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SUMMARY
This short course manual considers field aspects
of epithermal and porphyry ore deposits as an aid
to mineral exploration. The classification of ore
systems used here allows ore and gangue mineralogy,
hydrothermal alteration, structure, breccias and the
paragenetic sequence of events, to be employed as
exploration tools to identify hidden ore systems.
Zoned hydrothermal alteration provides vectors
to mineralisation and must be understood in order
to correctly interpret geophysical data derived
from: sulphide content (chargeability), silicification
(resistivity) and magnetism, which is both created and
destroyed. “Lithocaps” are divided into individual
elements which vector to different deposit types.
Major structures localise ore systems within
second order dilatant fractures, and analyses of vein
kinematics provide an indication of the tectonic
conditions active during ore formation. A model
is proposed that transient changes in the nature of
convergence provide triggers for the emplacement of
intrusions along with vein and breccia ores derived
from deeper magmatic source rocks. Breccias which
occur in most epithermal-porphyry deposits are
considered using different classification methods for
inclusion within geological models and as vectors to
mineralisation.
Porphyry and most epithermal deposits are hosted
within magmatic arcs related to compressional
subduction settings, while only some epithermal
deposit styles dominate in extensional back arc basins
and intra-arc rifts. The late Terry Leach pointed out
the importance of the Philippine arc geothermal
systems as analogies to a wider variety of ore deposit
and alteration types than the extensional New Zealand
geothermal systems, and developed fluid mixing
models to account for bonanza Au formation in low
sulphidation epithermal Au deposits.
Two types of epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation,
developed at shallow crustal levels, termed low and
high sulphidation, are derived from dramatically
different ore fluids to produce distinctive wall rock
alteration as well as ore and gangue mineralogy. Low
sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits display
two fluid flow trends and zoned deposit types, within
either arcs or strongly extensional settings. The arc
deposits tend to be sulphide-rich with a progression
in styles, in time and from deep to shallower crustal
levels, as quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu, to carbonate-
base metal Au, and then epithermal quartz Au
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mineralisation at highest crustal levels, which may
host bonanza Au grades. Banded epithermal Au-Ag
veins which typically form in extensional back arcs
may grade from deeper level polymetallic Ag-Au, as
a Ag-rich end member of carbonate-base metal Au
style, to chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation at
higher crustal levels, with the inclusion of substantial
quartz gangue deposited from circulating meteoric
waters. High sulphidation epithermal Au deposits
develop within arcs and feature characteristic zoned
hydrothermal alteration derived from the reaction
of hot acidic fluids with wall rocks, commonly
overprinted by later Au + Ag + Cu sulphide
mineralisation. Higher Au grades and better metallurgy
are recognised where ore fluids evolve to lower
sulphidation. The term carbonate-base metal Au is
more correct for much of the mineralisation described
in geological literature as intermediate sulphidation.
Ore shoots defined as wider and higher metal grade
vein portions, which host the best ore in epithermal
deposits, develop by the coincidence of several
controls to mineralisation defined as: different styles
of epithermal Au mineralisation (above), appropriate
lithologies, dilatant fractures and efficient mechanisms
of Au deposition.
Porphyry Cu-Au deposits develop within arcs as
quartz-sulphide stockwork to sheeted veins and
breccias hosted within polyphasal, commonly spine-
like, porphyritic intrusions rising to within 1-2 km
of the palaeo surface above deeper magmatic source
bodies. The staged model for porphyry development
helps to explain the overprinting relationships of
zoned prograde and later retrograde hydrothermal
alteration within intrusions and adjacent wall rocks,
combined with overprinting near porphyry vein and
breccia styles. Many of these features provide vectors
towards blind exploration targets. Skarns, developed
by the alteration of reactive rocks, represent both ore
systems and vectors to buried porphyry source rocks.
These are zoned in time and space from isochemical,
to prograde and retrograde metasomatic skarns and
later stage epithermal Au overprints.
The exploration implications of the geological
models presented herein include the ability to target
blind ore systems from an understanding of features
expected to occur above or adjacent to mineralisation.
Although geological models presented herein have
been tested by application to many ore systems, in
the exploration environment new data will prompt
continued modification.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Too many colleagues to name here have assisted with geological discussions, including site visits, during the
evolution of short course materials and also provided the encouragement to prepare this manual. Similarly clients
have offered or agreed to the use of the author’s consulting work and other data herein. Terry Leach stressed
the need to let the rocks speak for themselves and his contributions remain pivotal in the development of the
geological models upon which this study is based. This short course and manual have only been made possible
by the tireless efforts of Denese Oates who proofread text, drafted figures and assisted with the assembly of this
manual. The University of New South Wales is also thanked for provision of access to a geological library.

Citation
Corbett, G.J., 2017, Epithermal Au-Ag and porphyry Cu-Au exploration – short course manual: unpublished, Sept
2017 edition, www.corbettgeology.com

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CONTENTS
1 Introduction
1.1 Setting of epithermal-porphyry ore deposits
1.2 Classification of magmatic arc ore systems
1.2.1 Evolution of terminology
1.2.1.1 Two low sulphidation epithermal groups
1.2.1.2 Porphyry Cu
1.2.2 This terminology
1.2.2.1 Low sulphidation epithermal fluids
1.2.2.2 Styles of low sulphidation epithermal
1.2.2.2.1 Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu
1.2.2.2.2 Carbonate-base metal Au and polymetallic Ag-Au
1.2.2.2.3 Epithermal quartz Au
1.2.2.2.4 Chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag
1.2.2.2.5 Sediment hosted replacement Au
1.2.2.3 High sulphidation epithermal
1.2.2.4 Does intermediate sulphidation exist?
1.2.2.5 Porphyry Cu
1.2.2.6 Skarn
1.2.2 7 Linkages between deposit types
1.3. Conclusions and exploration implications

2 Hydrothermal alteration
2.1 Alteration minerals
2.1.1 Calc-silicate group minerals
2.1.2 Chlorite group minerals
2.1.3 Illite group minerals
2.1.4 Illite-kaolin group minerals
2.1.5 Kaolin group minerals
2.1.6 Alunite-kaolin group minerals
2.1.7 Silica group minerals
2.2 Alteration styles
2.2.1 Prograde porphyry alteration
2.2.1.1 Potassic alteration
2.2.1.2 Inner propylitic alteration
2.2.1.3 Outer propylitic alteration
2.2.1.4 Zoned potassic-propylitic alteration
2.2.1.5 Epithermal propylitic (-potassic) alteration
2.2.1.5.1 Ohakuri, New Zealand
2.2.1.5.2 Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea
2.2.1.5.3 Round Mountain, Nevada, USA
2.2.2 Retrograde porphyry alteration
2.2.2.1 Phyllic alteration
2.2.3 Argillic alteration
2.2.3.1 Overprinting argillic upon phyllic alteration
2.2.3.2 Argillic alteration subjacent to acid sulphate caps
2.2.3.3 Argillic alteration marginal to low sulphidation epithermal veins
2.2.3.3.1 Golden Cross Au-Ag mine, New Zealand
2.2.3.3.2 Kupol Au-Ag mine Eastern Russia
2.2.3.4 Argillic alteration adjacent to advanced argillic alteration
2.2.4 Advanced argillic alteration
2.2.4.1 Barren shoulders of advanced argillic alteration
2.2.4.1.1 Formation of barren shoulders
2.2.4.1.2 Examples
2.2.4.1.2.1 Lookout Rocks, New Zealand

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2.2.4.1.2.2 Frieda River, Papua New Guinea
2.2.4.1.2.3 Queen Elizabeth, Chile
2.2.4.1.2.4 Halilaga, Turkey
2.2.4.1.2.5 Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea
2.2.4.1.2.6 Nash’s Hill, Australia
2.2.4.1.2.7 Vuda, Fiji
2.2.4.2 Collapsing advanced argillic alteration
2.2.4.2.1 Ovoid textures
2.2.4.3 Acid D veins
2.2.4.4 Associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits
2.2.4.5 Steam heated alteration
2.2.4.6 Acid sulphate alteration
2.2.4.6.1 Hatchobaru
2.2.4.7 Magmatic solfataras
2.2.4.8 Supergene weathering
2.3 Conclusions and exploration implications

3 Structure
3.1 Major strictures
3.1.1 Arc-parallel structures
3.1.2 Arc-normal structures
3.1.3 Conjugate fractures
3.2 Dilatant settings
3.2.1 Orthogonal extension
3.2.1.1.1 Ladolam deposit, Lihir Island
3.2.1.1 Hanging wall splays
3.2.1.2.1 Porgera Roamane fault and Zone VII
3.2.1.2.2 Tolukuma, Papua New Guinea
3.2.1.2.3 Cap Oeste, Argentina
3.2.1.2 Refraction
3.2.2 Oblique convergence
2.2.2.1 Negative flower structures
3.2.2.2 Fault jogs
3.2.2.2.1 A modern analogy of a fault jog
3.2.2.2.2 Fault jog, Thames district, New Zealand
3.2.2.2.3 Link structure, Umuna lode, Misima Is., Papua New Guinea
3.2.2.2.4 Link structure, Cracow, Australia
3.2.2.2.5 Cross over, El Indio, Chile
3.2.2.3 Pull-apart basins
3.2.2.3.1 Kelian, Indonesia
3.2.2.3.2 Ocampo, Mexico
3.2.2.3.3 Lampung, Indonesia
3.2.2.4 Flexures
3.2.2.4.1 Flexures, Viento veins El Indio, Chile
3.2.2.4.2 Vera Nancy, NE Australia
3.2.2.5 Tension veins
3.2.2.5.1 Waihi, New Zealand
3.2.2.5.2 Golden Cross, New Zealand
3.2.2.5.3 Exploration of tension veins
3.2.2.4.4 Tension veins and normal faults
3.2.2.6 Splay faults
3.2.2.6.1 Chuquicamata
3.2.2.6.2 La Escondida
3.2.2.6.3 Frieda-Nena, Papua New Guinea
3.2.2.6.4 Philippine Fault
3.2.3 Orthogonal compression
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3.2.3.1 Arc-normal veins
3.2.3.1.1 El Guanaco, Chile
3.2.3.2 Conjugate fractures
3.2.3.2.1 Deseado Massif
3.2.3.3 Restraining bends
3.2.3.3.1 Talang Santo
3.2.3.4 Thrust-related mineralisation
3.2.3.4.1 Kencana, Gosowong, Indonesia
3.2.3.4.2 Morobe goldfield, Papua New Guinea
3.2.4 Ore shoot orientation
3.2.4.1 Palmarejo Mexico
3.2.4.2 Viento vein, El Indio district, Chile
3.2.5 Collapse and flat dipping structures
3.2.5.1 Emperor gold mine, Fiji
3.2.5.2 Drake Volcanics
3.2.5.3 Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea
3.2.5.4 Bedding plane reactivation during compression
3.3 Structures associated with porphyry deposits
3.3.1 Some definitions
3.3.2 Porphyry vein formation
3.3.2.1 Initial intrusion emplacement
3.3.2.2 Cooling
3.3.2.3 Failure of the over-pressurised carapace
3.3.2.4 Cu-Au mineral deposition
3.3.3 Porphyry vein orientations
3.3.3.1 Forceful upward intrusion emplacement
3.3.3.1.1 Collapse
3.3.3.2 Oblique convergence
3.3.3.2.2 Browns Creek skarn
3.3.3.3 Orthogonal extension
3.3.3.3.1 Goonumbla district
3.3.3.4 Orthogonal compression
3.3.3.4.1 Cadia Valley
3.3.3.4.2 Thrust fault control
3.4 Triggers for mineralisation
3.4.1 Rapid depressurisation
3.4.1.1 Sector collapse
3.4.1.2 Thrust erosion
3.4.1.3 Rapid uplift and erosion
3.4.2 Transient changes in the nature of convergence
3.4.2.1 Transient changes from orthogonal to oblique compression
3.4.2.1.1 Lachlan Orogen, Eastern Australia
3.4.2.1.2 Chile
3.4.2.1.3 Deseado Massif, Argentine Patagonia
3.4.2.2 Relaxation of convergence
3.4.2.2.1 The Tethyan arc in Turkey
3.4.2.2.2 Goonumbla, Australia
3.4.2.2.3 La Arena, Peru
3.5 Conclusions and exploration implications

4 Breccias
4.1 Process of breccia analysis
4.2 Descriptive terminology
4.2.1 Components
4.2.2 Clast description
4.2.3 Matrix
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4.2.4 Organisation
4.2.5 External form
4.2.6 Conclusion
4.3 Colloquial terminology
4.4 Genetic terminology
4.4.1 Hydrothermal-magmatic breccias
4.4.2 Contact breccias
4.3.3 Intrusion breccias
4.4.4 Magmatic hydrothermal breccias
4.4.4.1 A mechanism for breccia pipe formation
4.4.4.2 Pebble dykes
4.4.4.3 Wall rock hosted intrusion breccias
4.4.4.3.1 San Cristobal, Chile
4.4.4.3.2 East Breccia, Cananea porphyry Cu-Mo
4.4.4.4 Magmatic hydrothermal breccia pipes
4.4.4.4.1 Kidston Au mine, Australia
4.4.4.4.2 La Colorada pipe at the Cananea porphyry Cu-Mo district 4.4.4.4.3 Cargo, Australia
4.4.4.5 Decompression breccias
4.4.4.6 Collapse breccias
4.4.4.7 Shingle breccias
4.4.4.8 Tourmaline breccia pipes
4.4.4.8.1 Central Chile
4.4.4.9 Conclusion, magmatic hydrothermal breccias
4.4.5 Phreatomagmatic breccia
4.4.5.1 Diatreme breccia pipes
4.4.5.2 Collapse
4.4.5.3 Milled matrix breccias
4.4.5.4 Hydrothermal alteration
4.4.5.5 Gold mineralisation
4.4.5.6 Verification
4.4.5.7 Kelian, Indonesia
4.4.5.8 Bulolo Graben, Papua New Guinea
4.4.5.9 Cripple Creek
4.4.5.10 Gold Ridge gold deposit, Solomon Islands
4.4.5.11 Ladolam gold deposit, Papua New Guinea
4.4.5.12 Wafi, Papua New Guinea
4.4.5.13 San Cristobal, Bolivia
4.4.5.14 Conclusion
4.4.6 Phreatic or eruption breccias
4.4.6.1 Shallow eruption pipes
4.4.6.1.1 Waimangu, New Zealand
4.4.6.1.2 Champagne pool
4.4.6.1.3 Osorezan, Japan
4.4.6.1.4 White Island, New Zealand
4.4.6.2 Silicified eruption breccias
4.4.6.2.1 McLaughlin, California
4.4.6.2.2 Toka Tindung, Indonesia,
4.4.6.2.3 Twin Hills, Queensland Australia
4.4.6.2.4 Puhipuhi, Northland, New Zealand
4.4.6.3 Clay matrix eruption breccias
4.4.6.3.1 Favona, New Zealand
4.4.6.3.2 Broken Hills, New Zealand
4.4.6.3.3 Neavesville, New Zealand
4.4.6.4 Conclusion to hydrothermal magmatic-phreatic breccias
4.4.7 Tectonic-hydrothermal breccias
4.4.7.1 Crackle breccias
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4.4.7.2 Fluidised breccia (dykes)
4.4.7.3 Fluidised crackle breccias
4.4.7.4 Jigsaw or mosaic breccias
4.4.7.5 Floating clast breccias
4.4.7.6 Vein-breccias
4.4.7.7 Clay matrix hydrothermal breccias
4.4.8 Dissolution breccias
4.4.9 Composite breccias
4.4.9.1 Phreatomagmatic-phreatic breccias
4.4.9.1.1 Composite phreatomagmatic-phreatic, White Island
4.5 Conclusions and exploration implications

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LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Model for epithermal and porphyry mineralisation styles

1.2 Pacific rim plate boundaries, magmatic arcs and back arcs
1.3 Subduction zone, magmatic arc and back arc
1.4 Ore systems within magmatic arc and back arc settings
1.5 Magmatic arc and back arc geothermal systems
1.6 Distinction between high and low sulphidation ore fluids
1.7 Evolved hydrothermal fluids in magmatic arc and back arc settings
1.8 Two low sulphidation fluid flow trends
1.9 Magmatic arc low sulphidation Au
1.10 Two sulphidation epithermal bonanza Au grade end members
1.11 Extensional low sulphidation epithermal mineralisation
1.12 High sulphidation epithermal Au and zoned advance argillic alteration.
1.13 Transition to lower sulphidation at the El Indio district
1.14 Porphyry Cu-Au

2.1 Common alteration minerals in hydrothermal systems plotted as pH vs temperature

2.2 Temperature ranges for the formation of hydrothermal alteration minerals
2.3 Zoned potassic-propylitic alteration
2.4 Potassic alteration - K-feldspar
2.5 Potassic alteration - Secondary biotite, anhydrite, magnetite
2.6 Inner propylitic alteration
2.7 Outer propylitic alteration
2.8 Neutral chloride alteration - Ohakuri, New Zealand
2.9 Adularia flooding - Lihir, Papua New Guinea
2.10 Adularia flooding - Round Mountain, Nevada, USA
2.11 Illite overprint on adularia - Dvoinoye, Far Eastern Russia
2.12 Drawdown and the formation and collapse of retrograde hydrothermal alteration
2.13 Phyllic alteration collapses upon potassic-propylitic alteration
2.14 Some examples of silica-sericite-pyrite (phyllic) alteration
2.15 Styles of argillic alteration
2.16 Argillic alteration overprints phyllic alteration - Taguibo Philippines and others
2.17 Argillic alteration overpritns propylitic and potassic
2.18 Argillic alteration developed by collapse of acid sulphate cap - Lihir Is., Papua Guinea
2.19 Argillic alteration selvages - Nolans, Jampang, Indo & Ovacik
2.20 Illite-pyrite alteration within permeable host rocks – Cirianiu, Fiji
2.21 Illite alteration - Mastra, Turkey
2.22 Smectite alteration as a swelling clay – Kupol, Rusia and Mastra, Turkey
2.23 Zoned illite species zonation - Golden Cross, New Zealand
2.24 Zoned illite alteration - Kupol, Far Eastern Russia
2.25 Styles of advanced argillic alteration
2.26 Styles of advanced argillic and fluid flow paths on the pH vs temperature figure
2.27 Some examples of barren shoulders
2.28 Massive silica typical of silica ledges associated with barren shoulders
2.29 Substantial pyrite in barren shoulders
2.30 Barren shoulder - Lookout Rocks, New Zealand
2.31 Barren shoulder - Debom, Frieda River, Papua New Guinea
2.32 Structurally-lithologically controlled barren shoulder - Queen Elizabeth, Northern Chile
2.33 Lithologically controlled barren shoulder - Halilaga, Turkey
2.34 Lithologically controlled barren shoulder - Las Aguadas, Chile
2.35 The structurally controlled barren shoulder - Vuda, Fiji
2.36 Collapsing advanced argillic alteration - zonation and fluid flow path.
2.37 Formation of advanced argillic mantos
2.38 Ovoid textures - Tantahuatay, Peru

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2.39 Zoned alteration associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits
2.40 Zoned advanced argillic alteration– Frieda River, Papua New Guinea
2.41 Zoned advanced argillic alteration– Wafi, Papua New Guinea
2.42 Zoned advanced argillic alteration deposits – La Coipa, Chile
2.43 Zoned advanced argillic alteration with depth
2.44 Steam heated alteration in high sulphidation epithermal environments
2.45 Steam heated alteration - Pascua-Lama region
2.46 Steam heated alteration - La Coipa region
2.47 Acid sulphate cap model
2.48 Acid sulphate cap alteration - Champagne Pool, New Zealand
2.49 Acid sulphate cap alteration - Arcata, Peru and San Cristobal, Bolivia
2.50 Acid sulphate cap alteration - Guadalupe, Palmarejo, Mexico and Sierra Moreno, Argentina
2.51 Acid sulphate cap alteration - Sleeper Nevada
2.52 Adjacent acid sulphate and barren shoulder - Hatchobaru geothermal field, Japan
2.53 Magmatic solfatara - White Island, New Zealand

3.1 Structures associated with subduction related magmatic arcs

3.2 Structural analysis of northern Chile
3.3 Major structures and ore systems in NSW on magnetics
3.4 Major structures and ore systems in Papua New Guinea
3.5 Conjugate fractures and ore systems - Argentine Patagonia
3.6 Conjugate fractures - Kidston region, Australia
3.7 Model for dilatant structures and ore shoot orientations
3.8 Listric faults - Arcata, Peru
3.9 Listric faults – Corani, Peru
3.10 Listric faults - Palmarejo, Mexico
3.11 Listric fault model – Ladolam, Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea
3.12 Hanging wall splay - Tolukuma, Papua New Guinea
3.13 Bonanza Au at a hanging wall splay intersection - Porgera, Papua New Guinea
3.14 Bonanza Au at a hanging wall splay intersection - Cap Oeste Deseado massif, Argentina
3.15 Refracted host structures and bonanza ore shoots
3.16 Ore settings in oblique structural environments
3.17 Negative flower structure
3.18 Fault jogs, small scale exposures, Spain
3.19 Fracture patterns associated with an earthquake at Dash-e Baȳaz, Iran 31 August 1968
3.20 Regional fault jog - Thames, New Zealand
3.21 Link structure - Umuna lode, Misima Is., Papua New Guinea
3.22 Link structure - Golden Plateau, SE Queensland, Australia
3.23 Step over - El Indio district, Chile
3.24 Pull-apart basin ore environment - Kelian Au mine, Indonesia
3.25 Pull-apart basin ore environment - Ocampo, Mexico
3.26 Pull-apart basin ore environment – Way Linggo, Indonesia
3.27 Flexures, small scale exposures, Spain and Peru
3.28 Flexures - Viento vein, Chile
3.29 Flexures - Vera Nancy, Australia
3.30 Tension veins
3.31 Tension veins - Waihi, New Zealand
3.32 Tension veins and drill directions
3.33 Tension vein mineralisation and drill direction - Mt Kasi, Fiji
3.34 Tension veins and normal faults
3.35 Horsetail faults - El Indio, Chile
3.36 Splay faults – Chuquicamata
3.37 Link structure - La Escondida, Chile
3.38 Splay faults - Frieda-Nena, Papua New Guinea
3.39 Splay faults and Philippine Fault - Lepanto-Far South East & Tongonan geothermal field
3.40 Veins formed in response to compression - El Guanaco, Chile
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3.41 Dilatant sites in conjugate fractures - Deseado Massif, Argentine Patagonia
3.42 Compressional oblique structures - restraining bends
3.43 Mineralised thrust faults - Gosowong, Indonesia
3.44 Mineralised thrust faults – Talang Santo
3.45 Orientation of ore shoots
3.46 Ore shoots - Palmarejo, Mexico
3.47 Flat dipping veins - Emperor gold mine
3.48 Flat dipping veins - Drake Volcanics, Eastern Australia
3.49 Styles of porphyry quartz-sulphide veins
3.50 Model for staged porphyry vein development
3.51 Porphyry veins and tectonic settings
3.52 Radial and concentric vein arrays
3.53 Intrusion emplacement and sheeted veins - Dinkidi, Philippines
3.54 Structural control - Browns Creek Au skarn.
3.55 Regional vein control - Goonumbla district, Australia
3.56 Sheeted quartz veins – Cadia East, Australia
3.57 Flat dipping veins – Ortiga, Rawbelle, Hinoba-an
3.58 Triggers for mineralisation - thrust erosion at Porgera-Mt Kare, Papua New Guinea
3.59 Transient changes from orthogonal to oblique compression
3.60 Deseado massif
3.61 Batu Hijau
3.62 Turkey
3.63 Mastra

