FAT 407

FISHING GEAR ACCESSORIES

The two major accessories that is common to net fishing gear used by most artisanal fisherfolks
are float, buoy, sinker and weight. Floats are attached to fishing net to keep a proper and desired
shape in the water while buoys are attached to show the location of the fishing gear during
operation. The following are the properties before a material is deemed fit to be used as a float or
buoy;

i. Must have great buoyancy

ii. Less decrease in buoyancy under high water pressure condition
iii. Must be durable
iv. Easy to mould or cut into required shape
v. Available at low cost.

Going by the above properties, several types of materials have been in use all over the world as
float or buoy. Some of these include;

a. In Nigeria particularly in Kainji Lake basin, Styrofoam, worn-out bathroom slippers, and
raffia palm fronds are commonly used by the artisanal fisher folks as floats and buoys. The
specific gravity of these materials have not yet be estimated.
In fishing gear design and specification, it is normal to estimate the buoyancy and sinking
power of the float/buoy and sinkers/weight respectively. This is necessary in order to be able
to balance the fishing gear accurately for better performance either at the bottom, mid water
or surface of the water. Also, these two opposing forces determine the quantity of materials
needed for the float/buoy and sinkers/weight without using excess of either this will reduce
overhead cost of fabrication.
To calculate the buoyancy of a float or buoy, the following formula was adopted;
F = V-W or F = (W) – w = w (L-1)/C
C
Where V= Volume of Material
W = weight of Material
C = Specific gravity.
 For floating fishing gear, surplus buoyancy is required to prevent gear for sinking.
Sinkers
The weight and sinkers are equally important accessories for fishing gear, while weights
stand as anchor for stationary gear or towing weight for trawl fishing, sinker are directly
attached or rigged to the foot line of net fishing gear at specified intervals. The opposing
buoyancy and sinking forces of the floats and sinkers keep th set net gear in the required
shape for fishing. Highlighted properties of materials suitable for use as sinkers or weight
include;
1. Large sinking power (high specific gravity)
2. Solid enough as not disintegrate in water
3. Easy to mould or cut into required size
4. Available in large quantity and at affordable rate.

Non-Netting Gear

Unlike the netting gear type where net webbing are generally used for all the gear irrespective of
type, the material used for non-netting gear varies from one gear to another. These materials may
include Hooks of various numbers (1-18). The lower the number, the bigger is the shank and
barb of the hook. Some indigenous contrivances grouped under trap can be fabricated using wire
mesh, flexible sticks, palm frond etc. There is no evidence to show that these materials have
special characteristics that make them suitable for a particular fishing gear.

Hanging of Nets on supporting Rope

Net webbings after being cut to the desired shape are mounted to the supporting rope such as
head rope or foot rope. This is a process known as net hanging. The hanging of nets usually in
such a manner that some amount of looseness is created depending on the type of net that is
being constructed. A baggy net such as seine net without cord end need a high amount of
looseness while entangling net will need an average amount of looseness to permit proper
opening of meshes and entangling of the fish during capture. Creating the appropriate looseness
is called net shortening and it is the process of mounting stretched netting of a longer length on
a rope of a shorter length. There are two different ways of calculating net shortening.
Net shortening is usually called hang-in(S) and it is expressed as the amount of excess or loose
webbing as a ratio of the total stretched length of webbing as a ratio of the total stretched length
of webbing.

Hang-in (S) = Excess webbing

Total webbing

The expression indicates the amount of looseness of the meshes. Thus, the nearer the value is to
the number one, the more is the looseness of the meshes.

Net shortening is also called hanging ratio € and is the relationship between the rope upon which
the net is mounted and the stretched length of the netting section that is mounted on the rope. It is
defined as the numerical value of the decimal fraction of the length of rope divide by the
stretched length of rope divided by the stretched length of the respective netting section, the
latter being the product of the mesh size and number of meshes.

Hanging ratio (E) = Length of rope

Length of stretched netting (Mesh size × No of meshes)

The expression unlike the hang-in is an indication of the amount of tension or tightening on the
meshes. The nearer hanging ration is to the numerical number one, the greater is the tension on
the meshes.

