Vacuum 65 (2002) 427–432

The effect of thermal barrier coatings on diesel

engine performance
!
T. Hejwowski*, A. Weronski
Department of Materials Engineering, Technical University of Lublin, 36 Nadbystrzycka St., 20-618 Lublin, Poland

Abstract

An experimental study of the effects of thin thermal barrier coatings on the performance of a diesel engine was
conducted. Results obtained from the engine with thermally insulated pistons were compared with the baseline engine
data. Engine trials demonstrated good properties of both coating systems. Temperature and stress distributions within
the pistons were evaluated analytically by means of the Cosmos/Works FEM code. Results of a road test on a gasoline-
engine-driven car are also reported. The performance of the modified engine-driven car was found satisfactory. The
ceramic coating did not produce observable knock in the engine, no significant wear of piston skirts or cylinder liners
was found. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Thermal barrier coating (TBC); Diesel engine; Engine tests; Yttria partially stabilised zirconia (YPSZ); Al2O3–TiO2

1. Introduction Application of thick plasma-sprayed coatings

The rapid increase in fuel expenses, the decreas-
ing supply of high-grade fuels on the market and
environmental concerns stimulated research on
more efficient engines with acceptable emission
characteristics. The state-of-art thermal barrier
coatings (TBC) provide the potential for higher
thermal efficiences of the engine, improved com-
bustion and reduced emissions. In addition,
ceramics show better wear characteristics than
conventional materials. Lower heat rejection from
the combustion chamber through thermally in-
sulated components causes an increase in available
energy that would increase the in-cylinder work
and the amount of energy tranported by the
exhaust gases, which could be also utilized.
*Corresponding author. Fax: +48-81-525-08-08.
E-mail address: thejwowski@lubin.home.pl (T. Hejwowski).
0042-207X/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 2 - 2 0 7 X ( 0 1 ) 0 0 4 5 2 - 3
has a number of disadvantages namely, adhesion
of coatings thicker than 0.5 mm is poor, tempera-
tures of combustion chamber walls raised to
excessive values reduce the volumetric efficiency
and create additional problems with adequate
lubrication at the higher end of piston stroke.
Typically, carbon deposits on the combustion
chamber surface possess thermal properties com-
parable with ceramics. Due to higher temperatures
in the combustion chamber, lower emissions of
unburned hydrocarbons can be expected. On the
other hand, however, for the same reasons, nitrous
and nitric oxide (NOx) emissions would tend to
rise.
There are contradictory reports on the effect of
TBC on engine performance [1,2]. Obtained results
depend on the type of the engine and conditions of
test. Measurement of temperatures and heat flux is
difficult, thermal probes often interfere with
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T. Hejwowski, A. Weronski / Vacuum 65 (2002) 427–432
temperature distribution and materials used to
construct them can catalyze the combustion
process [3].
2. Aim and scope of investigations
In our earlier publications [4,5], results of
thermal fatigue and wear tests were discussed.
The investigated coating systems were:
* NiCrAl bond coat 0.15 mm thick, Al2O3–40%
TiO2 0.35 mm thick;
* NiCrAl bond coat 0.15 mm thick, ZrO2–8%
Y2O3 0.3 mm thick;
* NiCrMo bond coat 0.15 mm thick, Al2O3–40%
ZrO2 0.25 mm thick.
The most resistant to abrasion and erosion was
the third coating system, which unfortunately, has
inferior resistance to thermal cycling. The first
coating system is interesting from the economical
point of view. The second and the most expensive
coating system has low wear resistance combined
with excellent resistance to temperature cycling.
The first two systems were chosen for further
experimental tests. Based on the results of finite
element calculations, it is demonstrated that the
third coating system would not increase the engine
efficiency. The programme of investigations com-
prised the following steps:
* Finite element method (FEM) calculations to
evaluate stress and temperature distributions in
pistons with crowns covered with the TBC. All
the systems were examined.
* Engine trials on base line engine and the engine
with pistons covered with TBC.
* Durability tests and road test.
3. Numerical assessment of temperatures and
thermal stresses
Numerical analysis was performed to evaluate
stress and temperature gradients in pistons
with thermally insulated crowns. In calculations,
FEM Cosmos/works version 4.0 was used. A 3D
model of the piston was created. The piston was
!
Fig. 1. The piston model and mesh,  0.5.
supported by the rigid, motionless gidgeon pin.
The displacements at the gidgeon pin hole surface
were set to zero. It was assumed that the major
mechanism of heat transfer is convection, all the
materials are isotropic and linearly elastic with
properties independent of temperature. The
code did not enable us to perform full dynamic
analysis and to assign different mesh size in the
piston and coating. The highest possible
quality meshes were generated. The piston model
used in FEM calculations was based on the
original design. The geometric model is shown in
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2 shows the average convection coefficients
and temperatures in particular areas of the piston
surface applied in calculations. These values were
assumed to be constant, i.e. independent of coat-
ing material. The piston surface is heated in a
pointwise-like way at the outlet of the swirl
chamber and cooled through contact with cooler
components of the combustion chamber. This
model of the process is successfully applied by
piston producers to evaluate design alterations.
For simplicity, it was further assumed that the
presence of a bond coat can be omitted. Three
types of ceramic top coatings, formerly experi-
mentally investigated, were considered. Nearly all
the experimental effort is focused on zirconia-
based systems. In practice, accurate data on
thermal and mechanical properties of this coating
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T. Hejwowski, A. Weronski / Vacuum 65 (2002) 427–432 429