4.1 Some colloquial breccia terms in common use in the exploration industry
4.2 Some colloquial breccia terms used by this author
4.3 Sub surface sedimentary structures
4.4 Summary genetic breccia classification
4.5 Contact breccia at intrusion margins
4.6 Contact or crumple breccias at dome margins - Wau and Peru.
4.7 Crumple breccias at dome margins - Las Calandrias, Argentina
4.8 Mineralised contact breccias - Twin Hills and Mt Wright, Australia.
4.9 Mineralised contact breccias - Mt Kasi, Fiji
4.10 Bimictic intrusion breccias
4.11 Model for breccia pipe development by explosive eruption collapse and mineralisation
4.12 Conceptual model for magmatic hydrothermal breccia pipes in sub volcanic terrains
4.13 Pebble dykes including those cutting the Panguna porphyry Cu, Papua New Guinea
4.14 Magmatic hydrothermal breccia, setting - San Cristobal, Chile
4.15 Magmatic hydrothermal breccia, rock types - San Cristobal, Chile
4.16 Geology of the Kidston breccia pipe, Queensland, Australia
4.17 Magmatic hydrothermal injection breccias, Kidston
4.18 Magmatic hydrothermal collapse breccias, Kidston
4.19 Mineralisation at the Kidston breccia pipe
4.20. Sulphide breccias including La Colorada pipe, Cananea
4.21 Magmatic hydrothermal breccias - Cargo, Australia
4.22 Decompression breccias.
4.23 Shingle breccias
4.24 Tourmaline breccia pipes
4.25 The Donoso breccia complex (pipe) Chile
4.26 Milled matrix breccias
4.27 Diatreme breccia model
4.28 Diatreme breccia pipe and endogenous domes - Wau, Papua New Guinea
4.29 Milled matrix breccia dykes
4.30 Juvenile intrusion clasts
4.31 Surficial and collapse features
4.32 Bedded phreatomagmatic breccias and tuff rings
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4.33 Mineralisation within the matrix of phreatomagmatic breccias
4.34 Mineralisation at the margins of breccia pipes - Acupan, Philippines
4.35 Phreatomagmatic breccias - Kelian, Indonesia
4.36 Bulolo graben, Papua New Guinea
4.37 Mineralisation adjacent to diatreme breccia pipes - Kerimenge, Papua New Guinea
4.38 Milled matrix breccias - Nauti diatreme breccia pipe, Papua New Guinea
4.39 Cripple Creek diatreme breccia, USA
4.40 Milled matrix breccias - Gold Ridge, Solomon Islands
4.41 Breccias - Ladolam Au deposit, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea
4.42 Diatreme breccia - Wafi Au deposit, Papua New Guinea
4.43 Diatreme-flow dome complex - San Cristobal, Bolivia
4.44 Phreatic or eruption breccia model
4.45 Eruption breccias – Upper Atiamuri, New Zealand and Beppu, Japan
4.46 Eruption pipes - Waimangu
4.47 Eruption breccia pipe - Champagne Pool, New Zealand
4.48 Eruption breccia pipes - Osorezan, Japan
4.49 Eruption breccia-sinter - McLaughlin mine, USA
4.50 McLaughlin mine mineralisation.
4.51 Eruption breccia-sinter-vein - Toka Tindung, Indonesia.
4.52 Eruption breccias - Twin Hills, Australia.
4.53 Eruption breccia-sinter - Puhipuhi, New Zealand.
4.54 Eruption breccias - Favona, New Zealand.
4.55 Clay matrix eruption breccias - Broken Hills New Zealand.
4.56 Clay matrix eruption breccias - Neavesville, New Zealand.
4.57 Hydrothermal injection breccias
4.58 Vein-breccias
4.59 Dissolution breccias
4.60 Composite breccia systems, White Island, New Zealand

Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
1 INTRODUCTION
This manuel accompanies a 2 day short course
designed to aid ore discovery by exploration geologists
involved in the exploration for and evaluation of
epithermal and porphyry deposits. The lectures expand
themes introduced in short courses provided with late
Terry Leach from 1992-8 and this manuel updates
the notes written in association with those short
courses (Corbett and Leach, 1998). The short course
lectures and these notes focus upon tools available to
exploration geologists in the field and the exploration
implications of the models presented herein.
Geological models considered herein evolved from the
analysis of many field examples and have been tested
and modified by application during mineral exploration
over many years (Corbett, 2009a, 2013b; Leach and
Corbett, 1993, 1994 1995, 2008, Corbett and Leach,
1998). Early studies of SW Pacific rim ore systems
synthesised this author’s field structural analyses with
petrology by Terry Leach on magmatic arc geothermal
and ore systems (Mitchell and Leach 1991), whereas
this current work includes ore systems from the entire
Pacific rim and elsewhere such as locally Tethyan
magmatic Arcs. These geological models are expected
to provide a framework for the prioritisation of
portfolios of mineral exploration projects as an aid
in the allocation of limited exploration (financial and
human) resources. It is stressed these conceptual
geological models should be subject to progressive
modification as new data or ideas come to hand.
Section 1 seeks to introduce the terminology used for
epithermal and porphyry deposit types considered in
detail (figure 1.1) and also provide a brief overview of
the geological settings in which these deposits form.
1.1 SETTING OF EPITHERMAL-PORPHYRY
ORE DEPOSITS
Epithermal and porphyry ore deposits develop in
response to plate tectonic processes, typically as
partial melting related to subduction gives rise to
magmatism mainly within compressional, and locally
transpressional, linear magmatic arcs extending into
back arc extensional settings. Magmatic arcs are divided
as island arcs underpinned by oceanic crust such as
in the SW Pacific rim and continental arcs formed at
continental margins and underpinned by continental
crust (Pirajno, 1992). Models presented later (section
3.4) suggest transient changes in the nature of

HIGH SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag

steam heated
alteration permeable
RIFT phreatic
diatreme horizon
breccia
sinter
silica EPITHERMAL travertine
diatreme acid sulphate
QUARTZ Au alteration
A A
B B
BRECCIA O S
LITHOLOGICAL
A
STRUCTURAL B S EPITHERMAL BANDED CHALCEDONY GINGURO Au-Ag * O

SEDIMENT HOSTED B et
m

REPLACEMENT Au CARBONATE-BASE METAL Au * eor

ic w a t e r

*
MnO2
POLYMETALIC Ag-Au

POLYMETALIC Au-Ag
QUARTZ SULPHIDE Au + Cu

limestone marl S
WALLROCK
PORPHYRY Au-Cu
MINERALIZATION S S
PORPHYRY Cu-Au
Banded tension vein REPLACEMENT FLUIDS
Fissure vein Rising mineralised
EXOSKARN magmatic fluid
S Sheeted vein
Circulating meteoric-
Stockwork vein dominant water
Breccia fill Collapsing evolved fluid
A - low Ph
Lithological control
B - bicarbonate
Disseminated ENDOSKARN O - oxygenated
Fluid mixing
* Corbett Model_2017
Rising volatiles

Figure 1.1 Conceptual model for the styles of epithermal Au-Ag and porphyry Cu-Au mineralisation developed in subduction-related
magmatic arc – back arc settings.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 1

Economic Geo. _ JH
convergence, evidenced by vein configurations, partial melting. The subduction rate and inter-related
provide extensional environments for ore formation dip of the downgoing plate influence the development
within compressional magmatic arcs, as triggers for of porphyry Cu deposits, best formed at moderate
the onset of magmatic-hydrothermal processes. subduction angles (Sawkins, 1990), as shallow
Intrusion emplacement is also triggered by rapid uplift subduction creates insufficient melting and steep
and erosion including sector collapse of volcanic subduction promotes rifting in the back arc (Frisch et
edifices (Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea), or thrust al., 2011).
erosion (Porgera, Papua New Guinea). It is therefore
possible to resolve the space problem associated In the SW Pacific rim, the Pacific plate is subducting
with the emplacement of porphyry intrusions within below North Island New Zealand (figure 1.2). An
compressional settings. upstanding andesitic magmatic arc on the eastern
North Island passes westward to the rifted flat lying
The Pacific rim of fire represents the string of mainly Taupo Volcanic Zone, where geothermal studies
Tertiary and locally older magmatic arcs and related (Henley and Ellis, 1983; Simmons and Browne, 2000a
back arcs which overlie the deeper level subduction and references therein) have provided a framework for
plate boundaries (figure 1.2). Magmatism in Chile an understanding of hydrothermal systems in back arc
youngs from the deeply eroded Jurassic arcs in the environments (Henley, 1985a). A deep (5-6 km below
west to active systems in the east, while Cambrian the surface) batholitic magmatic source was interpreted
and Ordovician porphyry deposits occur in Eastern to provide heat and volatiles which combine with
Australia. A simplified model for the east Pacific rim deep circulating meteoric waters within the permeable
suggests the heavier oceanic Nazca Plate is being felsic volcanic pile to provide dilute geothermal fluids
created at the central Pacific spreading centre and (figures 1.4 & 1.5; Henley, 1985 a & b; Corbett and
subducted eastwards below the South American Leach, 1998 and references therein).
continental plate, as uplift and erosion exposes deeper
portions of older arcs on the western side (figure The late Terry Leach stressed the profound differences
1.3). Subduction draws the wet ocean floor sediments between the New Zealand back arc (or continental rift)
and basalts, with altered hydrous mineral assemblages and magmatic arc hydrothermal systems using his and
formed at the mid oceanic ridge, into the hot mantle others work in the Philippine arc geothermal systems
environment where the high water content promotes (figure 1.5). The Philippine geothermal systems

arc
o tka
huk
-C
sk
ot
v

h
Ok
v

ol- 0.7 v

ng 6
Mo
v v
v

v
v
OB
v

v v v
8 6
v
v

OR
Subduction zone
v

v
v

v
v
v

v
10
Spreading centre
Sa
v

A
n

Transform fault
v

nd

v
re
v

Orthogonal convergence
v

as

v 0.3 4
OR
F
v

8 OB
v

v
v

Philippine
Oblique convergence
vv

OB
v

8 Plate 10.7
v

8
v

0.3
v
v v

v
OB
v

4
v

v OR v
8
Direction and rate of
v v v
v

Eurasia v
6
v

Bismark movement in cm/y

v

5
vv
Plate
v
v

v
v

Solomon
v
v

v 10
OB
v

Plate
v

v
v

v v v
Magmatic arc
v

v v
7 0.3 10.2
v

v
Pacific
v

v v v
7.7
v

v
v

v
Plate
v
v

v
v
v
OR
Back arc
v

8 v
v v
v

v v
7 10
v

OR
v

v
v 6
v

Australia-India v
Nazca
v

Plate
v

5 10
Plate 6.5
v
v
v

5 OR
v

10
10
v

8 v 6.5
v

OB
v

7
v

v
v

v
v

6
v
v

v
v
v
v

0 2000 km
Adapted from Curcum-Pacific Council
or Energy and Mineral Resources, 1981. CORBETT ai1634

Figure 1.2 Pacific rim tectonic plates, magmatic island arcs, back arcs and spreading centres.

2 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 1.3 Conceptual cross section through a subduction zone, magmatic arc and back arc showing the settings of epithermal and
porphyry deposit formation. This cartoon could be analogous to the SE Pacific rim in a section line from the subducting Nasca plate
through the east dipping subduction zone below Chile and the Andes magmatic arc, to the Deseado Massif back arc in Argentine
Patagonia.

magmatic
ARC BACK ARC
solfatara

LOW SULPHIDATION
Au-Ag
HIGH SULPHIDATION hot spring
Au
F
travertine
steam heated 200
alteration
acid sulphate
felsic
bicarbonate waters caps
domes
eruption breccia
Carbonate-base Epithermal
silica
metal Au quartz Au
sinter
Quartz-sulphide +
D veins D veins waters
Au±Cu eteoric 200 chalcedony
c -m -ginguro
ati
gm
PORPHYRY Cu-Au ma Au-Ag
0
20

felsic
volcanics polymetallic
Ag-Au
Volatiles
Composite magmatic-
meteoric fluids
m et
e o r i c w a te r s
CORBETT ai1534

Figure 1.4 Ore systems within subduction-related magmatic arc and back arc settings.

(Mitchell and Leach, 1991; Corbett and Leach, 1998)
which lie within andesitic arcs, are driven by shallow
level porphyry Cu style intrusion heat sources related
to deeper magmatic bodies, and feature more saline
fluids (figure 1.5). Whereas the New Zealand systems
contain only 3-4% magmatic component such as
<1000-2000 ppm Cl, the Philippine systems contain
up to 50% magmatic component and >10,000-50,000
ppm Cl as reflected in fluid inclusion salinity studies
(Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein).
Giggenbach (1997) also noted the significantly higher
CO2 concentrations in andesitic magmatic arcs
(Philippine) than continental rifts (New Zealand)
and this CO2 features in arc-related low sulphidation
epithermal deposits. Terry Leach demonstrated that
although there is a greater emphasis upon the New

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 3

Economic Geo. _ JH
 ARC BACK ARC
4 perched sulphate bicarbonate aquifier 4
solfatara acid sulphate-
3 bicarbonate 3
vadose zone
phreatic zone
2
neutral 2
eruption acid sulphide
c chloride
epithermal ori neutral breccia alteration
le two phase spring
1
r tab x Au-Ag mete atic chloride acid spring, 1
a te mixing agm zone
and silica
w m spring
sinter
sea level sea level
convective
heat transfer two phase
porphyry Cu zone

s
bicarbonate

te r
-1 -1
intrusions

wa
waters
m e t e o ric
-2 conductive convective -2

me
heat transfer zone

teo
ric
-3 -3

wa
s

te
r
-4 -4
rising chloride
waters
--5 --5

magma source
-6 -6

-7
degassing -7
magma

-8 -8

CORBETT ai1535

Figure 1.5 Comparison of subduction-related magmatic arc and back arc geothermal systems, drawn at the same scale, from data
within Corbett and Leach (1998).
Zealand geothermal systems in many published
exploration models, the Philippine geothermal systems
provide better analogies to many epithermal-porphyry
ore deposits. Hence, fluid mixing models, some of
which feature CO2, provide better mechanisms for
bonanza Au deposition than boiling models (Leach and
Corbett, 2008; section 7.5).
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SUBDUCTION
RELATED ORE SYSTEMS
A classification, derived from analyses of many
exploration projects and mines, aids in the distinction
of different Au-Cu deposit types which display
varying characteristics such as: zoned wall rock
alteration, geochemical and geophysical properties
during mineral exploration, metallurgical responses
during treatment, and overall value (potential metal
grades and size). Linkages occur between deposit
types which are presented here (figures 1.1 & 1.4) as
points within a continuum of deposit types at varying
crustal levels and/or tectonic settings. It is therefore
important to distinguish different deposit types, early
in any exploration program in order to consider the
exploration implications of the ore type classification
described herein. For instance, exploration methods
vary with deposit type and some mineralisation styles
will be prioritised higher than others in different
exploration programs.
1.2.1 Evolution of terminology
Waldemar Lindgren (1922) defined the term
epithermal as hydrothermal deposits “formed by
ascending hot waters near the surface in or near
effusive rocks at relatively low temperatures and
pressures”, and subsequently placed limits upon
epithermal deposit formation as < 1000 m depth
and < 200°C temperature (Lindgren, 1933, p. 454-5).
As Lindgren’s classification (op cit) appeared to be
influenced by shallow level hot spring deposits, the
term epithermal is now extended to much deeper
crustal levels approaching the porphyry environment,
and so includes higher temperature deposits that some
workers might have formerly termed mesothermal.
The term ‘deep epithermal’ may be employed for
deposits such as low sulphidation epithermal quartz-
sulphide Au ± Cu mineralisation which are locally
analogous to porphyry-related D veins (figure 1.4), in
the classification of Gustafson and Hunt (1975).
The rise in Au price in the early 1980’s prompted

4 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 TERMINOLOGY REFERENCE
Epithermal Lindgren, 1922; Buchanan,
1981
Enargite-gold Ashley, 1982

Hot spring gold Giles and Nelson, 1982;

deposits 1982, Nelson and Giles,
1885
High sulphur Low sulphur Bonham, 1986, 1988, 1989

Acid sulphate Adularia-sericite Hayba et al., 1985

Heald et al., 1987
High sulphidation Low sulphidation Hedenquist, 1987
(based upon oxidation not sulphidation state)
Alunite-kaolinite + Adularia-sericite Berger and Henley, 1989
pyrophyllite
Acid sulphate Porgera type intrusion-relat- Adularia-sericite Sillitoe, 1989
ed base metal bearing Au
High sulphidation Low sulphidation White and Hedenquist,
1990
High sulphidation Low sulphidation Sillitoe, 1993

High sulphidation Intrusion-related: Adularia-sericite Leach and Corbett, 1993,

quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu
carbonate-base metal Au
epithermal quartz Au
High sulphidation Intermediate sulphidation
High sulphidation
Table 1.1 Summary of epithermal terminology evolution showing introduction of each new term.
renewed interest in epithermal Au-Ag deposits to
now also include many mined as bulk low grade open
pit operations in addition to historic bonanza Au
grade underground vein mines. Studies by Buchanan
(1981) and Berger and Eimen (1983) in the western
US provided analyses of the characteristics of
epithermal Au deposits and attempted to develop
genetic frameworks to account for features such as
vertical zonation in geochemistry as well as the ore,
gangue and alteration mineralogy, and the exploration
significance of these features. At the same time
analyses of active geothermal systems (Henley and
Ellis, 1983) contributed towards an understanding
of the environments in which epithermal deposits
formed. Different classifications of ore deposit styles
(table 1.1) emerged based upon wall rock alteration
and vein mineralogy as low and high sulphur, along
with local alkalic styles (Bonham, 1988). The former
two types, originally termed acid sulphate and
adularia-sericite (Hayba et al., 1985; Heald et al., 1987),
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1
Economic Geo. _ JH
epithermal Au-Ag 1994, 1995; Corbett and
Leach, 1998; Corbett,
2002a, 2004
Low sulphidation Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
2003
Epithermal baned Corbett, 2005a
chalcedony-
ginguro Au-Ag
became low and high sulphidation epithermal, initially
(Hedenquist, 1987) related to oxidation state, but
later (White and Hedenquist, 1990), based upon the
sulphidation state of specific ore minerals. Although
these terms continue to be used, this study also
focuses upon the nature of ore fluid which provides
characteristic ore and gangue mineralogy along with
zoned wall rock alteration as more applicable to
distinguish deposit types in exploration (table 1.2).
1.2.1.1 Two low sulphidation epithermal deposit
groups
By the early 1990’s most published literature described
low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag veins as sulphide-
poor banded quartz ± adularia veins with laterally
zoned wall rock illite alteration, as recognised at mines
in Western US (Midas), Japan (Hisikari), New Zealand
(Waihi) and Drummond Basin, Australia (Pajingo),
and compared these to the studies of the back arc
5
Taupo Volcanic Zone active geothermal systems of
New Zealand (Henley and Hedenquist, 1986). These
deposits are herein classed as banded chalcedony-
ginguro Au-Ag veins (figure 1.1; section 7.2.2.2)
and occupy only a small portion of the epithermal
spectrum.
Working in Southwest Pacific rim magmatic arcs in the
1980’s, Corbett (Porgera, Papua New Guinea; Fleming
et al., 1986) and Leach, each identified sulphide-rich
low sulphidation epithermal deposits which did not
fit the standard low sulphidation banded vein models
(above), and which Leach came to regard as analogous
to intrusion-related geothermal systems in the
Philippines magmatic arcs (Mitchell and Leach, 1991).
Consequently, in the early 1990’s, based upon
Southwest Pacific rim exploration studies, and Terry
Leach’s geothermal experience in New Zealand
back arc and the Philippines arc environments, low
sulphidation Au-Ag deposits were divided into two
groups (figures 1.1 & 1.4; table 1.1, Leach and Corbett,
1993, 1994, 1995; Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett,
2013b) developed in two fluid flow trends (figure 1.8).
1. The intrusion-related, sulphide-bearing, magmatic
arc Au mineralisation grades from broadly early, deep
crustal level and higher temperature, to late, shallow
crustal level and lower temperature as:
• quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu,
• carbonate-base metal Au (including polymetallic
Ag-Au veins in Latin America, Corbett, 2002a,
2004, 2005a, 2013b), and
• epithermal quartz Au (Leach and Corbett, 1995),
now slightly modified from the original term to
account for the empirical dominance of high
fineness free Au.
2. The sulphide-poor banded quartz veins, originally
termed adularia-sericite style (Hayba et al, 1985),
common in extensional rift or back arc settings and
listed above, are now termed epithermal banded
chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins (Corbett, 2005a), in a
move to focus more upon descriptive names using the
critical gangue and ore mineralogy (Cooke and Deyel,
2003). Mainly in Latin America, these deposits pass
down into the polymetallic Ag-Au veins as Ag-rich vein
equivalents of the carbonate-base metal Au deposits.
The recent intermediate sulphidation term (table 1.1) is
considered below.
1.2.1.2 Porphyry Cu
The porphyry terminology came from descriptions
of a common ore type. While veins and supergene
enriched caps to porphyry Cu deposits have been
worked since pre-history, the ‘porphyry copper era’
began as early as 1905-10 (Bateman, 1950) with the
6 Section 1
Economic Geo. _ JH
transition in the Americas from underground mines, to
the exploitation of rich supergene blankets to porphyry
Cu deposits, by early open pit operations using steam
shovels and train lines (Chuquicamata, Chile from
1915, Bateman, 1950; Bingham Canyon, USA from
1906, Porter et al., 2012). An early categorisation
of a porphyry copper deposit is provided (from
an engineering perspective) by Parsons (1933) who
focused on “their huge size, particularly with respect
to horizontal dimensions; the relative uniformity
with which the copper minerals are disseminated
through the mass; and low Cu per-ton content of the
exploitable ore”.
Porphyry Cu deposits became significant economic
propositions in the southwestern USA and parts of
South America as a result in advances in bulk mining
technologies after World War II. Geologists therefore
sought to better understand these deposits as an aid
to exploration. From the 1960’s synthesised studies
(in Titley and Hicks, 1966; Beane and Titley, 1981;
Titley, 1982) provided deposit descriptions and brought
together different disciplines in order to develop
deposit models. Government sponsored work aided
prospecting with an understanding of the weathered
surface expression (Jerome, 1966; Blanchard, 1968),
especially in view of the economic importance of
buried supergene enriched Cu blankets. Data acquired
from exploration examples led to the development of
early geological models (Lowell and Guilbert, 1970,
Sillitoe, 1972), some with a component of paragenetic
sequences (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). The high value
of porphyry Cu deposits prompted continued interest
as review papers sought to synthesise the progressively
evolving understanding of porphyry Cu deposits
(Titley and Beane, 1981; Titley, 1993; Corbett and
Leach, 1998; Cooke et al., 2002; Seedorff et al., 2005;
Sillitoe, 2010; Cooke et al., 2014 and many more). The
definition of porphyry Cu deposits with Au or Mo
variations is provided below (section 1.2.2.5), and the
detailed deposit description in section 5.
1.2.2 This terminology
This section introduces the terminology used herein
to describe epithermal and porphyry deposits (figure
1.1) as an aid to the understanding of the exploration
tools - alteration, structure and breccias (sections
2-4), prior to the detailed description of each deposit
type (sections 5-8) and then prospecting marginal to
mineralisation (section 9).
As classified above, epithermal deposits include
ore systems developed above the porphyry level.
The primary aspect of epithermal classification
Corbett Short Course Manual
 DISTINCTION BETWEEN HIGH AND LOW SULPHIDATION FLUIDS
High Sulphidation Low Sulphidation
magmatic
solfatara
travertine
boiling
spring
Au Epithermal quartz silica
ore system Au sinter
with zoned
alteration Cu CO2 rich
+ waters Chalcedony-ginguro
Au Au-Ag
epithermal
hot acid

dissociation of Carbonate-base metal Au

H2SO4 + HCl Cu ground magmatic-
to give H+ waters meteoric
fluids

Polymetallic Ag-Au
barren advanced
Quartz-sulphide

e rs
argillic alteration

s
Au±Cu

id

at
ic w

ral flu
m ete o r
disproportiation of magmatic SO2

neut
magmatic
s
4SO2 + 4H2O 3H2SO2 + H2S
volatiles ticl fluid

near
H2O, CO2 Acid sulphate
alteration
magma

SO2, H2O Steam heated

HCl, HF alteration
oxidised acidic fluid reduced near neutral fluid Oxidising low
S as SO2 S as H2S pH waters
CORBETT ai1576

Figure 1.6 Fluid flow paths for low and high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits (modified from Corbett and Leach, 1998).