The relationship between (S) value and (E) value need to be well understood so that mistakes are
not made when fabricating from design specification of a particular gear whose shortening is
expressed as hanging ration or hang-in.

The relationship between the two methods of shortening can be expressed thus;
S = L - L1 =1 – I1
L L

Where L is the stretched length of the netting and L1 is the length of rope.
E = L1
L
S = 1 – E or E = 1 – S
The value of hang-in can be converted to hanging ration by subtracting (S) value from numerical
number one; and vice versa for (E) value.
Twine Notation and Numbering System

The primary raw material for twine spurning is the fibre in filamentous form. These filaments are
clumped together to form yarn; yarn are twisted together to form strand. Two or more strands are
again twisted together in an opposite direction to form twine or cord.

The thickness of a netting cord or twine is very important in gear construction. The contribution
of twine thickness to the efficiency of the gear are the following;

(i) Thickness determine the flexibility of twine

(ii) The tensile strength of twine produced from same fibre type is directly proportional to the
twine thickness.
(iii) Thickness determines the type of gear that can be produced.
(iv) Durability of gear is a function of twine thickness.

Synthetic fibres can be produced in several extra-fineness using measuring instruments such as
rulers and callipers to take the twine diameter of some fine twine is an important task. Several
conventional notations have been adopted by various manufacturers to denote the thickness of
the twine. These notations can be grouped into two types;

1. The Direct Systems

The direct systems in which the length of the twine is constant but the weight/mass
varied. In this system, a constant length of the twine is produced by using a varying
weight or mass of the raw material. Thus, the more is the mass of the raw material, the
thicker is the thickness of the twine. Examples of some conventional twine notations
include denier measurement which is the amount in weight of the raw material used to
produce 9,000m in length of the finished product (twine). Hence, 210d (which is about
the minimum thickness in the market) means 210g of the raw material (fibre) is used to
produce 9,000 length of the twine. Likewise, 210d/3 is using 210 × 3 = 630g of the same
raw material to produce the same 9,000m length of twine. The higher the ply number
therefore, the thicker is the twine size. It should be noted that the ply number of a Denier
measurement, apart from ply 2, is always an addition of three. Hence there are 210d,
210d/2, 219d/3, 210d/6, 210d/9, 210d/12 etc.
 2. The Indirect System
Indirect systems of yarn count in which the weight or mass is constant while the length of
twine produced varies. In this system a constant known weight of the raw material is used
to produce a variable length of the twine. The longer the twine is (or the higher is the
convention number) the thinner or extra fine is the twine.
The most common indirect systems of twine measurement used by net manufacturers
include:-
a. English cotton Number (Nec) in which 1lb of raw material is used to produced 840yds
of the twine. The higher the Nec number the thinner is the twine.
b. Metric Number (Nm) in which 1000m length is produced using varying gram of the
raw material. Hence 20Nm is thicker than 30Nm.
c. Runnage (m/kg) in which 1 kg of the raw material is used to produce varying lengths
of the twine. Hence 100m/kg is thicker than 200m/kg.

The Tex System of Yarn Count

In the past, various netting and twine manufacturing companies used the various conventional
yarn counts to specify the thickness of their products. This usually gave a conflicting to the
notation especially between manufacturers in the Western and Eastern countries. This led to
FAO coming up with working group on terminology and numbering system during the first
congress of 1957. The group came up with the Tex numbering system as the internationally
accepted method of specifying the thickness of all fishing textile material. It is based on the
metric system of measurement. The system is a direct one which indicate the amount of weight
of the raw material (fibre) used to produce 1000m length of the twine. Hence, 1 tex(which is the
minimum tex measurement) is 1 g of the raw material used to produce 1000m length of filament.
23 tex is using 23 g to produce 1000m. The higher the tex number, the thicker is the twine size.

