atomic Might conte systems 1 tie 629.1352 ISBN’ 0-13-054008-0 12345 94939291 90 wowQb Automatic Flight Control SystemsPrentice Hall International Series in Systems and Control Engineering M. J. Grimble, Series Editor Banks, S. P., Control Systems Engineering: Modelling and Simulation, Control Theory and Microprocessor Implementation Banks, 8. P., Mathematical Theories of Nonlinear Systems Benverr, S., Real-time Computer Control: An Introduction Cecrett, T., Power Systems Control Cox, P. A., Nonlinear Dynamical Systems Lunze, J., Robust Multivariable Feedback Control Pariox, R., Cuark, R. N., Frank, P.M. (editors), Fault Diagnosis in Dynamic Systems SoperstRoM, T., and Stoica, P., System Identification, Wanwick, K., Control Systems: An IntroductionCont 2 The 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 22 2.13 2.14 215 3 Aire 31 3.2 ents raft Flight Control Introduction Control Surfaces Primary Flying Controls Flight Control Systems Brief History of Flight Control Systems Outline of the Book Conclusions Note References Equations of Motion of an Ai Introduction Axis (Coordinate) Systems ‘The Equations of Motion of a Rigid Body Aircraft Complete Linearized Equations of Motion Equations of Motion in Stability Axis System Equations of Motion for Steady Manocuvring Flight Conditions Additional Motion Variables State and Output Equations Obtaining a Transfer Function from State and Output Equations Important Stability Derivatives ‘The Inclusion of the Equations of Motion of Thrust Effects Conclusions Exercises Notes References ft Stability and Dynamics Introduction Longitudinal Stability xp 16 18 19 31 35 37 a 50 5 35 58 59 61 63 6ai ee a vi Contents 3.3. StatieStabiity 6 3.4 Tranfer Functions Related to Longitudinal Motion B 3.5. Transfer Functions Obtained from Short Period Approximation 78 3.6 ‘Transfer Functions Obtained from Phugoid Approximation 2 3.7. Lateral Stability 85 3.8 Transfer Functions Related to Lateral Motion 85 3.9 Three Degrees of Freedom Approximations 91 3.10 ‘Two Degrees of Freedom Approximations 94 3.11 Single Degree of Freedom Approximation 95 2.12. State Equation Formulation to Emphasize Lateral Directional Effects 95 3.13 Conclusions 7 3.14 Exercises 98 3.15 Notes wo 3.16 References 101 4 The Dynamic Effects of Structural Fle Motion of an Aircraft 102 4.41 Introduction 102 4.2 Bending Motion of the Wing 103, 43. Torsion of the Wing los 4.4 Coupled Motions 107 4°35. The Dynamics of a Flexible Aircraft 108 4.6 Mathematical Representation of the Dynamics of a Flexible Aircraft 110 47 Lift Growth Effects us 4.8 Bending Moments 119 4.9 Blade Flapping Motion 21 410. Conclusion 123 S11 Exercises 123, 4.12 Notes 126 4.13. References 126 5 Disturbances Affecting Aircraft Motion 127 5.1 Introduction 7 5.2 Atmospheric Disturbances 127 53 A Discrete Gust Function 18 5.4 Power Spectral Density Functions 129 3.5 Continuous Gust Representations 130 5.6 State Variable Models 25 57 Angular Gust Equations “7 5.8 The Effects of Gusts on Aircraft Motion BTContents vil 5.9 Transient Analogue 138 5.10 Determination of the r.m.s. Value of Acceleration as a Result of Encountering Gusts 139 5.11 Wind Shear and Microbursts 144 5.12 Sensor Noise 148 5.13 Conclusions 148 5.14 Exercises 148 5.15 References 150 6 Flying and Handling Qu: 151 Introduction 151 Some Definitions Required for Use with Flying Qualities’ Specifications 152 6.3 Longitudinal Flying Qualities 153 6.4 Lateral/Directional Flying Qualities 157 6.9 The C* Criterion 161 6.6 Ride Discomfort Index 164 6.7 Helicopter Control and Flying Qualities 166 68 Conclusions 170 6.9 Exercises m 6.10. References 173 7 Control System Design Methods | 174 7.1. AFCS asa Control Problem 174 7.2 Generalized AFCS WT 7.3 Conventional Control Methods 180 7.4 Parameter Optimization 206 7.5 Conclusions 217 7.6 Exercises 217 71 Note 20 7.8 References 20 8 Control System Design Methods Il 222 8.1 Introduction 222 8.2. The Meaning of Optimal Control 22 8.3 Controllability, Observability and Stabilizability 226 8.4 Theory of the Linear Quadratic Problem 232 8.5 Optimal Output Regulator Problem 238. 