distinguishes between low and high sulphidation
epithermal mineralisation styles developed from two
profoundly different evolving ore fluid types, which
might be simplistically considered to originate as open
or closed systems (figure 1.6). Low sulphidation fluids
develop in an open system characterised by modest
reaction with the wall rocks, as rising near neutral
magmatic fluids are diluted by variable entrainment
within circulating meteoric waters. By contrast, the
fluids which deposit high sulphidation epithermal
ores might be considered to rise from the magmatic
source at depth as a closed bubble, not in equilibrium
with the wall rocks, and evolve to take on an acidic
character, prior to later cooling and neutralisation by
wall rock reaction (section 2.2.4.4). Each epithermal
mineralisation style might now be defined as derived
from a distinctly different hydrothermal fluid and
display characteristic ore and gangue mineralogy as
well as wall rock alteration, rather than the original
definition based on the sulphidation state of specific
ore minerals. Confusion created by the incorrect
application of the term intermediate sulphidation is
resolved below.
1.2.2.1 Low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag
Low sulphidiation epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation
is deposited from evolving near neutral composite
magmatic-meteoric ore fluids in which S occurs as H2S
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
(section 7.1.2). In essence, as an evolving magmatic
fluid, which hosts Au-Ag bearing sulphides, rises, it
may combine with varying quantities of shallower
circulating meteoric waters and other evolved fluids,
which deposit much of the gangue such as quartz,
adularia or carbonate. The two low sulphidation
epithermal deposit groups introduced above are
distinguished by the magmatic versus meteoric
contents of the ore fluid. There is a significantly higher
magmatic fluid component in the intrusion-related
sulphide-rich deposits typical of arcs, and the stronger
meteoric component in the sulphide-poor banded
quartz vein deposits typical of extensional settings.
A comparison of figures 1.1, 1.4 and 1.5 illustrates
the settings of the two groups of low sulphidation
epithermal Au-Ag deposits in the two tectonic
environments (arcs and back arc or rift).
1.2.2.1.1 Low sulphidation fluids
The synthesis (Corbett and Leach, 1998) of studies
from the back arc Taupo Volcanic Zone geothermal
in New Zealand (Henley and Ellis, 1983; Simmons
and Brown, 2000a; Simpson et al., 2001 and references
therein) with Philippine arc geothermal systems
(Mitchell and Leach, 1991; Reyes, et al., 1993;
Giggenbach, 1997; Corbett and Leach, 1998) provides
three fluid types (figure 1.7):
• Neutral chloride
Section 1 7
 Low sulphidation High sulphidation
Fluid Dilute, S as H2S Saline S as SO2
Wall rock Local early propylitic with dominance zoned advanced argillic - argillic as vughy silica-
alteration of zoned argillic illite Gp with quartz, >alunite Gp->kaolin Gp->illite Gp, and abundant
carbonate, pyrite pyrite
Ore Low sulphide < 2% (locally <5%) Enargite-pyrite with low temperature luzonite
minerals Pyrite, sphalerite (variable Fe:Zn), galena, and varying to covellite, chalcocite, bornite,
chalcopyrite, Ag sulphosalts chalcopyrite at depth

Economic Au>Ag less common Cu Zn Bi Te Au>Ag+Cu

metals
Au Generally good Good in oxide ores
metallurgy poor where Au encapsulated in fine As Enargite hosts refractory Au
pyrite Uncommon good Cu ores at depth

Gold Variable with style of low sulphidation In SW Pacific Ag-poor

fineness including high and low fineness end Latin America Ag-bearing and locally Ag>>Au
Ag:Au members
Controls Ore shoots controlled by lithology, Permeability by host rock structure and dome/
structure, styles and mechanisms of Au breccias
deposition

Table 1.2 Comparison of low and high sulphidation epithermal, modified from Corbett & Leach (1998).

kaolin, cristobalite,
alunite, pyrite sulphur solfatara

acid sulphate neutral chlorite spring

spring
chlorite, carbonate,
water table
illite-smectite + kaolin alteration
acid sulphate waters
eruption breccia,
*
bicarbonate waters travertine
H2 S acid sulphate cap,
mixing silica sinter, acid
acid sulphate waters sulphate spring

* CO2

bicarbonate waters felsic

CO2
*
mixing
tuff
me

or
te

ic
w a te rs
*
te
rs

a
quartz, K-feldspar (adularia), m ete o ri c w
chlorite, illite, carbonate, pyrite alteration
quartz, K-feldspar (adularia),
chlorite, illite, carbonate, pyrite alteration
me

neutral chloride waters or

te

ic
w a te rs

neutral chloride waters

CORBETT ai1536

Figure 1.7 Evolved low sulphidation style hydrothermal fluids in magmatic arc and back arc settings.

8 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 HIGH SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag
steam heated
alteration permeable
RIFT phreatic
diatreme horizon
breccia
sinter
silica EPITHERMAL travertine
diatreme acid sulphate
QUARTZ Au alteration
A A

BRECCIA C O
B B
S
LITHOLOGICAL
A
STRUCTURAL B S EPITHERMAL BANDED CHALCEDONY GINGURO Au-Ag * O

*
SEDIMENT HOSTED B et

m
CARBONATE-BASE METAL Au eor
REPLACEMENT Au ic w a t e r

*
MnO2 A
POLYMETALIC Ag-Au

POLYMETALIC Au-Ag
QUARTZ SULPHIDE Au + Cu
B
limestone marl S
WALLROCK
PORPHYRY Au-Cu
MINERALIZATION S S
PORPHYRY Cu-Au
Banded tension vein REPLACEMENT FLUIDS
Fissure vein Rising mineralised
EXOSKARN magmatic fluid
S Sheeted vein
Circulating meteoric-
Stockwork vein dominant water
Breccia fill Collapsing evolved fluid
A - low Ph
Lithological control
B - bicarbonate
Disseminated ENDOSKARN O - oxygenated

* Fluid mixing
Corbett Model_2013F
Rising volatiles

Figure 1.8 Low sulphidation epithermal Au fluid flow trends recognised in different terrains.
In path A, typically in compressional magmatic island arcs of the Southwest Pacific rim, ore fluids deposit mineralisation in order
characterised as: quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu, overprinted by carbonate-base metal Au which in turn evolves to epithermal quartz Au.
In path B developed in strongly extensional settings such as the Sierra Madre of Mexico, Southern Peru or Argentine Patagonia, quartz-
sulphide Au evolves to the polymetallic Ag-Au variant of carbonate-base metal Au, and then banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins
as substantial meteoric waters deposit chalcedony-adularia and the sulphide vein portion evolves to form ginguro bands. Chalcedony-
ginguro Au-Ag veins also occur in the SW Pacific where they bottom as base metal sulphide-rich quartz veins.
Fluid flow path C represents the rare case where a high sulphidation fluid might become sufficiently neutralised to form a lower
sulphidation fluid and deposit ores typical of carbonate-base metal Au and epithermal quartz Au mineralisation.

• Bicarbonate waters the rift Ohaaki-Broadlands geothermal system in New

• Acid sulphate waters
Neutral fluids which rise by convective flow from
buried magmatic source rocks contain CO2 and Cl,
in far greater proportions in arc (Philippine) than rift
(New Zealand) environments (above and Corbett
and Leach, 1998; Simmons and Browne, 2000a;
Giggenbach, 1997). In arc environments deep
hydrothermal fluids rise and react with the wall rock
to provide alteration assemblages grading from potassic
to propylitic at depth and chlorite-zeolite at
shallow levels (Corbett and Leach, 1998). In shallow
level outflow zones, when vapour pressure of the
rising fluid eventually exceeds confining pressure,
water vapour and other gasses (mainly CO2 and lesser
H2S) exsolve from the hydrothermal fluid. Then in
the two-phase zone, absorption of CO2 by ground
waters produces moderately low pH bicarbonate
waters (Corbett and Leach, 1998). In magmatic arcs the
abundant bicarbonate waters may vent to form surficial
travertine deposits, and are apparent on the margins of
Zealand (Hedenquist, 1990; Simmons and Browne,
2000a), where Terry Leach (pers. commun.) noted fluid
mixing provided the deposition of anomalous gold. At
shallow levels in the vadose zone (aerated region above
the saturated phreatic zone, figure 1.5) H2S gas derived
from the deeper two-phase zone is oxidised to produce
acid sulphate waters, which contain sulphuric
acid, while oxidation of H2S in the atmosphere
produces native sulphur and steam (Corbett and Leach,
1998). Thus, there are two end member (bicarbonate
and acid sulphate) evolved waters derived from the
original neutral chloride precursor (figure 1.7). The
bicarbonate waters, which are more abundant in arc
than rift settings and associated with the formation
of carbonate-base metal Au deposits, show empirical
relationship with high level felsic (dacite) domes as a
possible link to the magmatic source for CO2 and H2S.
There is an exploration implication that elevated
Au grades result from the effective destabilization of
bisulphide complexes which transport Au, as oxidising

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 9

Economic Geo. _ JH
 B A
LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag

RIFT phreatic
breccia
sinter
EPITHERMAL travertine
diatreme acid sulphate
QUARTZ Au alteration
A A
B B
O S

A
B S EPITHERMAL BANDED CHALCEDONY GINGURO Au-Ag * O

C
*
B et

m
CARBONATE-BASE METAL Au eor
ic w a t e r

*
MnO2 POLYMETALIC Ag-Au

POLYMETALIC Au-Ag
QUARTZ SULPHIDE Au + Cu

WALLROCK
PORPHYRY Au-Cu
S S
PORPHYRY Cu-Au
D FLUIDS
Rising mineralised
magmatic fluid
Circulating meteoric-
dominant water
Collapsing evolved fluid
A - low Ph
B - bicarbonate
O - oxygenated
Rising volatiles
Corbett Model_2013A1
Figure 1.9 Low sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation styles develop within magmatic arcs as the ore fluid evolves from early to late
and deep to shallow crustal levels.
A - Modified figure 1.1 to illustrate the fluid flow and paragenetic sequence for the formation of mineralisation styles.
B- Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation is characterised by quartz and coarse crystalline auriferous pyrite, from Bilimoia, Papua New
Guinea.
C - Carbonate base-metal Au comprises early pyrite (of the quartz-sulphide Au + Cu event) followed sphalerite (here dark Fe-rich) with
lesser galena and later carbonate, here as open space breccia fill, from Kelian, Indonesia.
D - Epithermal quartz Au mineralisation is characterised by bonanza grade high fineness yellow free gold with quartz and green
roscoelite (V illite) gangue, from Porgera Zone VII, Papua New Guinea.
low pH bicarbonate and acid sulphate waters mix with 1.2.2.2.1 Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu
rising ore fluids (section 7.5; Leach and Corbett, 2008). with local As, Hg and Sb mineralisation varies from
The term steam heated is commonly used in the Cu-rich at depth to Au-rich at elevated crustal settings,
geological literature to describe the evolved waters and and is the earliest deposited of the sulphide bearing
associated wall rock alteration in both shallow crustal low sulphidation epithermal Au styles, where it may
level low and high sulphidation epithermal regimes. display an association with intrusion source rocks
However, here steam heated is reserved for alteration (figures 1.1 & 1.4; table 1.2; Leach and Corbett, 1993,
in the uppermost portions of high sulphidation 1994, 1995; Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett, 2013b).
epithermal Au-Ag deposits whereas acid sulphate These deposits occur over a considerable
describes the near surficial acid waters and associated vertical range and so include very deep level batholith
alteration in low sulphidation epithermal terrains intrusion-related quartz-sulphide deposits regarded
(figures 1.1, 1.4, 1.6. & 1.7). as orogenic by some workers (Lang and Baker,
2001), through to mineralisation deposited within
1.2.2.2 Styles of low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag typical epithermal crustal levels (Nolans & Mt Wright
mineralisation Australia, Round Mountain, Nevada), and rising
to near surficial settings such as the giant Ladolam
Different styles of low sulphidation Au-Ag deposit, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea (Corbett et al.,
mineralisation are derived from two hydrothermal fluid 2001 and below). Gold occurs in association with
flow trends which broadly equate to compressional sulphides. Mineralogy is dominated by quartz with
magmatic arcs and more strongly extensional settings, (auriferous) pyrite, the latter varying to include low
such as back arc environments, or intra-arc rifts, temperature marcasite and arsenean pyrite at a shallow
but not restricted to these settings (figure 1.8). As crustal level, while at a deep crustal level sulphides
mentioned earlier, the terminology is introduced here, include high temperature pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and
while deposit types, associated wall rock alteration and locally specularite or magnetite. Quartz varies from
the exploration implications of this classification are chalcedony or opal at shallow crustal levels, to mostly
considered in detail in later chapters. slow cooled coarser grained crystalline or comb quartz

10 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
in vein deposits developed at deeper crustal levels.
Quartz-sulphide veins are transitional to many D
veins formed marginal to porphyry intrusions (in the
classification of Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) but not
including enargite veins described by those workers
(figure 1.4). Variable Au grades include supergene Au
enriched ores (Section 7.6.2).
1.2.2.2.2 Carbonate-base metal Au,
originally defined in the southwest Pacific rim (Leach
and Corbett, 1993 1994; 1995; Corbett and Leach
1998), and later recognised elsewhere, including
the related (table 1.4) polymetallic Ag-Au deposits
of Latin America (Corbett, 2002a, 2004, 2005a),
have been some of the most important Au and
Ag producers in those regions and host significant
unexploited resources. The carbonate-base metal
Au and polymetallic Ag-Au deposits contain early
lower precious metal grade quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu
mineralisation and display strong associations with
felsic high level intrusions, typically rhyolite-dacite
domes, and also phreatomagmatic breccias for the
carbonate-base metal Au deposits. Extensional listric
faults dominate as settings for polymetallic Ag-Au
vein deposits. These deposits are characterised by
Au-Ag in association with pyrite-galena-sphalerite
and lesser chalcopyrite and tennantite-tetrahedrite
with gangue dominated by quartz-carbonate. The
elevated Ag content of polymetallic Ag-Au deposits
is commonly hosted within Ag sulphosalts such as
tennantite-tetrahedrite (freibergite) at deeper crustal
levels rising to argentite-acanthite at elevated settings.
The polymetallic Ag-Au deposits, which may also be
enriched in barite, display an argentite-acanthite rich
epithermal end member and, with the addition of
chalcedony from meteoric waters, evolve at high crustal
level extensional settings into banded chalcedony-
ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation. As illustrated in figure
1.9 the carbonate-base metal Au deposits evolve to
epithermal quartz Au mineralisation.
Consequently, there are two low sulphidation
epithermal end members at shallowest crust levels
readily distinguished at by mineralogy and Ag:Au ratio

B EPITHERMAL Au
HIGH SULPHIDATION A C
LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag
steam heated
alteration permeable
RIFT phreatic
diatreme horizon
breccia
sinter
silica EPITHERMAL travertine
diatreme acid sulphate
QUARTZ Au alteration
A A
B B
BRECCIA O S
LITHOLOGICAL
A
STRUCTURAL B S EPITHERMAL BANDED CHALCEDONY GINGURO Au-Ag * O

*
SEDIMENT HOSTED B et
m

CARBONATE-BASE METAL Au eor

REPLACEMENT Au ic w a t e r

*
MnO2
POLYMETALIC Ag-Au

POLYMETALIC Au-Ag
QUARTZ SULPHIDE Au + Cu

limestone marl S

WALLROCK
PORPHYRY Au-Cu
MINERALIZATION S S
PORPHYRY Cu-Au
Banded tension vein REPLACEMENT FLUIDS
Fissure vein Rising mineralised
EXOSKARN magmatic fluid
S Sheeted vein
Circulating meteoric-
Stockwork vein dominant water
Breccia fill Collapsing evolved fluid
A - low Ph
Lithological control
B - bicarbonate
Disseminated ENDOSKARN O - oxygenated

* Fluid mixing
Corbett Model_2013E
Rising volatiles

Figure 1.10 Two low sulphidation epithermal bonanza Au end members.

A - Graphic combines the two fluid flow trends in figures 1.9 and 1.11 which evolve to host bonanza Au.
B - In magmatic arcs, epithermal quartz Au mineralisation is characterised by high fineness free Au and little gangue, from Porgera
Zone VII, Papua New Guinea
C - In strongly extensional settings such as back-arcs or rifts, banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation contains low fineness Au
with abundant Ag, typically within the black sulphidic ginguro bands, which are locally interlayered with the poorly mineralised banded
chalcedony, local adularia and quartz after platy calcite gangue, from Hishikari, Japan, 948 g/t Au & 3,720 g/t Ag.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 11

Economic Geo. _ JH
 Deposit type
Quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu
Carbonate-base metal Au 2-10
Polymetallic Ag-Au
Epithermal quartz Au
Epithermal chalcedony-
ginguro Au ± Ag
Sediment hosted
replacement Au
Typical Characteristic
Ag:Au ratio
1 Quartz and Fe sulphides typically pyrite, varying to marcasite
/ arsenean pyrite at high levels. Chalcopyrite specularite or
pyrrhotite common at depth.
Fe/Mn/Mg/Ca carbonate with pyrite, sphalerite>galena and
quartz. MnO if weathered.
Commonly >100 Banded veins with layers of quartz, Fe/Mn/Mg/Ca
carbonate, and sulphides as pyrite, sphalerite, galena. MnO
if weathered.
<1 High grade, high fineness, free Au, commonly with quartz
and locally banded chalcedony.
2-10 commonly Banded veins comprising interlayered chalcedony, ginguro
>10 and local adularia and quartz pseudomorphing platy calcite.
<1 Impure limestone replaced by siliceous arsenean pyrite
commonly as breccias and with styolites. Jasper common.

Table 1.3 Field characteristics of different low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag styles.

Carbonate-base metal Au Polymetallic Ag-Au

Metal Au-rich Generally Ag > Au local Zn

Au fineness Moderate Low
Form Breccias, fracture/veins local Generally as fissure veins,
fissure veins commonly in listric faults
Relationship to other deposits Significant early quartz- Minor early quartz sulphide
sulphide. Evolve to chalcedony-ginguro in
Overprinted by epithermal higher portions of strongly dilatant
quartz Au±Ag systems
Setting Magmatic island arcs Extensional arc and back arc
Relation to intrusions Many deposits associated with Felsic domes common at prospect
diatreme flow dome complexes, scale
also marginal to intrusions
Dilution May be stoped out by late Common dilution of ore grade by
breccias post-mineral quartz

Ore fluid transport Bisulphide dominant Chloride locally important

Table 1.4 Essential differences between the low sulphidation carbonate-base metal Au and polymetallic Ag-Au deposits.

(figures 1.1 & 1.9; tables 1.3-5). Epithermal quartz
Au mineralisation (below) is characterised by high
fineness free Au and commonly very little gangue,
while banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation
is characterised by high Ag in ginguro bands and
abundant gangue of chalcedony and quartz and other
minerals such as adularia (figure 1.9).
1.2.2.2.3 Epithermal quartz Au
mineralisation (originally defined as epithermal quartz
12
Economic Geo. _ JH
Au-Ag in Leach and Corbett, 1995; Corbett and Leach
1998) typically forms at shallow crustal levels within
magmatic arcs overprinting quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu
and carbonate-base metal Au deposits, and hosts high
fineness locally bonanza grade free Au typically with
very little gangue, although chlorite is locally abundant
(described in section 7.2.1.3). Some deposits comprise
high fineness Au within banded chalcedony-adularia
veins (Sleeper, Nevada; Gosowong, Indonesia),
while others are strongly anomalous in Te (Emperor,
Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual
 Characteristic Epithermal quartz Au Epithermal chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag

Visible Au Abundant Present

Ore mineralogy Free Au local Te and Bi minerals Electrum, silver sulphosalts and Ag-bearing sulphides
local Se minerals
Au fineness High Low
Ag:Au ratio Low High
Gangue quantity Commonly low Generally high gangue which may dilute ore
Gangue type Quartz, local clay or chlorite Banded chalcedony with local quartz pseudomorphing
calcite and adularia. Common post-mineral calcite
Setting Magmatic arc Extensional settings which are most common in rifts,
(back arc and intra arc)
Associated Commonly overprint low Commonly pass downwards to polymetallic Ag-Au in
mineralisation sulphidation quartz-sulphide Latin America or base metal sulphides in the SW Pacific
and carbonate base metal Au

Table 1.5 Comparison of the two end members of low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation.

A LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag

RIFT phreatic
breccia
sinter
EPITHERMAL travertine
diatreme acid sulphate
QUARTZ Au alteration
A A
B B
O S

A
B S EPITHERMAL BANDED CHALCEDONY GINGURO Au-Ag * O

*
B et
m

eor
B
CARBONATE-BASE METAL Au ic w a t e r

*
MnO2 POLYMETALIC Ag-Au

POLYMETALIC Au-Ag
QUARTZ SULPHIDE Au + Cu

WALLROCK
PORPHYRY Au-Cu
S S
PORPHYRY Cu-Au
C FLUIDS
Rising mineralised
magmatic fluid
Circulating meteoric-
dominant water
Collapsing evolved fluid
A - low Ph
B - bicarbonate
O - oxygenated
Rising volatiles
Corbett Model_2013B1

Figure 1.11 Evolution of low sulphidation epithermal mineralisation styles within strongly extensional settings such as back arcs or rifts
(Sierra Madre of Mexico, Southern Peru or Argentine Patagonia).
A - In strongly extensional settings the banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins develop as the ore fluid evolves and combines with
meteoric waters which deposit chalcedony, adularia and quartz after platy calcite interlayered in veins, such as this example from
Golden Cross, New Zealand. Note the symmetry in the bands and central open space as these veins grow inwards as open space fill.
B - Some polymetallic Ag-Au deposits evolve to host late stage mineralisation characterised by argentite-acanthite, pyrite and white
Fe-poor sphalerite, such as this example from Juevos Verde, Argentine Patagonia.
C - Polymetallic Ag-Au mineralisation is characterised by pyrite (as part of the early quartz-sulphide Au + Cu component, locally with
barite) along with sphalerite (here yellow low to moderate Fe), galena and Ag sulphosalts with gangue of quartz and carbonate (here
rhodochrosite). This sample from Caylloma mine, Peru, assayed 30,00g/t Ag, contained mostly within dark freibergite, the Ag-rich
tetrahedrite.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1 13