Conversion of Other Conventional systems To Tex

The working group went further by arriving at the appropriate formulae for converting the other
conventional systems to Tex value as thus:-

i. Denier to Tex is
 Tex = 0.111 × the Denier Number (d)
e.g. 210d = 0.111 × 210 = 23 tex
ii. Metric number to Tex is
Tex =1000/Nmnumber
e.g. 50Nm = 1000/50 = 4 Tex
iii. English cotton count to Tex is
Tex = 590/Nec number
e.g. 20Nec = 590/20 = 29.5 tex
iv. Runnage to Tex is
Tex = 10000000/mkg-1
e.g. 5000m/kg = 1000000/5000 = 200 tex

Therefore, Tex value of any of the conventional yarn count canbe obtained using:-

Tex = 0.11 x Td = 590/nec = 1000/Nm = 1000000/mkg-1 tex

Design Specification and Characteristics of Fishing Gear

FAO (1972) document on fishing gear design specifications recommended a standard for
specifying and designing the various components of fishing gear. The drawing may not
necessarily be to scale nor to be exact. However, the specification should give the essential
impressions to any gear expert who wish to construct such gear without necessarily sighting the
gear. The approved rules to follow are given below;-

a. Twine size notation

This should be in total tex (Rtex). Twine strength chart (if available) can be given in a
separate column.
b. Unit adopted
The metric system is adopted as the standard but where a net is designed in another
commonly used measurement, the unit in which it is designed should be used with a
metric conversion in bracket or italics.
c. Conventional sections of the design
This is divided into four sections A, B, C and D. section a gives the basics information or
element of the fishing gear such as name, type, fishing ground, Number of crew, locality
etc. Section B specify the webbing such as the type, twine size, mesh size, shortening
rate, tapering rate, take-up ratio etc.
Section C notes information on the lines and ropes used such as the make, twist direction,
thickness, length etc.
Section D specify for all accessories used for rigging the gear e.g. float/buoy,
sinker/weight, otter board if applicable etc.
Detailed information on the make, size, weight buoyancy, sinker power, quantity and
spacing interval must be given.
i. Mesh size
Mesh size is given in millimetre followed by the design unit where applicable.
True mesh size is use, that is the length of one lumen plus one knot with the
meshes stretches.
ii. Length of Net
Length and depth are indicated by the number of meshes. The number of meshes
along the top of each panel are given as upper edge meshes. Those at the bottom
of each panel are given as lower edge meshes while the depth meshes are those
along each of the sides of the panel
iii. Shortening Rate
If hanging ratio € or hang-in (s) value is used, it must be clearly stated with the
(S) or (E) value indicated e.g. S=0.45 or E = 0.45
iv. Barting rate (Tapering ratio)
If the panels are tapered, the tapering ratio of each side of the panels is specified,
indicating the point, bar and mesh cuts. Direction of barting in relation to “run of
the knot” should also be indicated. Where the barting rate of the two edges of a
panel differ, the tapering ratio for both the inner and outer edges is specified on
successive value.
v. Take-Up
 The joining of different panels where joining is not obvious, is given as a simple
ratio of the number of meshes of one panel joined to the number of meshes in the
other, e.g. A:B = 4:5

Use of Illegal Fishing Gear and Methods

The fisheries edicts of Niger and Kebbi states of 1985 and 1997 respectively (states that shared
the lake) listed the following fishing gears and methods as illegal and their use totally banned.

a. Small mesh size (2½ and below) for gill net

b. Fishing effort beyond 500 in head length for gillnet fishery
c. Driftnet of 2” mesh size and below
d. Use of beach seine net locally called “Dala”
e. Fishing methods that involved compulsive frightening offish by making of noise,
sounding or beating of water body
f. Other obnoxious fishing methods that include the use of chemical and mechanical
narcosis in water body other than for experimental or research purposes which permission
must have been sought for and granted.

They were evidence of a high use of all these banned fishing gear and methods on the lake.

Determination of Catch per Unit Effort (CPUE)

Estimation of gear catch and the efforts exerted towards such varied from one worker to another
due to the differences in the definition of efforts, while some worker may define effort as the
sum total of gear size, number of fishing hours, amount of input in terms of fuel, wear and tear of
equipment and even labour; others just take the prevailing fishing situation upon which CPUE
could be estimated. All these have got their merit and demerits. In artisanal fisheries like the case
of Lake Kainji, CPUE may be computed by taking effort to mean the size of the fishing gear.
This implied that the fishing efforts for.
 a. Gillnet, Driftnet and Beach Seine Net is the size of the net based on the total head length
of the mounted net (in metre) used for the fishing operation.
b. Cast Net is size of the net used which is based on the stretched diameter (in metre) of the
mouth opening.
c. Longline as number of lines used while a line is equalled to a main line with about 100
hooks (for baited) and 350 hooks (for unbaited).
d. Trap is unit of traps used irrespective of the volume or number of valves.