in Table 1. The following conclusions can be

drawn:

* In the metal piston, high stresses appear at the

point close to the outlet of swirl chamber. In
thermally insulated pistons, this effect disap-
pears.
* Effect of coatings on stress and temperature
distributions decreases with increasing distance
from the free surface.
* Temperatures developed at the coating surface
can be significantly higher than those on the
metal piston surface.
* Al2O3–ZrO2 coating has practically no effect on
heat flux, maximum temperature developed at
the surface of 0.6 mm thick coating is 481 K
compared to 465 K of the metal piston.
* The optimum coating thickness for ZrO2–Y2O3
and Al2O3–TiO2 is slightly below 0.5 mm.
Fig. 2. Average values of convection coefficients and tempera- Temperatures at the coating surface are then
tures in a combustion cycle (convection coefficient/tempera- in the range 448–586 K. Thicker coatings hinder
ture). temperature equalization on the coating surface
creating hot spots.

are accessible for this coating, including also their

dependence on coating morphology. For the
analysis, average values were accepted [6], whereas
for the remaining two coatings, approximate
values were taken [7]. FEM calculations were
performed for three coating thicknesses, namely,
0.3, 0.5 and 0.6 mm and for the metal piston.
The input properties of the coatings are given
4. Test rig and results
A 4C90, naturally aspirated, four-cylinder, four-
stroke diesel engine with swirl chamber combus-
tion system was used in engine tests. The engine is
applied to drive light trucks, all-terrain vehicles