Economic Geo. _ JH
Fiji), locally with Bi such as quartz-tellurobismuthite
(Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea) and chlorite gangue
(Cracow, Australia).
1.2.2.2.4 Epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro
Au-Ag
mineralisation (figures 1.10 & 1.11) develops by
the combination of mineralised ginguro bands of
magmatic origin, with bands of gangue deposited from
dominantly meteoric waters, comprising chalcedony
(low temperature quartz), adularia (as low temperature
K-feldspar) locally with platy calcite pseudomorphed
by quartz (Corbett, 2005a). Chalcedony is deposited
from cooling fluids at a higher temperature and
evolution from amorphous silica may evolve to
quartz over time (section 2.1.7). Veins typically form
in strongly extensional settings such as back arcs and
intra-arc rifts. The term ginguro is derived from the
early Japanese miners who recognised best Au-Ag
occurred within bands or breccia fill of black metallic
material comprising fine pyrite, Ag sulphosalts such as
argentite-acanthite, along with electrum and gold with
minor chalcopyrite. Sado gold mine began production
in 1452 and for many years the shogunate of Japan was
based on Sado Island at the source of income. These
deposits are therefore generally Ag-rich.
In Latin America many polymetallic Ag-Au deposits
are capped by epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro
Au-Ag veins and some SW Pacific rim epithermal
banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins pass
downwards to sub-economic base metal bearing
quartz + carbonate veins similar to polymetallic Au-Ag
mineralisation (Waihi, New Zealand; Kupol, Eastern
Russia). Epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro vein
systems are recognised in active near surficial settings
as hot spring deposits and may display an association
with eruption breccia pipes (section. 4.4.6).
1.2.2.2.5 Sediment hosted replacement Au
deposits occur throughout the Pacific rim and so
a derivation of the ‘sediment-hosted disseminated
precious metal deposit’ terminology (Bagby and
Berger, 1985, Berger and Bagby, 1991) provides
a preferred (Cooke and Deyel, 2003) descriptive
term, rather than the commonly used Carlin-style
terminology (Cline et al., 2005 and references therein),
named after the district in Nevada from where these
deposits were originally well documented. Sediment
hosted replacement Au deposits are now interpreted
(Leach, 2004) to develop at elevated crustal settings by
a combination (Corbett and Leach, 1998) of several
features. Dilatant structures facilitate transport of
low sulphidation epithermal quartz-sulphide style
ore fluids from magmatic source rocks at depth to
14
Economic Geo. _ JH
higher crustal levels where they react with permeable
impure limestone and mineral deposition occurs
by sulphidation reactions (Leach, 2004). These
deposits are characterised by microfine refractory Au
encapsulated within typically arsenean pyrite which
varies from pseudomorphous lithological replacement
to breccia fill and feature anomalous Hg and Sb, in
addition to As, as an indication of the interpreted
formation at elevated crustal settings.
1.2.2.3 High sulphidation epithermal Au miner-
alisation
The high sulphidation epithermal Au terminology
developed from a focus on the high sulphur content, to
the sulphidation state of the ore minerals (above), but
might now be better defined in the field by exploration
geologists on the basis of the characteristic zoned
alteration developed by the reaction of hot acidic fluids
with wall rocks and enargite-bearing ore minerals with
barite-alunite gangue. The hot, acidic, magmatically-
derived, ore fluid is saline, hosts sulphur as SO2 and
is extremely oxidising (below). There is a variation in
Ag content, from virtually absent in most SW Pacific
deposits, to Ag-rich and locally dominant in value
over Au in some Latin American deposits, although
the terminology herein focuses upon Au. Cu is locally
economic as Cu-rich, As-poor, sulphides (covellite-
chalcocite) dominate at depth (Cukaru Peki, Serbia).
The process for the formation of high sulphidation
epithermal Au deposits varies dramatically from
low sulphidation ore fluids. A fluid rich in magmatic
volatiles (SO2, CO2, H2S, HCl and HF), and including
brine, is interpreted (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and
references therein) to vent from a magmatic source
at depth and rise rapidly up a dilatant structure to an
elevated crustal setting without significant interaction
with ground waters or wall rocks, essentially as a
bubble. This closed system is diametrically opposed
to the open system involved in the formation of low
sulphidation epithermal deposits. In the formation of
high sulphidation epithermal deposits, the volatile-rich
fluid, which would have been pressurised and near
neutral pH at porphyry levels, becomes progressively
depressurised as it rises rapidly, like a bubble, up the
host structure causing volatiles to progressively come
out of solution. As the temperature of the rising
fluid falls below 400°C, vapour phase magmatic SO2,
exsolved from the depressurised fluid, undergoes
disproportionation to yield H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) and
H2S (Rye et al., 1992). Consequently, an originally hot
near neutral fluid becomes progressively more acidic
as it rises and so by the stage it has reached epithermal
levels it might be characterised by a pH of 0-2 and
Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual
 A

andesite

fiamme tuff Mineralisation B

Vughy (residual) silica

Silica-alunite

Pyrophyllite - diaspore
structure
Dickite-kaolinite ± illite
CORBETT ai1674

C D E

F H G

Figure 1.12 High sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation is associated with characteristic zoned advanced argillic alteration grading
outwards from the core of the alteration system.
A – Graphic illustrates the localisation of a high sulphidation epithermal system at the intersection of a feeder structure and permeable
lithology which then controls fluid flow (see figure 1.1) and alteration zonation. Mineralisation overprints the competent residual vughy
silica.
B - Vughy silica at the centre of the advanced argillic alteration zone, from Sappes, Greece.
C - Silica-alunite grading outwards from the centre, from Sappes, Greece.
D - Pyrophyllite-diaspore in the outer portion of the advanced argillic alteration, from Sappes, Greece.
E - Dickite-kaolinite grading outwards to illite then more marginal smectite discernible as a swelling clay as the argillic halo to advanced
argillic alteration, from Sappes, Greece.
F - Mineralisation post-dates alteration as breccia fill (black) enargite with additional (white) alunite, from Nena, Papua New Guinea.
G - Disseminated enargite-pyrite within vughy silica, from Mt Kasi, Fiji.
H - Enargite-pyrite vein cuts vughy silica, from Cerro Quema, Panama.

temperature of 250-300°C. This environment in which
fluid evolution occurs provides a distinct gap between
any high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit and its
underlying intrusion source (figures 1.1 & 1.4), in the
order of several hundres metres. The exploration
implication is that high sulphidation epithermal
Au deposits should not immediately overlie source
intrusions as illustrated in some ore deposit models.
However, many high sulphidation epithermal Au
deposits may sit on top of older intrusions, possibly
telescoped in conditions of rapid uplift and erosion
(Caspiche, Chile; Wafi-Golpu, Papua New Guinea).
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
In the epithermal regime the hot acidic fluid is
progressively cooled and neutralised by wall rock
reaction to provide the characteristic zoned advanced
argillic hydrothermal alteration grading outwards
from residual (vughy) silica to mineral assemblages
dominated by alunite, pyrophyllite, dickite and so on
with variations described in detail later (section 2.2.4.4;
figure 1.12). The hot acidic fluid breaks up into two
phases. A faster moving volatile-rich phase reacts
with the wall rocks to provide the characteristic zoned
advanced argillic alteration by progressive wall rock
reaction. The slower liquid-rich phase deposits later
Au-Ag mineralisation within sulphides comprising
Section 1 15
pyrite and enargite, or luzonite, its low temperature
polymorph, along with barite-alunite gangue discussed
in detail later (section 8.3; figure 1.12). At epithermal
crustal levels hydrothermal fluid flow in the wall rocks
is controlled by permeable lithologies, breccias or
structure (figure 1.1, section 8).
The early 1980’s term ‘acid sulphate, which is now
replaced by high sulphidation for epithermal Au
deposits of that type, is maintained for kaolin-alunite
bearing blankets of alteration developed near the
palaeo surface as caps to low sulphidation Au-Ag
deposits (section 2.2.4.5). Similar near palaeo surficial
caps to high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits
are termed steam heated alteration, characterised by
cristobalite, kaolin and powdery alunite and basal
silica ledges (figure 1.1; section 2.2.4.5). Near surficial
acidic fluids responsible for kaolin alteration styles
locally collapse into deeper levels in the hydrothermal
system where they might mix with rising ore fluids and
promote the development of high precious metal grade
mineralisation discussed herein.
1.2.2.4 Does intermediate sulphidation exist?
The acidic fluids associated with high sulphidation
epithermal Au deposits locally become cooled and
neutralised to form lower sulphidation states late in
the paragenetic sequence, and/or at the margins of
some high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits (fluid
flow path C in figure 1.8). This has been described for
Link Zone at the margin of the Wafi high sulphidation
Au deposit, Papua New Guinea (section 8.6.6; Leach,
1999) and at El Indio mine district, Chile (section
8.6.1; Corbett and Leach, unpubl. reports, 2000 in
Heberlein, 2008). At the Viento vein system, El Indio,
(figure 1.13), there is a progressive change along strike
in ore mineralogy, from typical high sulphidation

A B
Dilational
ore environments shoot 4

link B
flexure
structures shoot 3 C

C
shoot 2 D
El Indio Mine
3965 level
0 100m Viento veins
El Indio
veins

shoot 1 E
Campana D
o
uan
Paih

fluid flow

mined
F
Faults 0 250m

Copper veins
Gold veins
CORBETT ai1672a

Figure 1.13 Transition from high to lower sulphidation at the El Indio-Viento veins, Chile, showing the trend in mineralogy in space and
time.
A - Sketch map of the El Indio-Viento vein system showing the sigmoidal loop mapped by Stan Caddy at El Indio, from Jannas et al.
(1990), and the Viento veins with ore shoots, from Corbett unpubl. reports (2000) in Heberlein (2008).
B - Quartz-Au (shoot 4).
C - Quartz-rhodochrosite-sphalerite-galena (shoots 2 & 3).
D - Enargite-luzonite (mined & shoot 1).
E - Banded enargite-pyrite ore at the El Indio veins shown in green on the graphic.
F - Bonanza quartz-Au El Indio ore shown in red in the graphic.

16 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
enargite-luzonite in the south, to carbonate-base metal
Au style (pyrite, galena, sphalerite and rhodochrosite)
in the centre and epithermal quartz Au (quartz with
high fineness free Au) in the north, all overprinting
advanced argillic alteration of the high sulphidation Au
event (figure 1.13; Corbett and Leach, unpubl. reports,
2000 in Heberlein, 2008). Similarly, the adjacent El
Indio veins are zoned in time as an early copper stage,
transitional stage and later gold stage (Jannas, 1995
in Heberlein, 2008) as the bonanza quartz Au event
overprints the enargite-bearing Cu event (section
8.6.1). These are examples of fluid evolution from
high to lower sulphidation both overprinting in time
and marginal to the high sulphidation system. Typical
carbonate-base metal Au and epithermal quartz Au
mineralogy also overprint advanced argillic alteration
in settings of fluid evolution from high to lower
sulphidation at Orcopampa (section 8.6.2; Salazar et al.,
2009) and the La Zanja districts in Peru (section 8.6.3;
Corbett, unpubl. reports, 2014).
The term intermediate sulphidation (Einaudi et
al., 2003), was defined as ores comprising (low
temperature) Fe-poor sphalerite, tennantite-tetrahedrite
and lacking pyrrhotite (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003),
developed as a stage in the fluid evolution from
high to low sulphidation, and therefore overprinting
high sulphidation advanced argillic alteration, similar
to the examples described above. Using a similar
sulphide-bearing and sulphide-poor distinction in
Nevada by John (2001), to that previously defined in
the SW Pacific rim for low sulphidation epithermal
deposits (Leach and Corbett, 1993, 1995, Corbett and
Leach,1998), the intermediate sulphidation terminology
has been extended (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003)
to include the entire suite of sulphide-bearing low
sulphidation epithermal deposits previously classified
as low sulphidation carbonate-base metal Au (Leach
and Corbett, 1993,1995; Corbett and Leach,1998)
and including the Ag-rich variant, polymetallic Ag-Au
deposits (Corbett, 2002a).
The large group of carbonate-base metal Au
(including polymetallic Ag-Au) deposits should not
be categorised as intermediate sulphidation. They are
derived from a sulphide-rich low sulphidation fluid
which has evolved through two low sulphidation
fluid flow paths, preceded by quartz-sulphide Au +
Cu and followed by either epithermal quartz Au or
chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation, as illustrated
in fluid flow paths A and B in figure 1.8. Intermediate
sulphidation deposits are derived from the fluid
flow path C in figure 1.8, overprinting earlier high
sulphidation systems with associated advanced argillic
alteration. The carbonate-base metal Au deposits are
characterised by a range of sphalerite compositions
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1
Economic Geo. _ JH
and colour, not restricted to low Fe honey coloured
sphalerite (section 7.2.1.2.1), and some deposits
contain pyrrhotite or chalcopyrite, all not consistent
with the intermediate sulphidation definition above.
For instance the important examples (described as
intermediate sulphidation by Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
2003), Porgera, Papua New Guinea and Kelian,
Indonesia, each feature black Fe-rich sphalerite and
pyrrhotite (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Furthermore,
the carbonate-base metal Au deposits are characterised
by argillic hydrothermal alteration derived from the
interaction of a typical near neutral low sulphidation
epithermal fluid with the wall rocks, not the advanced
argillic as would be expected in the definition above.
The description of carbonate-base metal Au deposits
as quartz-poor intermediate sulphidation by Sillitoe and
Hedenquist (2003) is similarly incorrect (see quartz in
figure 7.15, Corbett and Leach, 1998). Many deposits
described as intermediate sulphidation in the geological
literature have formed within a typical low sulphidation
fluid flow trend not the evolution from high to lower
sulphidation.
Consequently, as is the custom in science, this study
uses the first published terminology for the large
group of deposits categorised as carbonate-base metal
Au, (Leach and Corbett, 1993, 1994, 1995; Corbett
and Leach, 1998), and including the Ag-rich variant,
polymetallic Ag-Au (Corbett, 2002a), each with
wall rock argillic alteration rather thanintermediate
sulphidation.
1.2.2.5 Porphyry Cu mineralisation
The term porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au deposits which
came about from mining, has persisted as these
deposits represent attractive exploration targets,
typically as high total value, bulk mining, low metal
grade open pit operations, although many are also
worked as underground mines. While the term
porphyry Cu herein implies some Au and Mo may be
present, mention is made where these add significant
value.
Definitions of porphyry Cu deposits in current use
focus upon the porphyritic texture of dominantly
calc-alkaline intrusions, which host Cu ± Au ± Mo
mineralisation associated with sulphides (pyrite-
chalcopyrite-bornite) as disseminations, breccia fill and
mostly within stockwork and sheeted quartz-sulphide
veins (figure 1.14). Best mineralisation may occur in
the upper margins of plutons or apophyses as vertically
attenuated spine-like stocks derived from deeper
magmatic source rocks and rising to depths of 1 - 2
km below the palaeo surface. While porphyry deposits
17
 A C

B D

Figure 1.14 Some characteristics of porphyry Cu-Au deposits discussed in detail in section 5.
A - Typical porphyritic host rock, Woodlark Is., Papua New Guinea.
B - Stockwork (M style) laminated quartz-magnetite veins, from Copper Hill Australia.
C - Stockwork of several overprinting vein events from the Ridgeway porphyry , Australia.
D - Wallrock porphyry as interpreted sheeted veins outside the source intrusion, Cadia Hill, Australia.
typically display characteristic paragenetic sequences form Corbett et al., 2009). Au-rich variants, termed
of zoned hydrothermal alteration and vein styles, best porphyry Cu-Au deposits are recognised in many
metal grades are associated with those systems which settings (Sillitoe, 1993, 2000). Some workers have
feature multiple intrusions and hence polyphasal focused upon K-rich intrusion compositions with Au
mineralisation events, although post-mineral intrusions mineralisation (Müller and Groves, 1993, 2000, 2016),
may stope out ore. (figure 5.1 section 5). while others consider the influence of oceanic crust
in their formation (Cooke et al., 2002; 2014), and arc
This work expands upon existing porphyry definitions reversal and remelting of oceanic crust (Solomon,
with reference to the exploration implications of 1990). Gold porphyry deposits, although with local
structure and the paragenetic sequence porphyry anomalous Cu and Mo, might be distinguished as those
alteration and mineralisation expanded from earlier mined for only Au, as the primary mineralisation, or a
work by Corbett and Leach (1998). Dilatant fracture possible overprint (Fort Knox, Alaska, section 5.3.2.3).
systems host sheeted quartz-sulphide veins which Suggested Sn and W-rich porphyry styles (Seedorff et
transport mineralisation from magmatic source rocks al., 2005) would need to display porphyry alteration
at depth to higher crustal level cooler sites of mineral and mineralisation styles in order to be included in this
deposition. Porphyry Cu deposits display characteristic class.
hydrothermal alteration which is zoned in space and
time analysed as a major component of this study The term ‘wallrock porphyry deposits’ (Newcrest
(sections 2 & 5). This zoned hydrothermal alteration, Mining Staff, 1996) has been used for Au-rich porphyry
along with marginal veins and pebble dykes may Cu-Au style mineralisation developed wholly within
be used as vectors towards buried porphyry targets the wall rocks outside the source intrusion, which
(section 9). Ore hosting quartz-sulphide veins are also may not have been identified, (Cadia Hill & Cadia
characterised as different vein styles which consistently East, Australia; Gaby, Ecuador; some Maricunga belt
display the same paragenetic sequence of formation. occurrences, figure 5.2) as different to the more limited
Spine-like mineralised stocks may cluster above more mineralisation normally documented extending from
deeply buried magma sources commonly aligned along a mineralised porphyry into the adjacent wall rocks.
regional structures (Goonumbla & Cadia, Australia). Some deposits classed as Au porphyry might represent
intrusion wall rock hosted deep epithermal low
While Mo is recognised in many porphyry Cu sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu mineralisation.
deposits, a separate group of porphyry Mo deposits
(White et al., 1981) are associated with more granitic
porphyry compositions and display variations in

18 Section 1 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
1.2.2.6 Skarn
Skarn deposits defined by the characteristic calc-
silicate mineralogy (Einaudi et al., 1981; Meinert, 2000;
Meinert et al. 2005 and references therein) mostly
develop by the metasomatic replacement of carbonate-
bearing rocks and display paragenetic similarities to
porphyry alteration and mineralisation (Corbett and
Leach, 1998) with prograde and retrograde phases
often overprinted by epithermal mineralisation,
discussed in detail later (section 6).
1.2.2.7 Linkages between deposit types
Linkages or transitions exist between most of the
deposits described above as illustrated in figures 1.1
and 1.4. The low sulphidation epithermal deposit types
described herein all represent end members within
evolving fluid trends. In compressional magmatic arcs,
many intrusion-related low sulphidation epithermal
Au deposits (Porgera, Papua New Guinea) or districts
(Morobe goldfield, Papua New Guinea) contain several
of the individual deposit types as: quartz-sulphide Au
± Cu, carbonate-base metal Au and epithermal quartz
Au. Similarly, in Latin American strongly extensional
settings, polymetallic Ag-Au mineralisation passes
upwards to epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro
Au-Ag veins, while some SW Pacific chalcedony-
ginguro veins terminate down-dip as sub-economic
base metal bearing quartz veins likened to polymetallic
Au-Ag mineralisation. Some districts (Great Basin,
Nevada) and deposits contain elements of both low
sulphidation epithermal fluid flow trends (Frute del
Norte, Ecuador; Gosowong, Indonesia; Karangahake,
New Zealand). Transitions are recognised from high
to (intrusion-related) lower sulphidation mineralisation
(El Indio, Chile) and from deep epithermal intrusion-
related low sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au ± Cu
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 1
Economic Geo. _ JH
style to porphyry Cu-Au, commonly as wallrock
porphyry Cu-Au. High sulphidation epithermal fluids
may overprint earlier porphyry Cu intrusions (Golpu
porphyry, Wafi, Papua New Guinea; Hayward et al.,
2011; Menzies et al., 2013), but there should be a
physical separation between the high sulphidation Au
deposit and its source intrusion at depth.
Apparent magmatic arc mineralisation occurs in belts
known for orogenic mineralisation such as Yukon-
Alaska terrain, where the White project (MacKenzie et
al., 2010) displays ore (auriferous pyrite) and alteration
(K-feldspar-specularite) mineralogical typical of
intrusion-related deep epithermal quartz-sulphide Au
mineralisation (Corbett unpubl. reports, 2007-2009),
and Fort Knox, Alaska is described as a Au porphyry
(Bakke et al., 1998) and skarns occur nearby.
1.3 CONCLUSIONS AND EXPLORATION
IMPLICATIONS
Section 1 sought to introduce the terminology used
to describe epithermal and porphyry deposit types
in order to facilitate the following discussion of the
exploration tools - alteration, structure and breccias,
and then these deposits will later be considered in
greater detail. The exploration implication is that
the explorationist must understand the style of
mineralisation present as the first step in the evaluation
of any project, in order correctly interpret field
observations as well as geophysical, geochemical and
hyperspectral data. Comparisons with known deposits
of that style will then facilitate prioritisation of any
portfolio of prospects, or identify potential problems
(supergene enrichment or refracting hypogene
metallurgy), even at the initial stage of an exploration
program.
19
2 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION
Hydrothermal alteration typically represents changes
in mineralogy by interaction with the wall rocks
of hydrothermal fluids related to the mineralising
process, although some workers include gangue
minerals deposited in conjunction with mineralisation
as hydrothermal alteration. This section seeks
to introduce the alteration minerals and define
styles of hydrothermal alteration utilised in the
following discussion of epithermal and porphyry
mineralisation. The exploration implication is
that alteration changes to the wall rocks adjacent to
buried mineralisation identified by geophysical tools
(magnetite introduction or destruction, and chargeable
pyrite introduction) and zonation patterns in wall rock
alteration minerals can be used as exploration tools to
define drill targets.
Terminology
Some definitions relevant to the manner in which new
minerals developed as part of the alteration include:
Prograde hydrothermal alteration minerals represent
an increase in the tenure of the alteration such as the
progression from primary hornblende to secondary
biotite within potassic alteration.
Retrograde alteration minerals develop as a downgrade
of the alteration style, commonly as the development
of lower temperature more hydrous forms which
replace prograde minerals (from Corbett and Phillips,
1981) as:
Kinematic development of new minerals such as the
development of garnet skarn as a replacement of
limestone.
Pseudomporphous replacement occurs as new
minerals replace old ones such as retrograde
chlorite replacing primary biotite.
Pervasive alteration may totally replace wall rock or
intrusions, varying to replacement of particular
mineral phases.
Fractures and breccias represent plumbing systems
for the introduction of hydrothermal fluids, and so
alteration grades away from crackle breccias (figure
4.8).
Veins cut wall rock and host kinematic mineral growth
within open space and act as fluid plumbing systems
to promote alteration of adjacent wall rocks, zoned
away from the vein.
Ledge is a body of silica of variable dip and origin.
Steam heated, bicarbonate and acid sulphate waters are
described in section 1.
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2
Economic Geo. _ JH
2.1 ALTERATION MINERALS
The pH vs temperature figure (figure 2.1) by the
late Terry Leach, updated from Corbett and Leach
(1998) for the 2008 Terry Leach Symposium run in
Terry’s honour, represents an ideal foundation for any
discussion of hydrothermal alteration associated with
epithermal and porphyry mineralisation. Terry did not
place actual pH or temperature values on the original
pH vs temperature figure as there are too many
other variables to take into account and so any values
provided herein must be treated as indicative. The pH
vs temperature figure groups alteration minerals as:
•Essentially in mineral groups of consistent
pH of formation, but with variations in temperature
(vertical columns on figure 2.1),
•According to the terminology in common
use by the mineral exploration industry to describe
hydrothermal alteration mineral assemblages as the
colour variations in figure 2.1.
Common mineral groups (vertical columns in figure
2.1) described below have been categorised within
temperature ranges (figure 2.2) from analyses of
geothermal systems and other research (Corbett and
Leach, 1998 and references therein) as:
2.1.1 CALC-SILICATE GROUP
Calc-silicate group minerals form in near neutral
conditions (pH <6-7) and with increasing temperature
(figure 2.1) grade through a sequence such as:
biotite-K-feldspar -> actinolite -> epidote-carbonate
-> adularia/albite -> chlorite-zeolites. Studies of
Philippine geothermal systems (Reyes, 1990; Reyes et
al., 1993 & 2003) provide estimated lower temperature
limits for the formation of many minerals, typically as
the first recognition moving towards the heat source.
K-feldspar as orthoclase forms with biotite in a
cooling intrusion from say above 600ºC and continues
deposition through to 400ºC (Dillies and Einaudi,
1992) and then undergoes a transition to adularia at
350ºC (Reyes et al., 2003). Secondary biotite deposits
throughout this temperature range down to 280ºC
(Reyes, 1990), as an important component of potassic
alteration. Albite deposits from 175-320oC and well
crystalline epidote is recognised from temperatures
as low as 240ºC to 340oC (Reyes, 1990), although
less crystalline epidote may from as low as 150ºC.
Actinolite is recognised from 280 to 340ºC (Reyes,
1990). Zeolites formed at lower temperatures include
anhydrous laumontite 120-200ºC and wairakite, 220-
310ºC (Reyes, 1990) and the hydrated zeolites natrolite
and mordenite at 150-200ºC. Laumontite is common
as a low temperature overprint on higher temperature
1
 INCREASING pH

Al Al, Hal Hal Hal, Sm

Op Silica Silica Silica Ch-Sm/Ch
Op Ch-Sm/Ch
Silica Sm Silica

Stb. Heu, Mor, Chab, Nat

Cr Silica
Cr K, Sm

EPITHERMAL
Al, K K Silica Zeo
Tri Silica Cb
Tri Ct/Do
Silica Silica + Sid

K, Sm Ch/Ch-Sm
Sm, Cb
Al Q + Sid Sm,Q/Chd Ch/Ch-Sm
K Q/Chd Q/Chd
K Cb
Q Zeo
Q K, I-Sm Ct/Do

Zeolites
Q + Sid I-Sm Ch, Cb
Q/Chd I-Sm
INCREASING TEMPERATURE

Al K, Dik Cb Q/Chd
Q K, Dik Ch, Q/Chd
K, Dik I/l -Sm
Q + Dp Ad/Ab

Lau
Q + Dp Q + Sid
I Ch, I Ct/Do
Al

MESOTHERMAL
Al Q Ab/Ad
Dik Dik I Cb Q/Cb
Dik Ch, Q, Ep
Q + Dp Q + Sid

Wai
Q + Dp Zeo, Ct/Do
Q Ad/Ab
Al Dik Dik
Dik, Pyr Pyr Pyr Ser
Q + Dp Ser, Q Ser Fsp Ch, Q, Ep
Q + Dp
Q Q, Ch Ad/Ab, Ct/Do
Pyr Cb Cb
Ser Ep, Act, Ch, Q
Q Fsp, Ct/Do
Al, Pyr Pyr
Q + Dp Q + Dp Mica/Ser
Mica/Ser Mica/Ser Act, Q Tr, Q

PORPHYRY
Pyr, Q Fsp, Cb Fsp, Ch Ct/Do
Q, Cb
Q+Ch

And, Al, Q And, Al And Bio, Act Cpx, Q

And, Mica, Q
Pyr, Q Pyr, Q + Cb Mica Fsp, Q Ct/Do
Mica, Q
Conditions of Fsp
And, Mica, Mica, Q+Cb Bio, Fsp Ga, Q
non - dissociation Cor, Q Wo, Ves
Cor, Q Cpx, Mt Mt

Silica Alunite Al - K Kaolin I-K Illite Chlorite Calc - Silicate

phvstemp
Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

Potassic Outer Propylitic Skarn

Advanced Argillic Inner Propylitic Argillic
Phyllic
Abbreviations: Ab - albite; Act - actinolite; Ad - adularia; Al - alunite; And - andalusite; Bio - biotite; Cb -
carbonate; (Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe); Ch - chlorite; Chab - chabazite; Chd - chalcedony; Ch-Sm - chlorite-smectite; Cor
- corundum; Cpz - clinopyroxene; Cr - cristobalite; Ct - calcite; Do - dolomite; Dik - dickite; Dp - diaspore; Ep -
epidote; Fsp - feldspar; Ga - garnet; Hal - halloysite; Heu - heulandite; I - illite; I-Sm - illite-smectite; K – kaolinite;
Lau - laumontite; Mt - magnetite; Mor - mordenite; Nat - natrolite; Op - opaline silica; Pyr - pyrophyllite; Q -
quartz; Ser - sericite; Sid - siderite; Sm - smectite; Stb - stibnite; Tr - tremolite; Tri - tridymite; Ves - vesuvianite;
Wai - wairakite; Wo - wollastonite; Zeo - zeolite.