OPERATION OF TRAWL NETS

The ‘Trawls’ are dragged by vessels (ship) slowly along the sea bottom by means of strong
warps attached to a powerful ‘Winch’ (pulleys) on the ship, and the fish, once they are in they
are in the net, are prevented from swimming out again by special valve-like devices. The foot-
rope may play an important role in stirring up the fishes which lie buried in the bottom sand.

Figure

OPERATION OF CAST NET

The net is thrown by the fishermen with a circular swing in the shallow parts of pond, river or
hill-streams either aboard a boat or standing on the bank. The position near the apex rope is held
by the left hand, the middle portion is kept loose and the lowest portion is held with the other
hand. With a swing the net is lifted up just over and above the head and dropped to distance
according to the length of the attached rope.

As soon as the perimeter touches the bottom, hauling line is pulled to raise the net on board or to
the bark and the trapped fish is collected.

MOVABLE TRAPS

This is a conical basked type of handy net made of 6 bamboo rods (about 90cm) held at the one
end in a manner to form the upper end conical. The rods are also tied with an iron ring of about
20cm diameter, just below the apex. A conical net (9.0-9.5cm mesh size) having six side is fixed
in the bamboo frame from inner side. The net is operated in shallow water either with or without
a boat. When a fish is sighted the fisherman jumps with the trap net over the fish, the free end of
the net which is held by the fore finger is dropped and the fish gets entangled in the meshes.

Passive Fishing Device

Gill –Nets In operation

The gill net are laid over night across the path of fish movement. As a fish tries to swim through
a mesh coming in its way, it is able to pass through the mesh by its head but not by its body
which is too big to cross. In an attempt to withdraw its head, the fish is entangled as the twine
slip under the gill cover. The net is hauled the next morning and the ‘gilled’ fishes are collected.

Trammel Nets

The net is similar to gill-net or drift-net in operation but has two or three walls. These walls are
joined together above the float-line and below the lead line. A small mesh-webbing (lint) is
loosely hang between the two tightly hung walls of large meshes, whose mesh size is 4-7 times
larger than the lint.

Small-sized fishes are gilled at the lint whereas the large-sized ones pass through the first net
wall and then tries to push the loosely hung lint where the gets entangled (without gilling) and
are thus unable to escape.

Screens

This is a sort of trap farming an enclosure of net, these nets are generally made of hemp
webbings (mesh size about 8cm) which are of about 10mx1.0mx1.5m dimensions. Slender
bamboo stakes (about 1.5m long) are fixed with the net at regular intervals and stakes are fixed
with the net at regular intervals and the stakes are fixed in the shallow parts of the water body
particularly during floods. When the flood water recedes, the fish are left behind in the muddy
pools. Generally, large-sized catfishes and carps are trapped in this manner.
Maintenance and Preservation of Gears

Proper care must be taken off all the gears, as they are likely to undergo mechanical wear and
tear caused by rubbing, stretching, rotting etc. following precautionary measures must be taken
to avoid loss to the gears.