8.6 State Regulators with a Prescribed Degree of, Stability 242 8.7. Explicit Model-Following 243 8.8 Optimal Command Control System 245 8.9 Use of Integral Feedback in LP 248ate 9 Stabil 10 " 8.10 81 812 8B 814 94 92 93 9.8 9.5 9.6 97 98 99 9.10 oan 9.12 State Reconstruction Conclusions Exercises, Notes References ity Augmentation Systems Introduction Actuator Dynamics ‘Sensor Dynamics Longitudinal Control (Use of Elevator Only) Other Longitudinal Axis SASs Sensor Effects Scheduling Lateral Control Conclusions Exercises Notes Reference Attitude Control Systems 10.1 102 103 104 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 Introduction Pitch Attitude Control Systems Roll Angle Control Systems Wing Leveller Co-ordinated Turn Systems Sidestip Suppression Systems Directional Stability During Ground Roll Conclusions Exercises Notes References Flight Path Control Systems na M2 13 4 Ins 116 17 118 19 Introduction Height Control Systems Speed Control Systems Mach Hold System Direction Control System Heading Control System VOR-Coupled Automatic Tracking System ILS Localizer-Coupled Control System ILS Glide-Path-Coupled Control System Contents 253 266 266 268, 269 270 270 2 2B 2 293, 204 298, 298, 310 311 316 316 317 317 317 323, 334 335 338. 350 352 352 357 357 358 359 365 369 371 376 381 3e4 388, aneContents 12 13 4 11.10 ml 12 1.13 itd 1115 Automatic Landing System A Terrain-Following Control System Conclusions Exercises Notes References Active Control Systems 121 122 12.3 124 12.5 2.6 2.7 128 129 12.10 141 Introduction ACT Control Funtions Some Benefits Expected from ACT Gust Alleviation Load Alleviation System for a Bomber Aircraft ‘A Ride Control System for a Modern Fighter Aircraft Aircraft Positioning Control Systems Conclusions Exercises Note References Helicopter Flight Control Systems. Ba 2 13.3 134 3S 13.6 137 138 Bo Introduction Equations of Motion Statie Stability Dynamic Stability Stability Augmentation Systems Conclusions Exercises Notes References Digital Control Systems 4.1 42 M3 Ms us 146 47 148 49 M10 Introduction A Simple Discrete Control System A Data Hold Element ‘The 2-Transform Bilinear Transformations Discrete State Equation Stability of Digital Systems Optimal Discrete Control Use of Digital Computers in ACSs Conclusions 399 404 412 412 418. 418, a19 419 420 422 23 426 435 487 445 437 449 449 451 451 454 461 465 471 482 483, 489 489 491 493 499 499 50s 508, 510 si7 sI8. 52015 14.11 Exercises 14.12 Notes 14.13 References Adaptive ht Control Systems 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Model Reference Systems 18.3. The MIT Scheme 15.4 Example System 15.5 A Lyapunov Scheme 15.6 Parameter Adaptation Scheme 18.7. Conclusions 15.8 Notes 15.9 References Appendices A Actuators and Sensors A. Introduction A2 Actuator Use in AFCSs A3 Actuators Ad Sensors AS Accelerometers A.6 Angle of Attack Sensor AT References B Stabi Representative Mod B.1_ Nomenclature B.2 Aircraft Data © Mathematical Models of Human Pilots C1 Introduction C2 Classical Models C3 References Index Contents 520 521 522 523 523 525 527 529 531 533 534 534 534 837 337 337 538, 549 552 554 555 556 556 556 569 569 570 S74