Figure 2.1 Common alteration minerals in hydrothermal systems. The Terry Leach pH versus temperature figure, updated from Corbett
and Leach, (1998) for the Terry Leach Symposium in 2008. This figure illustrates groups of mineral assemblages described in the
geological literature and discussed herein.

2 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 Hydrothermal Temperature °C
Minerals 100 200 300 400 500 600
Cadia Hill Ridgeway Bingham Butte
Porphyry veins 4
7
*
Cadia East
7
* *6 Canyon

Biotite 1

Orthoclase 3

Adularia 1 2

Albite 1

Actinolite 1

Epidote 1

Wollastonite 8

Diopside-garnet 8

Tremolite 8

Anhydrite 1

Laumontite 5

Zeolites 5

Muscovite 5

Sericite 1

5
Paragonite
Illite 1

1
Smectite
Dickite 1

Kaolin 1

Alunite
Diaspore 5

Figure 2.2 Temperature ranges for the formation of hydrothermal

Pyrophyllite 1 alteration minerals from: 1- Reyes, 1990; 2– Reyes et al., 2003; 3-
Dilles and Einaudi, 1992; 4- Rusk et al., 2008; 5- Reyes et al., 1993; 6- Redman and Einaudi, 2010;2 7- Wilson et al., 2007; 8- Einaudi et
Andalusite
al., 1981. A declining temperature range of porphyry systems is provided by the comparison of: Butte as a very hot porphyry, Bingham
CORBETT ai1566a
Canyon as a large pluton, Ridgeway as a smaller spine-like body emplaced into wall rocks and Cadia Hill Au-Cu and Cadia East Au-Mo
both as wallrock porphyry deposits.

minerals in low sulphidation epithermal and porphyry 2.1.2 CHLORITE GROUP

systems (figures 2.2 & 2.7 D).
Carbonate, in particular calcite, deposits over a wide
temperature range, although Reyes (1990) suggests
dolomite forms below 180ºC. In low sulphidation
carbonate-base metal Au deposits, the carbonate
species deposited within veins changes with rising
pH (less acid waters) as: siderite, rhodochrosite,
kutnahorite, ankerite, dolomite, Mg-calcite then calcite
in neutral conditions (section 7.1.1.2.1).
Minerals associated with prograde isochemical skarns
include wollastonite, which is stable above 550ºC,
diopside, andradite garnet and forsterite above 475ºC
and tremolite above 420ºC (Einaudi et al., 1981).
Retrograde skarn minerals typically form at lower
temperatures (epidote, chlorite) and are commonly
hydrous such as the serpentinisation of forsterite-
bearing skarn.
Chlorite group minerals form in the pH 5-6 range and
variably coexist with illite group minerals over a wide
temperature range, commonly pseudomorphing mafic
minerals at low temperatures or retrograde alteration,
and extending to higher temperatures to coexist with
the low temperature range of epidote formation
(figure 2.1).
2.1.3 ILLITE GROUP
Illite group minerals form at pH 5-6 in a wide
temperature range with associated variations in
crystallinity, although the composition may remain
similar, governed by temperature of formation,
which is related to depth of formation and proximity
to heat source such as a vein. High temperature
minerals display most crystalline forms varying to
less crystalline and locally hydrated for minerals
formed at low temperatures. In the terminology used

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 3

Economic Geo. _ JH
here illite group minerals are categorised (Corbett
and Leach, 1998) with declining temperature as:
muscovite formed at highest temperatures (>350ºC),
varying to sericite (250-350ºC), then illite (200-250ºC),
illite-smectite, smectite-illite and smectite (<100-
150ºC). Smectite clays also form in the weathering
environment. This trend in illite type (crystallinity)
with temperature (depth) can be measured using
spectral devices to provide temperature vectors,
typically towards low sulphidation epithermal veins
developed in the higher temperature portion of
zoned clay alteration. There are variations in Na:K
ratio from K-rich illite to Na-rich paragonite, while
other illite minerals include the V-bearing roscoelite,
which is associated with some alkaline Au deposits
(Porgera & Mt Kare in Papua New Guinea; Emperor,
Fiji). Montmorillonite is an Al-rich smectite, while
the Fe-rich form is termed nontronite and saponite
represents the Mg-rich form.
An exploration implication is provided by the
ability to vector towards veins using zoned alteration
described herein.
2.1.4 ILLITE-KAOLIN GROUP
The illite-kaolin group minerals (figure 2.1) mark the
transition from illite to kaolinite groups as defined by a
decline in pH to 4 and the introduction of kaolin and
its high temperature polymorph dickite. Andalusite
and/or corundum are typical of acidic conditions
and very high temperatures of formation (400-450oC)
and occur in porphyry-related environments (below),
although Reyes et al. (2003) describe the first (lower
temperature) appearance of andalusite at 365oC.
2.1.5 KAOLIN GROUP
Kaolin forms in conditions of pH <4 (Reyes,
1990) and coexists with alunite in the pH 3-4 range
(Stoffregen, 1987) over a wide temperature range in
a variety of alteration styles from low temperature
acid sulphate and steam heated, to higher temperature
advanced argillic alteration (below). Halloysite
represents an hydrated form of kaolin developed at
very low temperatures including weathering. Kaolin
develops at low to moderate temperatures (100-
180oC), passing to dickite as the high temperature
polymorph from as low as 120oC (Reyes, 1990),
and then pyrophyllite (200-300oC), although Reyes
(1990) suggests pyrophyllite may form at much
lower temperatures in the presence of excess silica.
Pyrophyllite-diaspore therefore co-exist at moderately
high temperature (120-320o C; Reyes, 1990) acid
conditions, although this alteration is described as
4 Section 2
Economic Geo. _ JH
diaspore dominant in silica-rich conditions (Hemley
et al., 1980 in Corbett and Leach, 1998). Elsewhere
pyrophyllite forms the dominant alteration mineral.
Halloysite and kaolin may develop in weathering
(supergene) conditions, particularly in the presence
of acid ground waters, typically evidenced by the
presence of associated FeO and MnO. Careful XRD
studies can distinguish the more crystalline nature of
hypogene kaolin from the less crystalline supergene
kaolin, while in hand specimen only hypogene kaolin
is likely to be in contact with fresh sulphides. Kaolin
recognition is an important exploration skill as low pH
acid sulphate waters, evidenced by hypogene kaolin,
may collapse into the ore environment and mix with
ore fluids to promote bonanza Au deposition (section
7.4).
2.1.6 ALUNITE-KAOLIN GROUP
Alunite-kaolin group minerals dominate in very acidic
conditions at a pH less than about 2, although alunite-
kaolin locally coexist in the pH 3-4 range (Corbett
and Leach, 1998 and references therein). Alunite may
develop by wall rock alteration, typically as a fine
crystalline form but vary to coarse crystalline alunite
deposited directly from magmatic fluids in veins or
breccia fill. Powdery very fine alunite occurs in steam
heated alteration, while poorly crystalline supergene
alunite may develop in the weathering environment,
particularly where acidic ground waters are derived
from the weathering of pyritic alteration (figure 2.34
E & F). Although alunite typically occurs as a hydrated
potassium aluminium silicate [K2All6(OH)12(SO4)4], a
sodic form termed natroalunite is also recognised.
2.1.7 SILICA GROUP MINERALS
Silica group minerals vary with temperature. At
shallow crustal levels and low temperatures (<100-
150oC) amorphous silica deposition includes
cristobalite, tridymite, and opal, formed in
environments such as within hot spring deposits,
which with time may be transformed to chalcedony
and then more crystalline quartz (Fournier, 1985a). In
detail, opal dominates below 150oC and cristobalite
occurs in the 100-160ºC range, tridymite 150oC (but
possibly lower) and quartz represents the main silica
species above 180ºC (Reyes, 1990). Chalcedony is most
commonly recognised in epithermal environments
as fine grained white to buff coloured amorphous
silica varying from massive to finely colloform banded
where repeatedly deposited from a rapidly cooling
fluid. Although Fournier (1985a) provides 180oC as the
upper temperature limit of chalcedony developed by
the recrystallisation of amorphous silica, he also notes
Corbett Short Course Manual
chalcedony may deposit directly from cooling fluids,
and that in these settings temperature determinations
from quartz crystals will not reflect the conditions
of chalcedony deposition. It is therefore argued
that fine grained amorphous silica in epithermal
veins described in the field as chalcedony by many
explorationists, has been deposited by the rapid
cooling of high temperature fluids (Heaney, 1993)
during vein formation. Slower cooling fluids result
in the deposition of crystalline quartz, which may be
interlayered with amorphous silica or occur as comb
quartz veins, locally banded and/or with centrally
terminating mirror image crystals in veins with
open centre lines (figure 1.11A). Banded epithermal
veins develop by many discrete episodes of mineral
deposition with possible variations in conditions or
composition between bands.
There is an exploration implication that fluid
inclusion studies on coarse grained quartz crystals
within banded veins, from different bands to the
sulphides which host Au mineralisation, may not
correctly represent the conditions of Au formation
(Fournier, 1985a).
Very acidic fluids <2 pH favour the removal of silica
from zones of acid sulphate alteration which may
be redeposited as sub-horizontal silica ledges where
the fluid has been neutralised at the base of the acid
sulphate blanket (Fournier, 1985a) close to the palaeo
water table.
Rapid falls in confining pressure promote quartz
deposition (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Venting
depressurised eruption (phreatic) breccias deposit
significant quartz (section 4.4.6). In porphyry systems
quartz is deposited by rapid fluid pressure decrease,
typically within fracture-controlled stockwork quartz
veins (section 3.3.2.3). The model in common
use features failure of an intrusion carapace (i.e.
hornfels or chilled intrusion margin) as the build up
of magmatic fluid pressure exceeds the confining
pressure and tensile rock strength (Phillips, 1973). By
contrast the model used herein (sections 3.3.2 & 3.4)
relies upon a structural control to carapace failure,
determined from the kinematic analysis of resultant
quartz veins, as an exploration tool to identify the
conditions of porphyry emplacement and in the
search for additional mineralisation.
2.2 ALTERATION STYLES
In order to compare different hydrothermal systems
and consider the relationship of alteration to
mineralisation, in particular alteration zonation as an
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
exploration vector, a terminology has developed in
the exploration literature to provide a classification for
alteration styles. While many workers rightly believe
it is better to use descriptions based upon the actual
minerals, the shorter historical terms which pervade
the geological literature are often less cumbersome.
For instance the mineral description silica-sericite-
carbonate-chlorite-pyrite alteration might be preferred
by some workers whereas others are happy with the
traditional term ‘phyllic alteration’, for that mineral
assemblage. The pH vs temperature figure of Terry
Leach (figure 2.1) modified from (Corbett and Leach,
1998) provides an indication of the relationships
between alteration styles, the contained minerals and
conditions of formation.
The exploration implications of an understanding
of hydrothermal alteration overprinting relationships
and zonation patterns is discussed in detail in section
9.
The standard alteration styles in common use by
explorationists (figure 2.1) include:
2.2.1 PROGRADE PORPHYRY ALTERATION
2.2.1.1 Potassic alteration
Potassic hydrothermal alteration develops in prograde
high temperature (>350ºC) and near neutral pH
(>7) conditions, typically formed in association with
porphyry intrusions and extending into the adjacent
wall rocks. It is characterised by minerals such as
K-feldspar (orthoclase), secondary biotite with quartz
and associated magnetite, quartz and anhydrite and
sulphides (figures 2.3-2.5). K-feldspar alteration
varies from pervasive within the intrusion matrix
and extending away from the source intrusion within
permeable host rocks, to vein selvages and fracture
filling veins (figure 2.4). Magnetite and secondary
biotite vary from replacement of primary mafic
minerals to complete flooding of the host rock,
either intrusions or permeable wall rock. Anhydrite is
common as breccia matrix or fracture fill veins (figure
2.5). Potassic alteration is termed K-silicate by some
workers (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Sillitoe, 2010).
Significant porphyry Cu-Au mineralisation, typically
as chalcopyrite and bornite, commonly occurs within
rocks which originally displayed potassic alteration,
although that alteration may have been subsequently
overprinted by retrograde alteration (below). After the
formation of potassic alteration, at low temperatures
anhydrite hydrolyses to gypsum which requires
more space and may aid rock failure in open stope
underground mines.
Section 2 5
 A dilatant structure B

INCREASING pH

Al Al, Hal Hal Hal, Sm

OUTER PROPYLITIC Op Op Silica Silica Silica Ch-Sm/Ch
Ch-Sm/Ch
Silica

Silica
Sm

Stb. Heu, Mor, Chab, Nat

Cr Cr Silica
K, Sm

EPITHERMAL
ch Tri Al, K K Silica Cb
Zeo
lor Tri
Silica Silica
Silica Ct/Do
ite + Sid

INNER PROPYLITIC - K, Sm Sm, Cb

Ch/Ch-Sm
Al Sm,Q/Chd Ch/Ch-Sm

ze
ep
outer
K Q + Sid Q/Chd Q/Chd
K Cb

oli
ac id Q
Q Zeo

tes
K, I-Sm Ct/Do
tin

Zeolites
K-fe propylitic
Q + Sid I-Sm Ch, Cb

ot e
Q/Chd
lds I-Sm

INCREASING TEMPERATURE
e
pa Cb

ol
Al K, Dik Q/Chd
Q K, Dik Ch, Q/Chd
r

it
K, Dik I/l -Sm
b Q + Dp Ad/Ab

Lau
Q + Dp Q + Sid
I Ch, I Ct/Do

iot
Al

MESOTHERMAL
Al Q Ab/Ad

ite
Dik Dik I Cb Q/Cb
Dik Ch, Q, Ep
POTASSIC Q + Dp Q + Sid

Wai
Q + Dp

mag
Zeo, Ct/Do
Q Ad/Ab
Al Dik Dik
inner
netite
Dik, Pyr Pyr Pyr Ser
Q + Dp Ser, Q Ser Fsp Ch, Q, Ep
Q + Dp

Pyr
propylitic Q
Cb
Q, Ch
Cb
Ad/Ab, Ct/Do

Ser Ep, Act, Ch, Q

Q Fsp, Ct/Do
Al, Pyr Pyr
Q + Dp Q + Dp Mica/Ser
Mica/Ser Mica/Ser Act, Q Tr, Q

PORPHYRY
Pyr, Q Q, Cb Fsp, Cb Fsp, Ch Ct/Do

potassic
Q+Ch

And, Al, Q And, Al And Bio, Act Cpx, Q

And, Mica, Q
Pyr, Q Pyr, Q + Cb Mica Fsp, Q Ct/Do
Mica, Q
Conditions of Fsp
And, Mica, Mica, Q+Cb Bio, Fsp Ga, Q
non - dissociation Cor, Q Wo, Ves
Cor, Q Cpx, Mt Mt

Silica Alunite Al - K Kaolin I-K Illite Chlorite Calc - Silicate

phvstemp
Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group
stock SC2012_1540a

Figure 2.3 Zoned potassic-propylitic alteration.

A – pH remains constant while alteration grades as potassic
to propylitic away from the intrusion heat source under the
influence of declining temperature, from the staged porphyry
model (figure 5.1).
magmatic source B - Mineral assemblages on PH vs temperature (figure 2.1) with
an arrow showing the cooling trend.

A B

C D

Figure 2.4 K-feldspar within potassic alteration showing examples of pink orthoclase.
A - Within the matrix to an intrusion, Zhongdian, China.
B - Selvages to linear A veins, Caspiche, Chile.
C - Matrix to a permeable volcanic breccia, Temora, Australia.
D - Veinlets cutting wall rock andesite, Constancia, Peru.
6 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

C D

E F

G H

Figure 2.5 Potassic alteration characterised by secondary biotite, actinolite, magnetite and anhydrite.
A - Secondary biotite replacing mafic minerals from St Tomas, Philippines.
B - Pervasive fine grained brown matrix secondary biotite, Wamum, Papua New Guinea.
C - Biotite selvage to an A vein, Goonumbla, Australia.
D - Actinolite-orthoclase, Rawbelle, Australia.
E - Magnetite flooding on andesite wall rock, Ridgeway, Australia.;
F - Magnetite flooding of a permeable volcanic breccia, Macquarie Arc, Australia.
G - K-feldspar-magnetite-anhydrite, Taguibo, Philippines.
H - Anhydrite breccia fill and oxidised biotite-K-feldspar-magnetite-pyrite altered clasts, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 7

Economic Geo. _ JH
2.2.1.2 Inner propylitic alteration
Inner propylitic hydrothermal alteration forms as
prograde alteration at a lower temperature (250-350oC
& pH >7) than potassic alteration and is characterised
by actinolite, epidote, adularia (as the lower
temperature form of K-feldspar), albite, chlorite,
carbonate and local magnetite introduction (figure
2.3). It is common in wall rocks outboard of potassic
alteration and in moderately altered intrusions. While
actinolite is placed within potassic alteration by many
workers (figures 2.1 & 2.6; Corbett and Leach, 1998;
Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984), and used by some workers
to define outer potassic alteration, this work cites
actinolite as a key indicator mineral for the inner
propylitic alteration zone within wall rocks moving
closer to the intrusion heat source. The discovery drill
hole (NC498) for the Ridgeway porphyry, Australia,
bored within the wall rocks from epidote alteration
into actinolite prior to the intersection of the porphyry

A B

C D

E F

Figure 2.6 Inner propylitic alteration.

A - Calcite-epidote, Orange district, Australia.
B - Epidote-actinolite from DDH NC498, 485m, as the first occurrence of actinolite within the wall rocks moving towards the Ridgeway
porphyry, Australia.
C - Fracture-vein with inner high temperature actinolite and outer cooler epidote, Sumbawa, Indonesia.
D - White albite-actinolite, Namosi, Fiji.
E - Actinolite vein with selvage albite.
F - Pervasive albite alteration, Goonumbla, Australia.

8 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

C D

Figure 2.7 Outer propylitic alteration.

A - Chlorite-carbonate-illite-pyrite Copper Hill, Australia. B - Chlorite-calcite-haematite, Doris, Chile
C - Epidote vein with haematite selvage, Goonumbla, Australia. D - Calcite-laumontite vein/breccia, Kupol, Far Eastern Russia.

(figure 5.6). Actinolite can therefore represent an
important exploration vector where recognised within
the wall rocks outside the more prospective potassic
alteration.
Albite may form in place of K-feldspar in Na-rich
rocks extending away from the source intrusion,
typically as part of the propylitic alteration assemblage
(figure 2.1), as it forms at a lower temperature than
orthoclase (figures 2.2 & 2.6). Albite-actinolite is
a common mineral assemblage indicative of outer
potassic – inner propylitic alteration (figures 2.1 &
2.3).
2.2.1.3 Outer propylitic alteration
Outer propylitic hydrothermal alteration typically
occurs within wall rocks more marginal to the
(commonly potassic altered) intrusion source
than inner propylitic alteration, and may also be
present within weakly altered stocks in epithermal
environments (figures 2.1, 2.3 & 2.7). It is transitional
to alteration recognised in sea floor or metamorphic
rocks which is not considered here. Outer propylitic
alteration (>250ºC & >6 pH) is characterised by the
presence of chlorite, carbonate, haematite and local
pyrite with common additional zeolites, and varies
to host adularia-albite at higher temperatures and
illite-smectite in slightly lower pH conditions. While
calcite represents the most common carbonate,
others deposited from more acidic fluids include
rhodochrosite and dolomite (see section 7.4).
Pervasive chlorite with fracture controlled calcite
represents a common mineral assemblage (figure 2.7).
Magnetite is locally present at higher temperatures.
2.2.1.4 Zoned potassic-propylitic
Zoned potassic-propylitic hydrothermal alteration
develops over the declining temperature range at
constant near neutral high pH (>6-7) grading away
from a porphyry heat source into the wall rocks
(figures 2.1-2.3), and therefore represents an important
component of the model for the staged development
of porphyry Cu-Au deposits presented herein (figure
5.1). Initial conductive heat transfer, following
intrusion emplacement, might gradually be enhanced
by convective heat flow associated as circulating
hydrothermal cells are driven by the magma heat
source. These circulating hydrothermal cells, which
entrain meteoric waters with magmatic brines to form
a magmatic-meteoric fluid, therefore represent a key

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 9

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A

Descending cool
groundwaters

250mRL 250mRL

Structurally
controlled Au/Ag
deposition in NE
trending breccia
Au/Ag mineralisation
related to mixing
of fluids

Dominant minerals
alunite-kaolin
kaolin-smectite 0mRL

kaolin-illite-smectite
Rising hot neutral-alkaline fluids
illite-smectite
adularia-chlorite from Grieve et al., 2006.
0 100m
mineralisation CORBETT ai1616

B C

means for the progression of metals and volatiles
to settings above and lateral to the source porphyry
intrusion. Alteration mineral zonation, particularly in
propylitic alteration is used in exploration to vector
towards potassic alteration where mineralisation is
likely to develop (section 9).
2.2.1.5 Epithermal propylitic (-potassic)
alteration
Propylitic (-potassic) hydrothermal alteration in
epithermal Au deposits occurs either as vein selvages
or flooding of permeable host rocks. While this
alteration is most apparent in higher temperature
arc-related deposits, it is also recognised in back
arc environments. Common mineral assemblages
include K-feldspar grading from orthoclase to lower
temperature adularia along with quartz, chlorite and
pyrite. Adularia is typically overprinted by illite clays
as the hydrothermal system evolves in conditions of
declining temperature and fluid pH characterised by
argillic alteration. Lower temperature systems may
feature an overprint of zeolites then illite-smectite,
while kaolin overprints derived from collapsing acid
sulphate waters are locally recognised. While some
workers cite this adularia alteration, present as low
temperature K-feldspar flooding, as evidence of Au
deposition by boiling, other explanations are possible
(section 7.4).