1. The nets, after fishing should not be left aw such overnight because they are
contaminated with algal-mats, fish slime, organic debris etc.
2. Nets must be thoroughly washed with running water and dried in shade by hanging or
spreading them on the banks of beaches. They may also be dipped into brine or sufficient
amount of salt be sprinkled over them.
3. Cleaning and preservation of nets can also be done by using 3-5% solution of Copper
sulphate, or copper Oleate.
4. Among traditional indigenous methods, the nets are frequently washed by the decoction
prepared after boiling the barks of kareel wood, mangroves and Acacia. By doing so, a
thin film of Tannic acid is formed on the fibres which prevents bacterial action. To have
the long-lasting effects of the decoction, the nets are advised to be treated with 1%
Potassium dichromate solution.
5. Treatments of nets with hot water or kerosene-diluted tar increases the strength of the
fibre and makes the water proof.
Unconventional Methods
These methods are of recent origin and modern technology oriented. Simultaneously,
these ensure better commercial fisheries prospects. Some popular devices include
Electro-fishing
Light Fishing
Light Fishing: The attraction of fish towards artificial lightings has been found fruitful
for commercial fishing. It has been observed that fishes living in pelagic zone (of fresh or
marine water) show positive phototaxis when the area is illuminated by electric lamp,
search light etc. the transparency of water no doubt, will give best results. Yellow light in
combination of white light (1000 watts for pelagic marine and 100-500 watts for
freshwater) is most effective. Blue light attracts fingerlings. To catch fishes, both above
water and under water lights can be used to attract fishes. After the attracted fishes are
hauled by suitable nets or pumped up by fish-pumps.
Fish Finding
Fish finding with hydro acoustic devices is currently on commercial fishing
i. A Hydro-acoustic Device
This is an echo sounder or sonar equipment capable of determining the location of
ships, rocks, land etc. which are anywhere in vertical or horizontal plane inside
water (particularly sea). This instrument emits ultrasonic sound waves in all
directions. The waves which strike any underwater object are reflected back (just
like ‘echo’) and act as ‘echo signal’ for the instrument.
The nature of object and its distance from the instrument are recorded on an
automatic recorder. Greater the distance, weaker is the intensity of echo-signal. If
the object is fish, the signals of varying intensity are detected e.g. strong or weak
at different intervals if fish is in large numbers, a soft and rolling sound if there is
a huge shoal of fish; an unclear echo if the fish are scattered.
ii. A Fish Finder
On the basis of working principles of hydro acoustic device, a ‘Fish Finder’
instrument is designed for commercial fisheries. Generally, there are 3 types of
fish finders
a. The sonar
b. Echo-Sounder
c. Fish Magnifier

The ‘Sonar’ and ‘Echo-Sounder’ work on the same principle whereas the fish
magnifier is specifically designed for investigation of a very small section in the
vertical plane but provides much detailed information.

Echo-Sounders are smaller and handy, thus widely used, giving information in the
form of ‘echograms’ from a depth of about 400m. An echo-sounder has 2 main
parts;
 1. Transmitter vibrator: which emits ultrasonic pulses
2. Receiving Recorder: the reflected ultrasonic waves or echo-signals are
converted by the receiver into audio-signal. Slow moving solitary fish or small
shoals produce a crescent shape on the ‘echogram’

Fishing Operations by Echo-sounder

The fishing by echo-sounders is practised in sea with the help of 2 ships. One is
called the ‘scouting vessel’ (fitted with echo-sounders) and the other one as the
‘Fishing vessel’ (provided with purse seines, trawls etc.). both vessels are in
communication with each other through radio equipment. When echo-signals are
reloaded regarding the location of large fish shoals, the areas are marked by
‘marker buoys’ (ordinary type in the day or flashing type during night). This
information is conveyed to fishing vessels on the radio equipment by the scouting
vessels, following which the fishing operations are accomplished.

Illegal Methods

Any of the fishing methods which does not come under the prescribed specifications can safely
be rated as illegal e.g. as described with plant poisons, if they are used in prescribed
concentration in commercial fishing programme (i.e. to remove trash fishes from fish farms) they
are within legal limits, otherwise, their use may be treated as illegal because of the fact that the
high doses of poisons affect the drinking water quality and may kill non-targeted life, essential
for keeping an ecosystem in a balanced state.

The same may be said about the chemical poisons which are prescribed to be used in nurseries
for controlling undesirable fishes. Of all the chemicals used in fishing waters, chlorinated
hydrocarbons are perhaps the most toxic to fishes. Organophosphate are less toxic to fishes but
adversely affect other biota. Taking advantage of availability of such poisons (Aldrin, Dieldrin,
Endrin among Chlorinated hydrocarbons and Thiomaton, DDVP and phosphanidon among
organophosphates) people often use them indiscriminately in ponds or shallow water bodies
without the knowing their long-lasting inimical effects on other biota.
In shallow isolated pools of hilly-streams, bleaching powder is sprinkled in huge quantities the
previous night or early in the morning and suffocated drifting fishes are hauled ashore in large
numbers.