Table 1
Input properties of piston alloy and coatings

Property Material

Piston alloy Al–12% Si YPSZ Al2O3–40% TiO2 Al2O3–40% ZrO2

Young’s modulus (GPa) 80 11.25 13 340

Poisson’s ratio 0.28 0.25 0.24 0.23
Yield strength (GPa) 0.25 F F F
Tensile strength (GPa) 0.245 F F F
Shear modulus (GPa) 30.5
Flexural strength (MPa) 32 30 340
Thermal expansion (1/K)  10 6 21 10.9 1.3 7.0
Specific heat (J/kg K) 960 620 800 800
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 155 1.4 1.4 15
Density (kg/m3) 2700 5650 3000 4010
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T. Hejwowski, A. Weronski / Vacuum 65 (2002) 427–432
and electric generating sets. The general data of
the engine are as follows:
* maximum power (kW/HP)F51.5/70
* bore/stroke (mm)F90/95
* cubic capacity (cm3)F2417
* compression ratioF20.6:1
* fuel injection pumpFpiston in line either
rotary mechanical
* governingFmechanical
* coolingFliquid
* weight (dry) (kg)F230.
The test rig enabled measurement of the following
parameters: rotational speed, brake torque, fuel
consumption, exhaust gas temperature, cooling
water temperature and intensity of gas blow-by to
gear box. Performance characteristics were taken
for engine equipped with conventional pistons and
for engine with assembled pistons covered with the
TBC. In the same engine, two pistons covered with
NiCrAl bond coat 0.15 mm thick/alumina–titania
(Al2O3–TiO2) top coat 0.35 mm thick and two
pistons covered with NiCrAl bond coat 0.15 mm
thick/ZrO2–8% Y2O3 (yttria partially stabilized
zirconia) top coat 0.3 mm thick were mounted.
Fig. 3 presents the dependence of brake torque on
rotational speed for both base-line engine and the
modified one. Fig. 4 shows a comparison of brake
Fig. 3. Comparison of brake torque for engines with metal (2)
and ceramic-covered pistons (1) over a range of engine speeds.
Fig. 4. Brake power comparison over a range of engine speeds
between engines with metal (2) and ceramic-covered pistons (1).
power between conventional and modified engines.
Dependence of specific fuel combustion on rota-
tional speed of the engine for both engines is
depicted in Fig. 5.
The following conclusions can be drawn from
the experimental data:
* fuel consumption for a modified engineFwas
lower by 4.2% for speeds about 1100 rpm,
11.7% at 4000 rpm and 20.7% at 2500 rpm;
* specific fuel consumption for a modified en-
gineFdecreases by 15–20%;
* in the highest speed range, power of a modified
engine is approx. 8% higher;
* brake moment for a modified engineFde-
creases by 4% at lower speeds and is 6% higher
than in conventional engine for highest speeds;
* exhaust gas temperature is 200 K higher in a
modified engine;
* temperatures of cooling water and oil are a few
Kelvin degrees higher in a modified engine.
Results can be rationalized in the following way:
ceramic layer applied to piston crowns reduces
heat transferred from combustion gases and
increases their temperature. At low rotational
speeds, in a conventional engine, temperature of
the combustion chamber drops down before the
next portion of fuel is ignited, which secures good
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T. Hejwowski, A. Weronski / Vacuum 65 (2002) 427–432
Fig. 5. Specific fuel consumption for a conventional (2) and
modified engine (1).
filling of the chamber. At very high rotational
speeds, for both engines, volume of air admitted to
the chamber is significantly lower due to higher
temperatures attained by combustion chamber
walls. In this situation, in the modified engine,
the negative effect of reduced filling efficiency is
offset by better combustion.
Resistance to thermal fatigue is the most
important characteristic for TBCs. Performance
of both coating systems was evaluated in an earlier
test [4,5]. The problem in transferring thermal
fatigue data generated in the laboratory is that the
choice of failure criterion depends on expected
service conditions of the coating. Hitherto, applied
tests were developed to access the performance of
coatings applied in turbines. In such conditions,
detached fragments of coatings leave the turbine
without inducing significant damage to the turbine
components. In the case of combustion chamber
of the diesel engine, however, which is definitely a
more closed system, effect of loose ceramic
particles must be taken into account. Erosion
and abrasion resistances of top coatings were
evaluated in the earlier study, to complete the
picture, the durability test was carried on the 4C90
engine. The engine was subjected to cyclic load
changes, which in turn caused cyclic variations of
temperatures and stresses at the piston surfaces.
The same set of ceramic-covered pistons was used
431
for this purpose. The engine was allowed to idle
for 10 min and later, was loaded with the full brake
moment of 120 Nm for another 50 min. The total
time of the test was 100 h. Every 20 h, the cylinder
head was removed and combustion chamber
surfaces thoroughly examined. Both coatings
survived the test, carbon deposits on both coatings
have similar thickness and appearance.
On completion of the test, piston skirts, cylinder
sleeves and piston rings were examined metalo-
graphically. Depth of wear scars and extent of
damage of piston skirts was comparable with those
found on metal pistons. Piston rings were made of
cast iron. To provide adequate wear resistance and
facilitate running in, all the three rings were
phosphatized, for fire ring and piston scraper ring,
this was preceded by chromizing. Chromium
coatings on rings of pistons covered with the top
coat of yttria partially stabilized the zirconia-bore
signs of minor damage. Particles detached from
titania–alumina coating caused higher damage,
there was, however, no necessity to replace them.
In conclusion, both coating systems passed the
test.
The TBC based on Al2O3–TiO2 was also applied
to the piston crowns, fire decks of cylinder head
and valves of gasoline engine of a small passenger
car Fiat 126. Although road tests are in progress,
the preliminary results show that fuel consumption
and engine performance are not worser than those
for an original engine. The ceramic coating did not
produce any observable knock in the engine.
Examinations of piston skirts and cylinder liners
revealed no significant wear at the conclusion of
the running-in period.
5. Conclusions
Thermal barrier coatings with NiCrAl bond
coat and alumina–titania or yttria partially stabi-
lized ZrO2 can be used to constitute durable and
efficient thermal barriers on gasoline engine and
diesel engine piston crowns. Results of FEM
calculations showed that the optimum thickness
of the TBC is slightly below 0.5 mm. It was found
in tests performed on a naturally aspirated diesel
engine with pistons covered with TBCs, that
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T. Hejwowski, A. Weronski / Vacuum 65 (2002) 427–432
specific fuel consumption was lower by 15–20%.
Significant increase in engine performance was
found at high engine speedsFpower increased by
approx. 8% and brake moment by 6%. Exhaust
gas temperature was found to be 200 K higher
than in the engine with metal pistons. TBC with
alumina–titania shows good resistance to condi-
tions prevailing in a gasoline engine combustion
chamber, the performance of the thermally in-
sulated engine was found to be satisfactory.
Acknowledgements
Authors are very grateful to Dr. Z. Slawinski for
suggestions and discussions.
!
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