10 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 D A

Figure 2.9 Adularia alteration with distinctive pinhole texture,

Figure 2.8 Alteration and mineralisation at the Ohakuri, New Ladolam open pit, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
Zealand. A - Outcrop.
A - Cross section showing adularia alteration overprinted by the B - Altered volcanic breccia in drill core.
collapsing acid sulphate cap from Grieve et al. (2006).
B - Adularia altered fiamme ignimbrites in outcrop.
A
C - In drill core with some illite overprint.
D - Adularia altered tuff cut by a pyrite-marcasite-opal vein.
2.2.1.5.1
At the Ohakuri prospect, within the Taupo Volcanic
Zone back arc setting, New Zealand, extremely
permeable fiamme-bearing ignimbrites display initial
alteration categorised as a flooding of quartz-adularia-
chlorite with local clay and zeolite overprint (figure
2.8; Grieve et al., 2006). This alteration is interpreted
as propylitic passing laterally and with time to zeolite
(mordenite) + illite-smectite alteration as well as to
argillic alteration dominated by illite-smectite clays.
B
An acid sulphate cap which grades downwards from
surficial alunite-kaolinite the deeper level kaolinite with
illite-smectite, formed by cooling and neutralisation
of the low pH acid sulphate waters and collapses
upon the propylitic-argillic alteration. Grieve et al.
(2006) cite the association of Au-Ag mineralisation
with low temperature clays immediately below the
acid sulphate cap to suggest mineralisation within
sulphide breccias and colloform banded quartz veins
with sulphide bands was deposited by the mixing of
rising ore fluids with collapsing cool oxidising ground Figure 2.10 Propylitic altered permeable lithic tuff at Round
waters. Although dilatant structures are apparent the Mountain Nevada, characterised by adularia flooding with
ignimbrites have been too incompetent to host quality associated chlorite, pyrite, calcite and albite shown as:
veins (section 7). A - Outcrop;
B - Drill core.
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 11
Economic Geo. _ JH
2.2.1.5.2
At the Ladolam gold deposit Lihir Island, Papua
New Guinea, unroofing by listric faults during sector
collapse has promoted the rapid transition from
porphyry to epithermal alteration and mineralisation
(Corbett, 2005b; section 3.2.5.3). Epithermal Au
mineralisation is associated with the K-feldspar
(adularia) event (Corbett et al., 2001) characterised
by a flooding of early orthoclase which grades to
later lower temperature adularia (Carmen, 1995),
A
B The process of retrograde hydrothermal alteration
Figure 2.11
A - Wall rock K-feldspar (adularia) flooding adjacent to a vein at
Dvoinoye in the Russian Far East (Thomson B. and Golden, H.,
2011).
B - Pink wall rock adularia flooding of a permeable fiamme tuff
from Bolnisi, Georgia with green illite alteration of the fiamme.
with sulphides and local illite (figure 2.9). Textural
destruction has provided the distinctive ‘pinhole
texture’ as the early porphyry alteration and fresh
rocks are overprinted by the K-feldspar event which
is in turn overprinted by collapsing acid sulphate-
argillic alteration (figure 2.9; section 2.2.3.2). Gold
mineralisation encapsulated in fine grained sulphides,
typically arsenean pyrite, is characterised as of the
low sulphidation epithermal quartz-sulphide Au + Cu
style (Corbett and Leach, 1998; section 7.2.1.1.4.2).
The strong correlation between this alteration and
Au mineralisation (Carmen, 2003) is attributed to Au
deposition by sulphidation reactions (Leach, unpubl.
report, 2006 in Kidd, 2008).
12
Economic Geo. _ JH
2.2.1.5.3
Round Mountain, Nevada features flooding of
permeable “variably welded rhyolitic tuff ” by a
propylitic mineral assemblage comprising: adularia,
albite, chlorite, calcite and pyrite (figure 2.10; Fifarek
and Gerike, 1990 after Sander, 1988) in which Au
mineralisation (section 7.2.1.1.4.3) is hosted within
disseminated and vein pyrite (of the low sulphidation
epithermal quartz-sulphide Au+ Cu style). Some
workers suggest mineralisation is best developed at
the transition from propylitic to potassic alteration
characterised by more “pure adularia” (Sander
and Einaudi, 1990). Mine geologists attribute the
flat orientation of mineralisation to preferential
mineralisation of a more permeable felsic tuff unit
within a sequence which contains a less permeable
cap rock. Gold was deposited from a cooling fluid as
disseminated pyrite within the altered tuff or cross-
cutting quartz-pyrite veins (section 7.2.1.1.4.3).
2.2.2 RETROGRADE PORPHYRY
ALTERATION
represents a fundamental change in the fluid chemistry
and flow dynamics of the porphyry hydrothermal
system. Prograde potassic-propylitic alteration is
initiated as conductive transfer of heat from the
intrusion into the wall rocks followed by convective
heat transfer as that heat drives circulating cells of
rising hot magmatic-meteoric waters developed as a
mixture of magmatic fluid (liquid and volatiles) with
meteoric waters (see Giggenbach, 1997). Volatile-rich
magmatic fluids may also vent from the intrusion
at this stage by different processes and form either
barren shoulders of advanced argillic alteration or
tourmaline breccia pipes, while a sudden pressure drop
may promote the formation of quartz veins which
host sulphides exsolved from the deeper magmatic
source. The convective cells progress as ground waters
are drawn into the magmatic hydrothermal system at
the sides and entrain additional magmatic brine and
the magmatic-meteoric fluid rises from the porphyry
to higher levels within the overlying and adjacent wall
rocks. Volatiles such as SO2 and CO2 exsolved from
the cooling intrusion may oxidise and become acidified
and those acid waters react with the wall rocks to
form retrograde alteration such as vein selvages (figure
2.14). Some volatiles rise within the conductive cells to
the upper portion of the porphyry environment, and
there oxidise, becoming entrained within the ground
waters as blankets of hot acidic waters above the
porphyry. Eventually as the vertically attenuated stock-
like intrusion cools the formerly outward moving
(rising) circulating hydrothermal cells not only weaken
Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual
 STAGED PORPHYRY Cu-Au EVOLUTION
EARLY LATE
Low sulphidation High sulphidation
epithermal epithermal
A C
tourmaline COLLAPSING ARGILLIC ARGILLIC
structure breccia pipe ADVANCED clay collapse
BARREN ARGILLIC
SHOULDER dilatant
PROPYLITIC ze structure
c olit
e hlor es silica stockwork
PHYLLIC
E veins actpidoteite alunite quartz veins
silica
ino pyropyllite sheeted pyrite chlorite D veins
lite sericite
B quartz
apophyses A veins corrundum veins
POTASSIC andalusite
M magnetite
veins biotite
k-feldspar

intramineral PROPYLITIC
intrusion
me stock
t e o ric
post-
mineral
intrusion

magmatic source

Intrusion emplacement and B quartz vein formation. Cooling and collapsing of Continued retrograde
heat transfer with prograde retrograde phyllic and argillic collapse. D vein
alteration. E veins. alteration and overprinting mineralization, &
collapsing advanced argillic post-mineral features.
Initiation of A & M Exsolution of magmatic alteration..
quartz vein formation volatiles and formation Local retrograde alteration
and early mineralization. of barren shoulder. selvages to B veins. Corbett ai1465c

Figure 2.12 The staged model for the development of porphyry Cu alteration and mineralisation (figure 5.1) showing the change from
outward convective flow (box A) to drawdown (box C) as the spine-like intrusion cools. During prograde alteration outward moving
convective hydrothermal cells develop as meteoric waters enter from the sides and magmatic-meteoric fluids leave the upper intrusion
environment. Volatiles collect and oxidise to form blankets of low pH waters in the upper portion of the porphyry environment.
However, during cooling of the vertically attenuated stock these hydrothermal cells collapse and the hot low pH waters are drawn down
upon the intrusion and adjacent wall rocks to produce retrograde phyllic, argillic and local advanced argillic alteration.

but reverse and, in the process of drawdown, collapse low temperatures, sericite passes to illite and chlorite
onto the upper portions of the underlying porphyry as part of the transition to argillic alteration (figures
environment (intrusion and wall rocks), commonly 2.12-2.14). In more acidic conditions phyllic alteration
exploiting the fractured intrusion margins (figure 2.12). may contain pyrophyllite passing to dickite at lower
The collapsing hot low pH waters react with fresh temperatures. As discussed below, in extremely acidic
rock and earlier formed prograde mineral assemblages
to produce retrograde phyllic alteration about the top
of the intrusion and collapsing down the permeable
fractured margins in a molar tooth shape (figure 5.1;
2.12; Corbett and Leach, 1998). Permeable wall rocks
may channel the hot acidic waters laterally away from
the intrusion to form blankets of retrograde alteration
(figures 2.25, 2.33 & 2.37).

2.2.2.1 Phyllic alteration phyllic

Phyllic hydrothermal alteration forms in acidic

(4.5-7 pH), high temperature (>350oC) conditions
variably association with porphyry systems, where it
is characterised by silica, sericite, pyrite and chlorite,
with lesser anhydrite, while local siderite represents
a common carbonate and is typical of acidic
conditions (figures 2.1, 2.2, 2.13 & 2.14). At high Figure 2.13 Retrograde phyllic alteration on pH vs temperature
SC2012_1539a

temperatures sericite is dominated by white mica, and with an arrow showing mineral assemblages developed as the
corundum and andalusite may also occur, while at retrograde fluid collapses into the hot porphyry environment.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 13

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

C D

E F

Figure 2.14 Phyllic alteration dominated by mineral assemblages.

A - Sericite vein selvage to quartz-sulphide vein.
B - Sericite crackle breccia selvage in andesite wall rock.
C - Bleaching due to increased silica closest to the quartz vein, Chatree, Thailand.
D - Coarse muscovite alteration occurs with stockwork quartz veins, the Highland Valley. Canada.
E - Sericite-pyrite, La Arena, Peru.
F - Stockwork quartz occurs with pervasive silica-sericite-pyrite-siderite wallrock alteration from Caspiche, Chile.

conditions phyllic may pass to advanced argillic
alteration characterised by alunite, where phyllic
alteration occurs at the deeper margins of what is
described as lithocaps in the geological literature
(Sillitoe, 1995b).
Phyllic alteration results in the replacement of
K-feldspar by silica-sericite-pyrite and mafic minerals,
comprising primary hornblende-pyroxene-biotite and
secondary biotite, are replaced by initially chlorite,
then sericite-pyrite with stronger alteration, while
magnetite is replaced by martite with a destruction
of the magnetic character. The margins of many
alteration systems pass from sericite to outer chlorite
alteration as an indication of the progressive cooling
and neutralisation of the collapsing hot acid fluids.
Exploration is influenced by destruction of magnetic
anomalies to form regions of subdued magnetic
signatures and in induced polarisation surveys, silica-
sericite alteration forms resistive anomalies, while
pyrite provides chargeability anomalies as a distinctive
aspect of porphyry-related retrograde (phyllic-argillic)
alteration. The locally intense pyrite oxidises in the
supergene environment to produce acidic waters
which account for intense supergene leaching such
as the development of leached caps and associated
remobilisation of Cu to form chalcocite blankets of
enriched Cu (section 5.4).
2.2.3 ARGILLIC ALTERATION
Argillic hydrothermal alteration, defined in figure 2.1,
develops in a variety of settings (figure 2.15), and
displays considerable internal variation. The minerals
which constitute argillic alteration form at relatively
low temperatures (<250oC) and a range of pH from

14 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 Figure 2.15 Fluid flow paths for the
formation of zoned wall rock argillic
3A alteration, discussed herein.
acid sulphate shallow 1A. Argillic collapse upon cooling phyllic
fluids alteration.
3Bd
ee 1B. At the cooled and neutralised margin of
p
neutralisation of phyllic alteration.
acid sulphate fluids 2. Cooling and neutralisation marginal to
advanced argillic alteration.
intermediate 4 3A. Mainly lateral fluid flow and wall rock
argillic reaction to neutralise the fluid responsible
argillic alteration
for acid sulphate caps to low sulphidation
n
io

1A epithermal mineralisation.
at
lis

3B. Heating of the low pH fluid in 3A as

overprinting
ra

it collapses deeper into the hydrothermal

lic

argillic
ut

system.
on il

2
ne

ati arg

4. Marginal to low sulphidation epithermal

&

alter d

veins which overprint from earlier propylitic

ling

1B
nce

cores to zoned alteration

marginal argillic
coo

dva

to phyllic
Intermediate argillic alteration is circled in
of a

grey.

CORBETT ai1549

near neutral (pH 5-6) to moderately acidic (pH 4-5)
in the region between advanced argillic and outer
propylitic alteration (figure 2.1). Some workers describe
intermediate argillic alteration as having formed in
the lower pH (say 4–4.5) portion of argillic alteration
shown in figure 2.15, transitional to advanced argillic
alteration and so the remainder of the argillic field
might then be regarded as near neutral argillic (pH
say 4.5-6). That division was not done in Corbett and
Leach (1998) nor herein.
Au-Ag deposits (section 2.2.3.3).
• Outer limits of advanced argillic alteration related
to high sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits or
formed in association with porphyry Cu deposits.
• Barren shoulders (section 2.2.4), grading through
possible intermediate argillic grading to neutral
argillic, locally to outer propylitic alteration.
2.2.3.1 Overprints of argillic upon earlier phyllic
alteration

As argillic alteration forms in relatively lower
temperature (<250oC) less acidic (4-6 pH) conditions
than phyllic alteration, it might be regarded as typical
of epithermal settings or a later stage collapse upon a
cooling porphyry environment (figure 2.15). The illite-
sericite transition at about 250ºC (Corbett and Leach,
1998) represents the boundary between argillic and
higher temperature phyllic alteration. One of the most
distinctive features of argillic alteration is the variation
in settings of formation with associated differences
and similarities in alteration minerals, which contributes
to internal variations in this alteration style.
Argillic alteration occurs in several settings (figure 2.15)
described in detail below as:
• A late stage overprint on the phyllic alteration of
porphyry Cu-Au deposits (section 2.2.3.1).
• Neutralisation of the fluid responsible for acid
sulphate alteration (section 2.2.3.2).
• Wall rock alteration in low sulphidation epithermal
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
Argillic alteration may overprint earlier phyllic
hydrothermal alteration as the fluid responsible for
phyllic alteration is cooled and neutralised by wall rock
reaction during collapse (figure 2.15) to deposit illite,
kaolin and pyrite and local chlorite and carbonate. This
overprinting alteration occurs as the matrix to breccias
commonly termed clay matrix breccias (section 4.4.7.7;
figure 2.16 A-C), or as cross-cutting fracture-veins and
pervasive alteration (figure 2.16 D). In the examples
shown here a discernible fluid plumbing system
facilitates an argillic overprint upon phyllic alteration.
Overprinting alteration results from fluid collapse
during continuation of the drawdown process as a
prograde porphyry heat source progressive cools and
shuts down as described above (above, section 2.2.2 &
figure 2.12). This argillic alteration may overprint pre-
existing phyllic alteration as a composite phyllic-argillic
alteration (figure 2.16), or migrate from the retrograde
environment and overprint fresh rock or pre-existing
Section 2 15
 A B

C D

Figure 2.16 Rock textures formed by the collapse of argillic upon phyllic alteration as shown in figure 2.13A, from the staged porphyry
model (figure 5.1).
A - Crackle breccia as clay overprints sericite alteration.
B & C - Intense clay alteration and the formation of clay matrix breccias.
D - Clay fracture-veins. All photos are from projects in Philippines.

potassic-propylitic alteration (figure 2.17). Thus the Leach (1998) or herein.

alteration mineralogy depends upon the fluid pH,
varying from kaolin in the presence of low pH fluids,
to illite in near neutral conditions and temperature
as kaolin varies to dickite in higher temperature
conditions (figures 2.1 & 2.15). Mafic wall rocks may
provide alteration rich in chlorite and pyrite (the latter
by the use of Fe).
As for phyllic alteration, argillic or composite phyllic-
argillic alteration contains abundant pyrite which may
oxidise to produce FeO-rich weathered exposures,
transported gossans and acidic ground waters. Clay
matrix breccias (section 4.4.7.7) display a fill of clay
grading away from fractures into the wall rock which
then occurs as remnants of silica-sericite altered host
rock. Breccias vary from no clast movement to fault or
shear zones with extensive clast transport and milling
(figure 2.16). The composite phyllic-argillic alteration
is described by some workers as SCC for sericite-clay-
chlorite alteration (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984; Sillitoe,
2010) comprising sericite as well as later kaolin-illite
deposited from a less acidic lower temperature fluid,
although chlorite could be of a phyllic or argillic
origin. As this term applies to a composite of two
separate alteration events, formed under different (but
related) conditions, it was not used in Corbett and
16
Economic Geo. _ JH
2.2.3.2 Argillic alteration below acid sulphate
caps
Argillic alteration results from the reaction with wall
rocks of the collapsing warm, low pH fluids, described
below (section 2.4.6) as responsible for the formation
of near surficial acid sulphate caps, which may
overlie low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits.
The mixing of meteoric waters combines with wall
rock reaction to provide significant cooling and
neutralisation of these fluids. Similar alteration is also
locally recognised below steam heated blankets which
overlie high sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag, although
commonly obscured by collapse of the steam heated
alteration upon the epithermal alteration.
The cooling and neutralisation of acid sulphate
waters provides zoned argillic alteration grading
from: kaolin ± alunite dominant, to illite-kaolinite
and then illite at depth in slightly warmer conditions,
locally with chlorite-carbonate, while smectite might
dominate laterally in cooler conditions (paths 3A & 3B
respectively on figure 2.15 & figure 2.18). All mineral
assemblages are pyrite-bearing and supergene gypsum
Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual
 A
oric
r
wate
mete
PHYLLIC
ARGILLIC
clay
chlorite
CORBETT ai1573
B as an essentially retrograde alteration (figures 2.1,
C
Figure 2.17 Collapse of argillic alteration beyond the retrograde
environment onto earlier prograde alteration.
A - Graphic derived from the staged model for porphyry
development (from figure 5.1).
B - Illite-kaolin overprint upon propylitic alteration, Ohio Creek,
New Zealand.
C - Illite-kaolin overprint onto potassic (biotite-magnetite)
alteration, Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
is common as the sulphides oxidise to acid ground
waters which react with the wall rocks. Alteration is
influenced by wall rock permeability and may extend
some distance within permeable lapilli tuffs which may
be constrained between less permeable rock units such
as andesite lavas. Swelling (smectite) clays hydrolyse
and expand and so destroy the host rock, recognised
in drill core (figure 2.22). Acid sulphate waters may be
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2
Economic Geo. _ JH
drawn down up to 1000 metres into the hydrothermal
system and so kaolin is recognised as evidence of Au
deposition by fluid mixing several hundred meters
below the surface in mineral exploration projects (in
section 7.5 - Palmarejo, Mexico; Kapit, Lihir Is., Papua
New Guinea). In some instances (Sleeper, Nevada,
USA) these waters become heated and deposit
dickite the higher temperature form of kaolin (path
3B on figure 2.15). The soft acid sulphate caps and
underlying clay alteration are only preserved in poorly
eroded youthful (Lihir, Papua New Guinea) or arid
(Palmarejo, Mexico) terrains.
2.2.3.3 Argillic alteration marginal to low
sulphidation epithermal veins
Wall rock-hosted zoned argillic hydrothermal
alteration formed adjacent to low sulphidation
epithermal veins represents the most common style
of argillic alteration recognised in association with
these Au-Ag deposits, either as pervasive alteration
best developed within permeable host rocks and
breccias, or as vein selvages. It is characterised by illite
group minerals, pyrite, quartz, chlorite and carbonate,
2.19-2.24). Argillic alteration may locally overprint a
propylitic precursor adjacent to fissure veins or within
permeable wall rocks (path 4 in figure 2.15; section
2.2.1.5, figures 2.8 & 2.11, above). A fluid flow path
and alteration zonation forms as the hydrothermal
fluid cools and exsolves volatiles to become slightly
more acidic and so in this case later, distal mineral
assemblages developed at higher crustal levels may
contain kaolin and siderite (figure 2.15), rimmed by
illite-smectite, zeolites and carbonate as those acidic
fluids are neutralised by wall rock reaction. The
variation in temperature within argillic alteration is
most apparent as a decrease in the crystallinity of illite
group minerals without any change in composition
as: higher temperature illite, passes to illite-smectite,
smectite-illite and lowest temperature smectite (path
4 in figure 2.15). Note smectite and kaolinite clays
also occur in the weathering environment. Alteration
zonation therefore varies with crustal level, host rock
permeability and position relative to the fluid source,
above and below the fluid flow trend shown in figure
2.15. Although kaolin is described above in the outer
portions of alteration zonation at low temperatures,
dickite is locally recognised at high temperatures at
depth. Carbonate is common as calcite, developed in
in neutral conditions, in propylitic alteration, varying
through mixed carbonates (rhodochrosite etc), to
siderite in the acid spectrum of argillic alteration
(section 7.2.1.2.3).
In the field, clays such as illite clays are distinguished
17
 INCREASING pH
A acid sulphate neutralisation B
A Al, Hal Hal Hal, Sm
Al Ch-Sm/Ch
Op Silica Silica Silica Ch-Sm/Ch
Silica Op Silica
Sm

Stb. Heu, Mor, Chab, Nat

Cr Silica
Cr K, Sm

EPITHERMAL
Al, K K Silica Zeo
Tri Silica Cb
Tri Ct/Do
Silica Silica + Sid

K, Sm Ch/Ch-Sm
Sm, Cb
Al Q + Sid Sm,Q/Chd Ch/Ch-Sm
K Q/Chd Q/Chd
K Cb
Q Zeo
Q K, I-Sm
heating Ct/Do

Zeolites
Q + Sid I-Sm Ch, Cb
Q/Chd I-Sm
INCREASING TEMPERATURE

Al K, Dik Cb Q/Chd
Q K, Dik Ch, Q/Chd
K, Dik I/l -Sm
Q + Dp Ad/Ab

Lau
Q + Dp Q + Sid
I Ch, I Ct/Do
Al C

MESOTHERMAL
Al Q Ab/Ad
Dik Dik I Cb Q/Cb
Dik Ch, Q, Ep
Q + Dp Q + Sid

Wai
Q + Dp Zeo, Ct/Do
Q Ad/Ab
Al Dik Dik
Dik, Pyr Pyr Pyr Ser
Q + Dp Ser, Q Ser Fsp Ch, Q, Ep
Q + Dp
Q Q, Ch Ad/Ab, Ct/Do
Pyr Cb Cb
Ser Ep, Act, Ch, Q
Q Fsp, Ct/Do
Al, Pyr Pyr
Q + Dp Q + Dp Mica/Ser
Mica/Ser Mica/Ser Act, Q Tr, Q

PORPHYRY
Pyr, Q Fsp, Cb Fsp, Ch Ct/Do
Q, Cb
Q+Ch

And, Al, Q And, Al Bio, Act Cpx, Q

Pyr, Q
And And, Mica, Q
Fsp, Q Ct/Do D
Pyr, Q + Cb Mica
Mica, Q
Conditions of Fsp
And, Mica, Mica, Q+Cb Bio, Fsp Ga, Q
non - dissociation Cor, Q Wo, Ves
Cor, Q Cpx, Mt Mt

Silica Alunite Al - K Kaolin I-K Illite Chlorite Calc - Silicate

ai1546
Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

Figure 2.18 Neutralisation of acid waters below an acid sulphate cap, using
specimens from the Lienetz open pit at the Ladolam mine, Lihir Is., Papua New
Guinea.
A - Fluid flow path on pH vs temperature, also including the path for a fluid heated
during collapse.
B - Pre-mining 1984 photo shows the location of the Lienetz pit below the central hill E
and the Kapit acid sulphate cap at the right.
C - Pervasive illite-kaolinite clay alteration.
D - Pervasive alteration with kaolinite vein.
E - Breccia with kaolin in fill.

as soft, varying from white to pale green with a local hydrated form halloysite, develops in the weathering
waxy character (figures 2.20), although crystal faces environment, it is important for explorationists to
are only discernible as clays vary to crystalline sericite. verify the hypogene nature of kaolin where it may be
Smectite is apparent as a swelling clay responsible in used as evidence of Au deposition by fluid mixing
the disintegration of drill core in humid atmospheric (section 7.5). Supergene kaolin is often associated with
conditions (figure 2.21). It is common for smectite FeO whereas hypogene may be in contact with fresh
alteration to destroy the host rock competency and sulphides.
then restrict vein formation. The altered volcanic
units will also feature magnetite destruction. Kaolin,
if dry sticks to the tongue, and if hydrated such
as the halloysite form, displays a white soap-like
character when scratched. As kaolin, including the

18 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

D
Figure 2.19 Zoned argillic alteration formed marginal to low
sulphidation epithermal veins.
A - Model showing typical zoned clay wall rock alteration marginal to
a vein.
B - A 20 m alteration zone terminating at the colour change adjacent
to the mined quartz vein, Ovacik open pit, Turkey.
C - Several metre wide zone of declining intense alteration grading
outwards from strong illite to illite-carbonate adjacent to an
epithermal vein/breccia, Jampang, Indonesia.
D - a few mm clay selvage alteration selvage adjacent to a stockwork
quartz-pyrite vein, Nolans, NE Australia.
INCREASING pH
A
Al Al, Hal Hal Hal, Sm B
Op Silica Silica Silica Ch-Sm/Ch
Op Ch-Sm/Ch
Silica
Silica

Sm
Stb. Heu, Mor, Chab, Nat

Cr Cr Silica
K, Sm
EPITHERMAL

Al, K K Silica Zeo

Tri Tri Silica Cb
Silica Silica Ct/Do
+ Sid

K, Sm Ch/Ch-Sm
Sm, Cb
Al Q + Sid Sm,Q/Chd Ch/Ch-Sm
K Q/Chd Q/Chd
K Cb
Q Zeo
Q K, I-Sm Ct/Do
Zeolites

Q + Sid I-Sm Ch, Cb

Q/Chd I-Sm
INCREASING TEMPERATURE

Al K, Dik Cb Q/Chd
Q K, Dik Ch, Q/Chd
K, Dik I/l -Sm
Q + Dp Ad/Ab
Lau

Q + Dp Q + Sid
I Ch, I Ct/Do
Al
MESOTHERMAL

Al Q Ab/Ad
Dik Dik I Cb Q/Cb
Dik Ch, Q, Ep
Q + Dp Q + Sid C
Wai

Q + Dp Zeo, Ct/Do
Q These specimens Ad/Ab
Al Dik Dik illite field
Dik, Pyr Pyr Pyr Ser
Q + Dp Ser, Q Ser Fsp Ch, Q, Ep
Q + Dp
Q Q, Ch Ad/Ab, Ct/Do
Pyr Cb Cb
Ser Ep, Act, Ch, Q
Q Fsp, Ct/Do
Al, Pyr Pyr
Q + Dp Q + Dp Mica/Ser
Mica/Ser Mica/Ser Act, Q Tr, Q
PORPHYRY

Pyr, Q Fsp, Cb Fsp, Ch Ct/Do

Q, Cb
Q+Ch

And, Al, Q And, Al And Bio, Act Cpx, Q

And, Mica, Q
Pyr, Q Pyr, Q + Cb Mica Fsp, Q Ct/Do
Mica, Q
Conditions of Fsp
And, Mica, Mica, Q+Cb Bio, Fsp Ga, Q D
non - dissociation Cor, Q Wo, Ves
Cor, Q Cpx, Mt Mt

Silica Alunite Al - K Kaolin I-K Illite Chlorite Calc - Silicate

ai1579

Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

Figure 2.20 Example of the illite component of argillic alteration from Cirianiu, Fiji.
A - The region of illite formation on the pH vs temperature figure 2.1.
B - Pale green illite flooding of a permeable lapilli tuff volcanic unit.
C - Grey illite-pyrite alteration.
D - In outcrop green illite and red FeO from the oxidation of pyrite.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 19

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B C

D Figure 2.21 Argillic alteration at Mastra, Turkey.