Though electric-fishing has been mentioned under unconventional methods of recent times but
fishermen/persons have been reported killing fishes in streams by electrocuting. Stealing the A.C
electric supply from the nearby domestic supply line. The use of gun-powder for blasting deeper
pools or hill-streams has been in practice for quite some time to kill fishes indiscriminately.

FISHING CRAFTS

The operation of various ‘Gear’ (nets) for commercial fishing requires not only trained
manpower but other ‘aids’ by which the nets can be laid, spread, cast or dragged to have a big
haul of fishes. Such aids are nothing but the rafts, dugout canoes, large and mechanized or non-
mechanized boats, ships etc. Technically, these have been called as ‘crafts’. Mostly, these crafts
are non-mechanized, indigenous, locally built and suitable to the local conditions.

Inland Fishing Crafts

The commonly used crafts in the rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs etc are;

i. Raft:
This is the simplest and most primitive type of craft used for fishing in inland waters.
A raft means a more or less rigid floating platform made of buoyant material namely;
logs, planks, casks etc. fastened together for floating on water.
ii. Dugout Canoe
This is a primitive type of craft which is known as ‘donga’ made by hollowing out the
butt and stem of the Palmyra palm. It is very commonly used for angling and cast net
fishing in inundated fields.
iii. Boats
a. (Plank-built Boats)
These are used extensively in the rivers and estuaries for operating purse-nets and dip
nets. These boats have narrow tapering bows (five part) and sterns (rear part of boat)
but have no keels (a central fore and aft structural members in the bottom of the hull;
 extending from the bow to the stern post (and having the floors or frames attached to
it, usually at right angles. Sometimes projecting from the bottom of the hull to
provide stability). Usually they are about 6.0mx1.5mx0.45m in dimensions.
b. Large Boats

These boats may range up to 18mx3m in dimensions and are used for operating gill-
nets (or drift nets) and large sized dragnets.

SEA-FISHING CRAFTS

Crafts used in the seas do not vary too much from those used in inland waters. The names like
large ships or trawlers may be added to them. They do vary according to the physiography or
topographical features along the East Coast of India.

MECHANISED CRAFTS

To enhance the rate of fish landings, some fishing crafts (inland or marine) are installed with
engine for propulsion and to use mechanical devices for handling fishing gears. This is referred
to as mechanization of crafts. Large sized boats are found suitable for motorization.
 Basic differences between passive gear and active gear

Parameters Passive Gear Active Gear

Fishing Potential Depend on fish behaviour Gear ”go” after the fish
towards fishing gear

Gear must be discrete Does not count much on fish

behaviour towards the gear

Gear become saturated and No risk of it becoming

heavy if it doesn’t capture saturated and heavy
after a period of immersion

Has selective effect Little or no selective effect

Catch seldom proportional Catch is always proportional

to fishing time to fishing time

Construction and Poor construction can affect Skill of fishing crew is as

Utilization of Gear efficiency important as good
construction of gear

Need no distinct operation

skill

Energy (Fuel and Limited need of fuel for to High need of fuel for towing
Manpower) and from the fishing ground and manpower for dragging,
 only. casting or rigging

Synthetic fibres used for fishing gear construction and their popular commercial names

S/ Synthetic Fibres Commercial Names

N

A Polyamide Nylon, Parlon, Amikan

Gilon

B Polyvinyl alcohol Vinylon, Cremona,

Myulon

C Polyvinyliden Chloride Saran, Crehalon

D Polyvinyl Chloride Tevilon, Ramelon,

Envilon

E Polyester Tetolon, Teliren,

Dakuron

F Polyethylen Hezex, Kanelight, Hicre,

Silver

G Polyprohylen Pailen, Danline

H Cotton
 I Remie

J Manila

Synthetic materials used for fishing gear construction and their trade names.

S/N Synthetic Materials/Scientific Names Trade Name

A Polyamide (PH) Nylon

B Polyester (PES) Terylene

C Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Vinyllon or Cremona or

kuralon

D Polyvinylidene Chloride (PVD) Crehalon, Saran

E Polyethylene (PE) Hezex or Courlene

F Polypropylene (PP) Dauline or Ulstron

G Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Treviron or Envilon