A - Surface exposure in of white to pale green illite and FeO after pyrite.
B - Illite-rich fault.
C - Illite-pyrite in drill core.
D - Illite-smectite with development of matrix swelling clays.

A INCREASING pH B

Al Al, Hal Hal Hal, Sm

Op Silica Silica Silica Ch-Sm/Ch
Op Ch-Sm/Ch
Silica
Silica

Sm

Stb. Heu, Mor, Chab, Nat

Cr Silica
Cr K, Sm

EPITHERMAL
Al, K K Silica Zeo
Tri Silica Cb
Tri Ct/Do
Silica Silica + Sid
smectite field K, Sm Sm, Cb
Ch/Ch-Sm
Al Q + Sid Sm,Q/Chd Ch/Ch-Sm
K Q/Chd Q/Chd
K Cb
Q Zeo
Q K, I-Sm Ct/Do
Zeolites

Q + Sid I-Sm Ch, Cb

Q/Chd I-Sm
INCREASING TEMPERATURE

Cb Q/Chd
Q Al
K, Dik
K, Dik K, Dik
I/l -Sm These specimens Ch, Q/Chd
Q + Dp Ad/Ab
Lau

Q + Dp Q + Sid
I Ch, I Ct/Do
Al C
MESOTHERMAL

Al Q Ab/Ad
Dik Dik I Cb Q/Cb
Dik Ch, Q, Ep
Q + Dp Q + Sid
Wai

Q + Dp Zeo, Ct/Do
Q Ad/Ab
Al Dik Dik
Dik, Pyr Pyr Pyr Ser
Q + Dp Ser, Q Ser Fsp Ch, Q, Ep
Q + Dp
Q Q, Ch Ad/Ab, Ct/Do
Pyr Cb Cb
Ser Ep, Act, Ch, Q
Q Fsp, Ct/Do
Al, Pyr Pyr
Q + Dp Q + Dp Mica/Ser
Mica/Ser Mica/Ser Act, Q Tr, Q
PORPHYRY

Pyr, Q Fsp, Cb Fsp, Ch Ct/Do

Q, Cb
Q+Ch

And, Al, Q And, Al And Bio, Act Cpx, Q

And, Mica, Q
Pyr, Q Pyr, Q + Cb Mica Fsp, Q Ct/Do D
Mica, Q
Conditions of Fsp
And, Mica, Mica, Q+Cb Bio, Fsp Ga, Q
non - dissociation Cor, Q Wo, Ves
Cor, Q Cpx, Mt Mt

Silica Alunite Al - K Kaolin I-K Illite Chlorite Calc - Silicate

ai1580

Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

Figure 2.22 Smectite component of argillic alteration.

A - Field plotted on the pH vs temperature figure.
B - Destruction of drill core by swelling clays, Mastra, Turkey.
C - Swelling clays with gypsum, Mastra, Turkey.
D - Swelling clays with Fe sulphate, Kupol, Eastern Russia.

2.2.3.3.1 Golden Cross the clay alteration with an emphasis upon changes
Au-Ag mine, in the Hauraki Goldfield of the in illite crystallinity with distance from the Empire
Coromandel Peninsula, New Zealand, represents fissure vein (figure 2.23; Corbett and Leach, 1998).
a classic banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag low The cross section shows the change from illite with
sulphidation epithermal vein system with associated chlorite, K-feldspar (adularia) and calcite, close to the
wall rock hydrothermal alteration (Simpson et al., vein, grading to more marginal illite-smectite with
2001; Corbett and Leach, 1998). The structure of the carbonate and kaolin. The long section passes close
fissure vein system from Corbett and Leach (1998), to the Empire vein but does not intersect it. Here, the
and updated with post-mining data is considered in change in illite crystallinity is most apparent moving
section 3.2.2.5.2. During the exploration of Golden towards the vein as: smectite at the highest crustal
Cross, Terry Leach carried out an XRD analysis of level and distal to the fissure vein, to illite-smectite

20 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 closer, and illite closest to the vein to (figure 2.23).
A line of
N Western long
In an exploration program it should be apparent that
Boundary section
Fault
the highest temperature portion of the hydrothermal
Hippo
Vein
structural grain of
district from air photos
system defined here by illite should occur closest to
the vein, which is off section but in the vicinity (figure
Taranaki
2.23). Thus, these data could have aided exploration
Vein for the Empire fissure vein. Terry’s work, carried out
after discovery therefore provides an excellent example
OUTFLOW
UPFLOW
of how this science could be used in exploration.
Empire vein Simpson et al. (2001) distinguished two chlorites in the
at depth
Empire Vein wall rock speculated as proximal more
crystalline and distal less crystalline forms.
Empire
Stream

2.2.3.3.2 Kupol
stockwork
line of
cross
underground section
Au-Ag mine, Far Eastern Russia lies within the NE
West
Mine trending Cretaceous Okhotsk – Chukotka Volcanic
Fault
Golden
Cross Belt which stretches for over 2500 km from opposite
ri

Vein
surface
Alaska towards the SW, developed in relation to
k au

0 400m
Waite

CORBETT ai1610 NW directed subduction below older cratons

(Tikhomirov et., 2012; figures 1.2 & 5.3). Other
B
line of long section low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag mines within
that magmatic arc include the Ducat carbonate-
base metal Au-Ag district, localised within a NS
400m RL
extensional graben (section 7), and the now closed
Kubaka and Dvoinoye chalcedony-ginguro style
Empire Stockwork deposits.
300m RL

Kupol occurs as a 4 km long fissure vein with a

level of Empire Vein illite-smectite NS strike and steep easterly dip, mineralised to
Empire
on plan
Vein
(+ carbonate-kaolin) 350 m depth and generally 4 m wide, grading to
200m RL
20 m within the Big Bend ore shoot (Thomson
illite (+ quartz-chlorite and Golden, 2011). Host rocks comprise a shallow
calcite-adularia)
east dipping sequence of andesitic lavas, tuffs
100m RL
and sediments deposited at the transition from
subaqueous to subaerial conditions (Cumming
unpubl. in Fischl et al., 2013), cut by syn-
0 200m
mineral felsic dykes. As common for many low
Modified from Simpson et al. (1995b): S. Rabone in Keall et al. (1993) CORBETT ai1609
sulphidation vein systems (section 3.5), the onset
of mineralisation was triggered by the initiation of
C SW NE
extension and change to felsic magmatism. Minor
normal fault movement is recognised on the fault
500

400
which hosts the NS fissure vein, while more extensive
300 block fault movement is apparent on the cross faults.
200
The central portion of the Kupol vein cropped out at
the level of a chalcedony-ginguro vein mineralisation
100
with associated illite wall rock alteration within the
SL vertically zoned system. Block faulting no doubt
Empire Vein off section
0 400m accounts for the exposure of deeper level polymetallic
Smectite Illite - smectite mineralisation to the south at the 650 Zone and a near
Smectite - illite Illite
CORBETT ai1608
surficial acid sulphate cap at the Northern Extension
(figure 2.24).
Figure 2.23 Illite species zonation at Golden Cross, New Zealand,
consistent with path 4 argillic alteration on figure 2.15 (from
Corbett and Leach, 1998).. Hydrothermal alteration is zoned moving away from
A - Plan view showing the positon of long and cross sections. the vein zone (Golden et al., 2011; Fischl et al., 2013).
B - Cross section geology and alteration. At depth illite-chlorite alteration close to the vein
C - Zoned illite-smectite clays in part of the long section. zone grades laterally to chlorite as the ore fluid was

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 21

Economic Geo. _ JH
cooled and neutralised by reaction with wall rocks.
Elsewhere, such as in high temperature systems with
an intrusion component, early K-feldspar alteration
recognised adjacent to the veins may be overprinted
by illite (Dvoinoye figure 2.11; Corbett. unpubl. in
Thomson and Golden, 2011). Kupol clay alteration
is characterised by a vertical zonation from illite to
smectite as the crystallinity declines with temperature
(figure 2.24). The extensive smectite alteration in
the down-dropped Northern Extension exploits
permeable host rocks (figures 2.22 & 2.24). Kaolin,
as illite-kaolinite alteration within steep dipping
structures and flat zones related to permeable rock
units, was formed as a result of the reaction of low
pH waters collapsing from an acid sulphate cap at
the Northern Extension (figure 2.24), which is locally
preserved in surface exposures. As discussed in section
7.4.4.4 the acidic waters evidenced by kaolin have
promoted bonanza Au deposition (Corbett, unpubl. in
Fischl, et al., 2013).

A B
South position of North
cross section

Central North North Extension

600

400

200

Smectite
F
Kaolinite-illite
F 0
Illite F
Chlorite and chlorite-illite
Marker horizon -200
0 500m

Simplified from Fisch et al., 2013 CORBETT ai1667

West C East

400

200

0
Figure 2.24 Clay alteration at the Northern Zone, Kupol gold
mine, Far Eastern Russia, (simplified from Fischl et al., 2013).
0 200m
A - Long section showing the cross section location.
vein -200 B - Cross section.
CORBETT ai1668
C - Illite alteration with cross cutting kaolinite veins.
Smectite dominant alteration is shown in figure 2.22.

22 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
2.2.3.4 Argillic marginal to advanced argillic
alteration
Argillic alteration forms adjacent to advanced argillic
hydrothermal alteration outboard of the fluid
plumbing system, as the causative hot acidic fluids are
progressively cooled and neutralised by reaction with
wall rocks and mixing with ground waters. Although
the overall argillic alteration (figure 2.1) field lies in
the pH range of 4-6 and to about 250oC temperature,
some workers describe the argillic alteration developed
by reaction of more acidic waters (pH 4-5) as
intermediate argillic alteration thereby providing a
zonation from advanced to intermediate and then
argillic alteration grading outward to relict (generally
outer) propylitic alteration as the hot acidic fluids are
cooled and neutralised (figure 2.15). This transition
is illustrated in figure 1.12 as alteration grades from
vughy silica, to alunite, to pyrophyllite to kaolin, to
illite-smectite discernible as smectite is a swelling clay.
Intermediate argillic alteration is characterised by a
dominance of kaolinite-dickite varying to diaspore at
highest temperature over illite clays which are more
typical of argillic alteration.
2.2.4 ADVANCED ARGILLIC ALTERATION
Advanced argillic alteration develops in very acidic
magmatic
solfatara
steam-heated
blanket
acid
D vein
high sulphidation
epithermal Au
mineralisation
collapsing advanced
argillic alteration
Figure 2.25 Typical environments for the formation of advanced argillic grading it argillic alteration discussed herein (modified from
Corbett, 2008).
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
conditions (pH <4 commonly 1-2, and locally cited
as negative) over a wide temperature range (figures
2.1 & 2.2). Alunite is probably the most characteristic
mineral of advanced argillic alteration, varying to
pyrophyllite at high temperature in slightly less
acid conditions (figure 2.1). The different styles of
advanced argillic alteration are often grouped by many
workers in the collective term’ lithocap’ and the term
acid alteration is locally used to as and abbreviation for
advanced argillic alteration.
The term lithocap is one of the most troublesome
aspects of hydrothermal alteration in epithermal-
porphyry mineral exploration. While lithocaps
are popularly regarded as regions of hypogene
acid alteration which might obscure porphyry Cu
mineralisation at depth (Sillitoe, 1995, 2010), the term
is also used by some workers to describe supergene
leached caps which might cap porphyry Cu or
epithermal deposits, and locally even post-mineral
cover. At the request of Kaylene Camuti, for the
Symposium convened to honour the late Terry Leach,
Corbett (2008) provided a break-down of the different
elements of hypogene hydrothermal alteration which
are commonly grouped into the lithocap terminology.
These alteration styles display different relationships to
mineralisation and so should be distinguished in order
to be used as exploration vectors rather than grouped
together.
lithologically controlled
barren shoulder of
advanced argillic alteration
acid sulphate
cap
silica sinter
permeable
horizon
low sulphidation
epithermal Au-Ag
structurally controlled vein
barren shoulder of
advanced argillic alteration
Argillic + advanced argillic
Advanced argillic
Silica-sericite-pyrite
Silica ledges
CORBETT ai1545
Section 2 23
 • Magmatic solfataras,
Classes of advanced argillic alteration considered here • Supergene advanced argillic alteration may develop
include (figures 2.25): where acid ground waters formed by weathering
• Barren shoulders developed by the reaction with of pyrite react with wall rocks.
wall rocks of rising hot magmatic volatiles which
become acidic during depressurisation and cooling
(Corbett and Leach, short course notes 1992-7, 2.2.4.1 Barren shoulders of advanced argillic
1998). alteration
• Collapsing advanced argillic alteration within
phyllic alteration interpreted to overlie porphyry Barren shoulders of advanced argillic hydrothermal
intrusions. alteration (Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett, 2008)
• Zoned advanced argillic-argillic alteration formed represent bodies of zoned advanced argillic alteration
in association with high sulphidation epithermal developed by reaction with the wall rocks of rising
Au mineralisation or acid D veins. hot acidic fluids derived from magmatic source rocks
• Steam heated caps to high sulphidation Au at depth and grade laterally to argillic alteration.
deposits, As early work by Terry Leach on alteration in the
• Acid sulphate caps to low sulphidation Au-Ag Philippine geothermal systems (Mitchel and Leach,
deposits, 1991, and references therein) was applied to mineral
INCREASING pH
acid sulphate cap
Al, Hal Hal 3AHal, Sm
Op +Op
Al
Silica Silica Silica Ch-Sm/Ch
Crsteam heated 4 Ch-Sm/Ch
Silica
Silica

Sm

Stb. Heu, Mor, Chab, Nat

Cr K, Sm Silica

EPITHERMAL
Al, K K Silica Zeo
Tri Silica Cb
Tri Ct/Do
Silica
3B Silica + Sid

K, Sm Ch/Ch-Sm
Sm, Cb
Al Q + Sid Sm,Q/Chd Ch/Ch-Sm
K Q/Chd Q/Chd
K Cb
Q Zeo
Q K, I-Sm Ct/Do
Zeolites
Q + Sid I-Sm Ch, Cb
w Q/Chd I-Sm
INCREASING TEMPERATURE

lo

Al K, Dik Cb Q/Chd
Q K, Dik Ch, Q/Chd
al

K, Dik I/l -Sm

Q + Dp Ad/Ab
sh

Lau

Q + Dp Q + Sid
I Ch, I Ct/Do
Al
MESOTHERMAL
Al Q Ab/Ad
Dik Dik I Cb Q/Cb
Dik
1 Q + Dp Q + Sid Ch, Q, Ep
Wai

Q + Dp
Q 2 Zeo, Ct/Do
Ad/Ab
Al Dik Dik
Dik, Pyr Pyr Pyr Ser
Q + Dp Ser, Q Ser Fsp Ch, Q, Ep
ep Q + Dp
de
Q Q, Ch Ad/Ab, Ct/Do
Pyr Cb Cb

form Ser Ep, Act, Ch, Q

Al, Pyr ation
Pyr
Q
phyllic Fsp, Ct/Do
Q + Dp Q + Dp Mica/Ser
Mica/Ser Mica/Ser Act, Q Tr, Q
PORPHYRY

Fsp, Cb
form Pyr, Q Q, Cb
Q+Ch
Fsp, Ch Ct/Do
atio
And, Al, Q And, Al And
n Mica, Q Bio, Act Cpx, Q
Pyr, Q And, Fsp, Q Ct/Do
Pyr, Q + Cb Mica
Mica, Q
Conditions of Fsp
And, Mica, Mica, Q+Cb Bio, Fsp Ga, Q
non - dissociation Cor, Q Wo, Ves
Cor, Q Cpx, Mt Mt

Silica Alunite Al - K Kaolin I-K Illite Chlorite Calc - Silicate

phvstemp

Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

CORBETT ai1581
Figure 2.26 Different styles of advanced argillic alteration illustrated as fluid flow paths for cooling and neutralisation of acid fluids to
provide zoned alteration, and also some formation paths.
1. High sulphidation epithermal Au and barren shoulders as shallow and deep.
2. Collapsing advanced argillic alteration.
3A. Neutralisation (and cooling) on acid sulphate cap.
3B. Collapse of steam heated alteration into an active high sulphidation epithermal system.
4. Magmatic solfatara.

24 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
exploration, the initial description of alteration zones
as caps in early short course presentations (Corbett
and Leach 1992-4), moved to shoulders in later short
courses (Corbett and Leach, 1994-1998), to reflect the
common setting of these bodies overlying the margins
of some SW Pacific rim porphyry bodies (Lookout
Rocks, New Zealand; Ekwai Debom at Horse Ivaal,
Frieda River, Papua New Guinea), including active
geothermal systems (Southern Negros, Philippines),
and later supported by continued studies of Andean
and Tethyan examples (Corbett, unpubl. data).
Two end member controls to permeability influence
the overall shape of barren shoulders (figures 2.25 &
2.26) as:
• Structurally controlled alteration tends to develop
at deeper crustal levels and so is exposed in
systems that have been eroded to near porphyry
levels (figures 2 30 & 2.31). Hydrothermal
fluids are interpreted to have exploited dilatant
structures which are likely to cross-cut the local
stratigraphy and produce relatively narrow steep-
dipping alteration zones.
• Lithologically controlled alteration develops
by exploitation of permeable lithologies and
so is commonly discernible as broad flat
dipping alteration zones conformable to the
local stratigraphy (figures 2.33 - 2.35). Many
lithologically controlled alteration zones form
as extensive mantos (blankets) at shallow crustal
levels and may include low temperature alteration
minerals.
A B
D E
Figure 2.27 Some barren shoulder exposures in addition to others discussed in detail below.
A - The Oro prospect alteration which lies at the highest topographic level in a region of epithermal and porphyry mineralisation
(section 7.2.1.1.4.1), Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea.
B - Pelitalira, Sumba Is., Indonesia.
C - Bulahdelah, Australia.
D - Wasp Hill, Esk Trough, Australia.
E - Didipio, Philippines showing the Dinkidi porphyry outcrop in the centre surrounded by advanced argillic alteration with an
intervening gap.
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
Many barren shoulders display aspects of both steep-
dipping structurally controlled feeders and flat-lying
lithologically controlled alteration zones (figures 2.32
& 2.33). Alteration zones may extend some kilometres
from the interpreted magmatic source, enhanced in
settings of dilatant structures or permeable lithologies
(figure 2.37).
Barren shoulders are characterised by zoned
hydrothermal alteration (figure 2.26) which typically
grades away from a silica core (where present)
outwards through zones of mineral assemblages
dominated progressively by: massive silica, silica-
alunite, pyrophyllite-diaspore, then dickite-kaolinite,
and marginal sericite-illite alteration, with substantial
variations depending upon:
• Crustal level, as in deep crustal level, high
temperature settings zoned alteration may contain
by andalusite and corundum grading out to
mineral assemblages which include substantial
diaspore locally dominant over pyrophyllite, and
then more marginal dickite clay. Shallow crustal
levels feature low temperature minerals such as
kaolinite clay with chalcedony as the silica species
(figure 2.26). In the marginal alteration sericite at
depth grades to higher crustal level illite.
• Permeable and reactive host rocks provide wider
lithologically controlled alteration zones (figure
2.37).
• Although dilatant structures provide mechanisms
to bleed acid fluids responsible for alteration
to higher crustal levels and further from the
C
Section 2 25
 magmatic source, most deeper crustal level
alteration zones tend to be structurally controlled.
• Alteration zones are likely to be thicker close to
the fluid source and thinner in more distal settings,
notwithstanding (structural and lithological)
permeability controls to fluid flow.
• Zones of hydrothermal alteration are essentially
rootless as a reflection of the fluid evolution
described below.
Ledges comprising substantial silica are resistant to
erosion, and so form prominent topographic features
which characterise barren shoulders, and may crop
out as either steep dipping structurally controlled, or
shallow dipping or lithologically controlled, bodies.
The soft marginal clay alteration is readily removed by
erosion to leave the remnant resistive silica, especially
in the wet tropics. Explorationists have often been
drawn to these prominent silica outcrops which
have then been subject to considerable unwarranted
exploration effort, as most are barren.
Barren shoulders display mineralogical characteristics
recognised as:
• Silica is generally massive (figure 2.28), locally
with textures indicative of replacement of original
volcanic rocks or structural laminations and
brecciation, and distinct from the typical vughy
silica of advanced argillic alteration associated
with high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits
(figures 1.12, 8.2 & 8.3). These latter textures
A B
D E
Figure 2.28 Some examples of massive silica in barren shoulders.
A - Replaced ignimbrite, Pelitalira, Indonesia.
B - Flat dipping silica ledge, Halilaga, Turkey.
C - Replaced tuff, Quimsacocha, Ecuador.
D - Massive silica, Southern Negros, Philippines.
E - Pervasive silicification with a replaced a clastic volcanic texture, Taguibo, Philippines.
F - Pervasive silicification with a possible structural fabric, Sandayong, Philippines.
26
Economic Geo. _ JH
should not be confused with open space breccias
and minor saccharoidal or granular silica in some
barren shoulders which must be put in the context
of the total system by geological mapping.
• At shallow crustal levels chalcedony and opal may
be apparent in the silica ledge.
• Barren shoulders are rich in pyrite which weathers
to provide acidic ground waters and leached wall
rock replacing the hypogene alteration (figure 2.29
& 2.34). Liesegang rings are recognised as pyrite
grades from feeder fractures, or more commonly
FeO deposited during weathering. In the absence
of substantial vegetation cover, weathered barren
shoulders provide spectacular red-yellow colour
anomalies, while in the wet tropics, anomalously
poor vegetation such as scrubby ferns, may
develop in the acidic and leached soils. In outcrop
gossanous caps are common and transported
gossans develop at redox boundaries. Pyritic
drill core readily oxidises in damp conditions to
provide fibrous growths of hydrated sulphates
(melanterite FeSO4.7H2O) (figure 2.29).
• Topaz [Al(F,OH)2]AlSiO4 and zunyite, an hydrated
Al silicate, (Al(OH,F,Cl)2)6 Al2Si3O12, (Dana,
1932) are commonly present and indicative of
development of the alteration from a volatile-rich
fluid and recognised in spectral studies of barren
shoulder alteration zones.
• Other minerals such as alunite, pyrophyllite and
diaspore may exhibit coarse crystalline shapes if
developed slowly and near porphyry crustal levels.
C
F
Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual
 A B
Figure 2.29 Pyrite flooding within barren shoulder advanced argillic alteration.
A - Pyrite flooding within silica-alunite alteration, Quimsacocha, Ecuador.
B - Supergene melanterite growing on pyrite flooded drill core, Quimsacocha, Ecuador.
C - Liesegang rings developed during weathering, Vuda, Fiji.
2.2.4.1.1 Formation of barren shoulders
A model for the formation of barren shoulders has
been postulated from the comparison of geothermal
and exploration examples (Corbett, 2008). Barren
shoulders are interpreted (Corbett and Leach, 1998) to
have developed early in the staged model for porphyry
Cu deposit development (Corbett, 2009; figure 5.1),
before other styles of advanced argillic alteration.
Analysis of the active Alto Peak geothermal system
in the Philippines (Reyes et al., 1993; Giggenbach,
1992a) suggests a plume of hot magmatic volatile-
dominated fluid may vent early in the cooling history
of a porphyry intrusion at depth, after initial prograde
alteration, and rapidly migrate to a higher crustal
setting without significant reaction with the wall
rocks or entrainment of ground waters. This fluid
chimney at Alto Peak overprints zoned propylitic-
potassic alteration derived from a buried recent
quartz-diorite intrusion present as higher crustal level
dykes. The rapidly rising fluid becomes progressively
depressurised to exsolve volatiles which in turn
oxidise upon cooling to provide an increasingly acidic
character to the rising fluid.
Wall rock alteration displays a commonly vertical
zonation trend indicative of the fluid flow path
characterised by a progressive increase in fluid acidity
(lower pH) as the volatile-rich fluid is depressurised
and cools during the rapid rise from hot intrusion
source at depth (figure 2.26). At Ekwai Debom,
Frieda River, Papua New Guinea (figure 2.31) this
zonation is apparent as: silica-andalusite + sericite,
passing upwards to cooler lower pH (more acidic)
conditions dominated by minerals such as pyrophyllite,
and then alunite at the most elevated crustal setting
and acidic conditions. A similar trend at Hatchobaru,
Japan (figure 2.52) contains lesser andalusite, but also
topaz and zunyite within the pyrophyllite, rising to a
silica core within the alunite alteration. A different,
commonly lateral, alteration path forms as the hot
acidic fluid is then progressively cooled and neutralised
by reaction with wall rocks. Here, zoned hydrothermal
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
C
alteration grades outward from silica formed in the
most acidic conditions, to alunite, to pyrophyllite-
diaspore, dickite-kaolinite and into near neutral illite
clays (between fluid flow paths 1 and 2 on figure 2.26).
The core of the zoned alteration may comprise silica-
alunite without massive silica if the causative fluid is
not sufficiently acidic.
This model places a common gap between the buried
source intrusion and any associated advanced argillic
alteration (lithocap), which therefore appears to
display a rootless appearance, and alteration does not
sit directly upon the source intrusion, as:
• There is a region between to magmatic source
and the advanced argillic alteration in which
the magmatic-derived fluid has not yet evolved
sufficiently to form the acidic fluid responsible for
development of the advanced argillic alteration.
• At high temperatures (above 400°, no dissociation
occurs to form acidic fluids (figure 2.1; Corbett
and Leach, 1998) thereby placing a shallow depth
constraint on the development of advanced
argillic alteration (Giggenbach, 1992a).
Where barren shoulders (or mineralised advanced
argillic alteration associated with high sulphidation
epithermal Au deposits) appear to cap a porphyry,
the fluid responsible for the alteration may have been
derived from a deeper level magmatic source, often
facilitated by rapid uplift and erosion synchronous to
intrusion emplacement and hydrothermal activity.
In the model for staged porphyry development (figure
5.1), barren shoulders result from the early venting
of volatiles from a cooling porphyry. By contrast,
epithermal alteration and mineralisation develop
during the later venting of a liquid-bearing fluid from
a magma source at depth. The minor steep dipping
structurally controlled high sulphidation Cu-Au
mineralisation recognised in association with some
larger flat lying barren shoulders may therefore have
formed later (Halilaga, Turkey and Bilimoia, Papua
Section 2 27
New Guinea, Corbett, pers. observ.). The competent
silica core of barren shoulders commonly fractures
well as a vein host for later low or high sulphidation
mineralisation (Wild Dog, Papua New Guinea, Corbett
and Leach, 1998; Vuda, Fiji, Corbett, pers. observ.).
Also many districts host barren shoulders and also
high and low sulphidation epithermal mineralisation
(Quimsasocha, Ecuador) as well as porphyry Cu
mineralisation (Frieda-Nena and Bilimoia Papua New
Guinea; Corbett and Leach, 1998; Bainbridge et al.,
1994; Corbett et al., 1994b), especially if different
crustal levels in the hydrothermal system are exposed.
Explorationists need to be aware of the exact source
of geochemical anomalies. For instance Au derived
from nearby epithermal mineralisation is easily panned
downstream from the barren shoulders at Vuda, Fiji
(Corbett and Leach, 1998) or Bilimoia, Papua New
Guinea, which are not targets. The Lookout Rocks
barren shoulders at Thames, New Zealand (Corbett
and Leach, 1998) lie between the sub-economic Ohio
Creek porphyry Cu-Au and the 1 M oz of bonanza
Thames Goldfield (figure 3.20).
The correct interpretation of barren shoulders is one
of the most difficult aspects of epithermal-porphyry
mineral exploration and the incorrect interpretation
can be quite detrimental to any exploration
program. In many instances geologists have been
distracted by the upstanding topography of barren
shoulders, whereas discoveries have been made at
lower elevations and laterally to the barren shoulder
(Halilaga, Turkey; Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea).
While not definitive, features such as the massive
rather than vughy silica, excess pyrite, topaz-zunyite
and locally andalusite-corrundum, are all indicative of
barren shoulders, but must be placed in the context
of a competent geological map. More deeply eroded
structurally controlled barren shoulders may more
easily provide vectors to source buried porphyry
intrusions than higher level lithologically controlled
alteration which may form extensive sub-horizontal
blankets (also termed mantos), often at more elevated
crustal settings (figure 2.25).
2.2.4.1.2 Examples
The examples below illustrate the place of barren
shoulders in an overall porphyry Cu model with
associated high and low sulphidation epithermal Au
deposits, which may provide the distraction of panable
alluvial Au, often wrongly attributed to upstanding
silica ledges. Only the understanding of the entire
hydrothermal system will allow the barren shoulders
to contribute as vectors towards mineralisation. These
examples include deeper level structurally controlled
28 Section 2
Economic Geo. _ JH
followed by higher crustal level lithologically
controlled systems.
2.2.4.1.2.1 The Lookout Rocks
advanced argillic alteration barren shoulder crops out
as prominent ridge exposures 4 km NE of Thames,
New Zealand (Corbett and Leach, 1998), localised,
along with other porphyry manifestations, within a
regional scale fault jog in the Hauraki Fault which
separates the Coromandel Peninsula and Hauraki
Graben (figure 3.20). The resistant Lookout Rocks
alteration crops out to over 500 m elevation to the
south and east of the Ohio Creek porphyry Cu-Au
exposed in valley floor (figure 2.30). To the SW of
the porphyry, dilatant link structures formed by the
Thames fault jog host quartz-sulphide lodes including
the Thames bonanza Au ore shoots at structural
intersections, extending to sea level (figure 3.20). The
9.3-12.6 + 0.3 m.y. quartz diorite porphyry hosts
stockwork quartz vein mineralisation in outcrop, tested
by 6 diamond drill holes which yielded results such
as an average of 0.23% Cu and 0.26 g/t Au from 300
to 596m in DDH 5 (Merchant, 1986). In outcrop,
the Lookout Rocks ledges dip towards the porphyry
and grade from cores of silica-alunite-pyrophyllite ±
diaspore outwards to pyrophyllite-dickite and more
marginal dickite while sericite grading to chlorite-
sericite is present close to the porphyry and illite on
the other margins of ledges, at high crustal levels
overprints porphyry-related chlorite-carbonate +
epidote propylitic alteration (figure 2.30). Merchant
(pers. commun. 1988) identified andalusite as an
indication of the high temperature alteration proximal
to the outcropping silica ledge. The uppermost
permeable Pliocene Whitianga Group ignimbrites
have facilitated lateral flow of the fluids responsible
for alteration adjacent to the ledges as dickite-kaolinite
alteration. However, it remains unknown whether
there is any association with the clay alteration in
road cuttings 5 km east of Thames at the ‘Roadshow’
alteration zone. The zoned alteration (figure 2.30)
was delineated using about 200 surface XRD samples
taken in 1989 (Corbett, unpubl. data).
Lookout Rocks illustrates how the ledges of alteration
and quartz-sulphide lodes might vector towards a
porphyry Cu-Au source and the high temperature
advanced argillicalteration is not acid sulphate style
as first considered. While the Kaiser Reef (figure
2.30) represents a proximal D vein, other quartz-
sulphide lodes link the Thames Goldfield and the
same speculated magmatic source as the Ohio Creek
porphyry and Lookout Rocks alteration (Corbett and
Leach, 1998).
Corbett Short Course Manual
 A

C D NW SE

Ohio Lookouts Three

Creek Fishers
Ridge
400m
Kaiser
Reef
200m

?
Lookouts 0m
Three
-200m

Pine Modified from Corbett and Leach, 1998 CORBETT ai1671

Ridge
Silica-alunite + pyrophyllite + diaspore E

Pyrophyllite-diaspore + dickite + sericite

line of
Sericite-andalusite
section
Dickite-chlorite

0 400m Chlorite-sericite

Chlorite-carbonate + epidote

Quartz-diorite porphyry

Modified from Corbett and Leach, 1998 CORBETT ai1670 Drill hole (projected onto section)

Figure 2.30 Structurally controlled barren shoulders at Lookout Rocks, New Zealand, from Corbett and Leach (1998).
A - A view from the NE of the plan C of the Pine Ridge (far) and Lookouts Three (close). The silica-alunite ledges which dip towards the
Ohio Creek porphyry identified as outcrop in the valley at the bottom right of the view. The Thames 1 M oz Au bonanza goldfield lies on
the other side of Pine Ridge on the skyline. A drill site in the saddle on the skyline is shown on Pine Ridge in figure C.
B - Pervasive clay alteration of the fiamme-bearing ignimbrite adjacent to the ledges.
C - Zoned alteration in plan view.
D - Conceptual cross section based upon the data to hand.
E - Legend for the colours used herein.
assemblages to highest crustal level alunite (Corbett
2.2.4.1.2.2 At Frieda River, and Leach, 1998). This trend displays alteration
Papua New Guinea, a splay fault associated with a (above) derived from reaction with the wall rocks of
component of strike-slip movement on the regional a very hot moderately acidic fluid at depth which has
Fiak-Leonard Schultz fault is interpreted to have become progressively more acidic during the rise to
localised the Horse-Ivaal porphyry deposits and a higher crustal level. This fluid is interpreted to have
the marginal advanced argillic alteration extending been derived from a deeper magmatic source than the
for over 10 km strike within the associated dilatant porphyry and block faulting separates that deep level
structure developed as part of the splay fault (Corbett, alteration from higher crustal level high sulphidation
1994; figures 2.31 & 3.38). The Ekwai Debom barren epithermal Au-Cu alteration and mineralisation 10 km
shoulder advanced argillic alteration lies immediately to the NW at Nena (Bainbridge et al., 1994; Corbett
adjacent the Horse-Ivaal porphyry and grades and Leach, 1998).
vertically from high temperature andalusite-sericite
at depth, through pyrophyllite-diaspore mineral It will be argued later that, while only structural

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 29

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

D 1000E 2000E
SW NE

Figure 2.31 The upstanding Ekwai Debom

800m
structurally controlled barren shoulder, Frieda River,
Papua New Guinea.
A - Geological map showing the alteration zones and
structures.
B - View of the alteration zone looking NW along the
structural trend with the Horse-Ivaal porphyry on the
600m
right.
C - View of North Debom looking SE from opposite
Nena towards Ekwai Debom which is over skyline.
D - Cross section looking NW showing the evolution
of Ekwai Debom barren shoulder adjacent to the
4 00m
Horse-Ivaal porphyry from a hot, andalusite-bearing
fluid at depth, to a more acid alunite-bearing fluid
at an elevated crustal setting (modified from Corbett
Exsolving magmatic and Leach (1998) and references therein). See figure
volatiles 3.38 for the structural setting.

Albite-biotite + magnetite Quartz-pyrophyllite-diaspore

K-feldspar-biotite + magnetite Quartz-andalusite-diaspore
Sericite + chlorite Quartz-andalusite + mica/sericite
Quartz-alunite-pyrophyllite-diaspore Horse microdiorite CORBETT ai1725

related to an unseen magmatic source. However, the

control is discernible for the Debom barren shoulder,
a combined structural-lithological control has been
proposed for the pencil-shaped less eroded Nena high
sulphidation system (Section 8.4.1.1).
2.2.4.1.2.3 The Queen Elizabeth
alteration system in Northern Chile comprises a 12 km
long flat dipping (manto-like) body of silica-alunite-
clay alteration developed by the pervasive replacement
of a highly permeable fiamme tuff (figure 2.32).
Features such as phreatomagmatic breccias, propylitic
alteration, veins and an IP chargeability anomaly are
consistent with the formation of the alteration as
a lithologically controlled barren shoulder lithocap
extensive lateral distribution of alteration makes it
difficult to generate porphyry exploration targets
in systems such as this. A steep dipping structure
exposed in one creek with increased silicification over
the general silica-alunite alteration, may reoresent a
structural feeder for the fluid responsible for alteration
(figure 2.32).
2.2.4.1.2.4 Halilaga
in western Turkey occurs as a flat dipping lithologically
controlled barren shoulder of silicification grading to
advanced argillic alteration developed by replacement
of permeable tuff within the sequence of Miocene
andesites. Extensive drilling below the silica ledge has

30 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A D
structure
permeable
lithology
kaolin
pyrophyllite
silica-alunite
silicified fault
plume of magmatic volatiles

magmatic source
CORBETT ai1182

Figure 2.32 The Queen Elizabeth alteration zone in northern

Chile.
A - A view of a portion of the extensive blanket of silica-alunite-
clay alteration.
B - Permeable fiamme tuff which facilitated lateral fluid flow in
order to form the extensive alteration blanket.
C - Steep dipping structure which may represent a feeder
structure.
D - Conceptual geological model developed to illustrate the
C interpreted relationships (from Corbett, unpubl. report).

identified some enargite bearing structures grading

to 0.3 g/t Au. However, the silicification is generally
barren and distinct from the typical vughy silica of
high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits. Silica
displays a massive to saccharoidal character with
local open space brecciation, but is not classed as
vughy silica (figures 2.28 & 2.33). Two silica ledges lie
within a km laterally from an outcropping porphyry
with stockwork quartz veins at surface, which, on the
geological interpretation (www.pilotgold.com), has
been upfautled and so now lies at an elevation of less
than 100 m below the barren shoulder ledges.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 31

Economic Geo. _ JH
 B C

D E

Figure 2.33 The flat-lying lithologically controlled barren shoulder at Halilaga, Turkey.
A - View of the alteration zone from the porphyry Cu outcrop.
B - Flat-lying silica alteration ledge.
C - Bedding discernible in the silica ledge.
D - Massive to brecciated pervasive silicification.
E - Marginal clay alteration with FeO after oxidised pyrite.

2.2.4.1.2.5 At Bilimoia, a crenulation cleavage close to the faults which host

Papua New Guinea, gold panned during
reconnaissance investigations in the early 1980’s was
interpreted to have been derived from the upstanding
silicified basement slates, with steep dipping slaty
cleavage, at the hill-top, termed the Oro prospect
at that time (figure 2.27 A). Subsequent intensive
exploration failed to find any Au anomalism or vughy
silica typical of high sulphidation epithermal Au
mineralisation within the silicification. Minor enargite
float was traced to fault related breccia-fill without
obvious silica-alunite alteration at the Headwaters
prospect. Later exploration identified a series of low
sulphidation epithermal Au lodes (section 7.2.1.1.4.1)
between 2 and 4 km from the alteration zone, and
including what became the Irumafimpa Au mine, as
the probable source of the alluvial Au (Corbett, et
al., 1994; Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett, 2005b ).
Porphyry Cu manifestations crop out at the lowest
elevation in the valley. The Oro prospect is now
interpreted as a flat dipping barren shoulder in a
region of porphyry and epithermal manifestations.
However, it has not been established that the porphyry
and epithermal features belong to the same event.
At Irumafimpa, the regional slaty cleavage becomes
the veins, as an indication these structures were
active at least 5 km below the current surface prior to
progressive uplift, mineralisation and erosion.
2.2.4.1.2.6 The Nash’s Hill
barren shoulder of advanced argillic alteration lies
within the Goonumbla (North Parkes) porphyry
district (Owens et al., in press, and references therein)
of the Ordovician to earliest Silurian Junee-Naramine
Belt within the Tasmanide Arcs, in Eastern Australia
(section 3.3.3.3.1). Cu-Au mineralisation is mined from
vertically attenuated spine-like porphyry intrusions
which overlie a batholitic quartz-biotite monzonite,
but the source for mineralisation may lie at greater
depth. The NS trending Tenandra structural corridor
(Corbett and Leach, unpubl. report, 1995), locally
apparent as a shoulder-like batholith margin, hosts the
E26 and E48 porphyry intrusions and the Nash’s Hill
alteration zone, the latter localised at the intersection
with a prominent circular gravity low provided
by the contrast between the monzonite and host
andesitic volcanics (figure 3.55). Surface exposures
are dominated by massive silica in which the original
clastic volcanic texture is commonly discernible, as

32 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
the overlying softer clay alteration has been eroded
(figure 2.34). In a quarry constructed for road-building
material, permeable clastic rocks within the flat-lying
volcanic rocsequence have acted as fluid pathways and
so display massive pervasive silica alteration (figure
2.34 A). Adjacent less permeable host rocks include
alteration dominated by silky pyrophyllite grading
to more marginal kaolin, which sticks to the tongue,
locally dominates in the less permeable and less altered
rocks. Leisergang rings and other Fe oxides, along with
supergene alunite and kaolin, attest to the an original
high pyrite content, which has weathered to provide
acidic ground waters (figure 2.34). The Nash’s Hill
alteration zone where examined therefore occurs as a
lithologically controlled barren shoulder, characterised
by modest temperature clay alteration minerals, which
have eroded to expose a large area of massive silica.

A B

C D

E F

Figure 2.34. Nash’s Hill barren shoulder of advanced argillic alteration.

A - Surface silica, Goonumbla, Australia, with original clastic texture and abundant FeO.
B - Quarry exposure in which erosion has ceased at the uppermost resistant silica developed by preferential alteration of a permeable
flat-lying volcanic unit, while pyrophyllite and kaolin alteration dominate in the underlying units.
C - Close up of the uppermost permeable unit of B showing the slicified clastic texture.
D - Liesegang bands of FeO typical of the originally pyrite-rich barren shoulder advanced argillic alteration.
E - Supergene alunite vein cuts silica
F - Supergene kaolin cuts hypogene clay.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 33

Economic Geo. _ JH
2.2.4.1.2.7 Vuda, ledge, interpreted as a feeder structure, but without
The Vuda, Fiji, advanced argillic alteration (Corbett the identification of mineralisation or any porphyry
and Leach, 1998) occurs as an arcuate ridge intrusion. An outcropping propylitic altered diorite
comprising ledges of silica-alunite breccia which is interpreted as post-mineral. The Natalau mine
grades to marginal pyrophyllite-diaspore and clay- which exploited a Au-bearing pyrite-base metal lode is
pyrite alteration within shoshonitic lava host rocks typical of D veins developed marginal to a porphyry
(figure 2.35). Drilling of the advanced argillic intrusions. Gold can be panned in Vuda Creek
alteration passed down to (phyllic) sericite-chlorite- and traced to open fractures with low temperature
anhydrite alteration marginal to a silica-alunite-pyrite K-feldspar (adularia) alteration in weakly illite-chlorite
altered K-rich shoshinitic lava outside
the advanced argillic alteration zone.
A N 0 500m
The presence of MnO and pannable at
Natalau the Au (figure 2.35 E & F) within the
Teitei Mine
Teitei advanced argillic alteration zone
(figure 2.35 A) is indicative of later
carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation
Vud a which cuts the advanced argillic
17 41’
o
Riv

er
alteration and may contain a supergene
Au component.
Ja
lil

ge
Ra

The Vuda advanced argillic alteration

Rid
m

Crown
Ri
Ri

represents a typical barren shoulder

dg

an
dg

Kh
e

with subjacent phyllic alteration and

local associated D vein mineralisation
typical of an above porphyry
environment. Extensive surface
exploration demonstrated that the
ALTERATION advanced argillic alteration is essentially
Brecciated silica-alunite- Epidote-chlorite barren, except where cut by later
pyrite rocks
Pervasive silica-alunite-
altered intrusion
lower temperature intrusion-related
Patchy clay-carbonate
diaspore-pyrite clay low sulphidation epithermal Au
Gold geochemical
Pervasive clay-pyrite
anomaly CORBETT ai1726 mineralisation.
B C D

E F

Figure 2.35 The structurally controlled

barren shoulder at Vuda, Fiji.
A - The 1985 geological map made early in the understanding of these systems showing gold in soil anomalies mostly outside the
alteration (from Corbett unpubl. report).
B - View of Khan’s ridge which is a the right of the map in A.
C - Close up of the steep dipping silica ledge at Khan’s ridge.
D - Typical silica ledge exposure.
E - MnO cutting advanced argillic alteration at Teitei in A, as evidence of later carbonate base metal Au style epithermal mineralisation
(see section 7.2.1.2).
F - Wire gold panned from the exposure shown in E.

34 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
In summary, barren shoulders:
• Develop by reaction with wall rocks of an
evolving rising hot, acidic, magmatic fluid early in
the porphyry cooling history following intrusion
emplacement and prograde alteration.
• Display wall rock alteration with a vertical
zonation related to the progressive increased
acidity of the rising hydrothermal fluid and then
lateral zonation as the hot acid fluids are cooled
and neutralised marginal to the feeder structure,
generally present as a massive silica core.
• Exploit steep dipping structures, commonly at
deeper crustal levels, or flat dipping conformable
permeable horizons, locally as extensive mantos at
higher crustal levels.
• Are barren unless overprinted by later
mineralisation.
• Form part of the larger model which may vector
to porphyry mineralisation.
The exploration implications are that a correct
identification of barren shoulders may seriously
expedite any exploration program as these bodies
do not represent mineralisation, but if placed within
the overall prospect geological model by geological
mapping, may act as vectors towards porphyry
mineralisation.
ADVANCED ARGILLIC
silica-alunite
pyrophyllite-diaspore
pyrophyllite-sericite
sericite + dickite
chlorite + kaolin
CORBETT ai1571
Figure 2.36 Collapsing advanced argillic alteration.
A - Model as part of the staged model for porphyry development.
B - Fluid flow paths on the pH vs temperature figure.
C - View of this alteration at Tantahuatay, Peru, cut by vertical silica ledges related to later high sulphidation epithermal Au
mineralisation.
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
2.2.4.2 Collapsing advanced argillic alteration
Collapsing advanced argillic hydrothermal alteration
has no doubt contributed to the opinion held by
some explorationists that wall rock hosted lithocaps
immediately overlie porphyry Cu style intrusions.
The collapsing style of advanced argillic alteration
post-dates the barren shoulder alteration and pre-
dates advanced argillic alteration associated with
high sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation.
Importantly, each style of advanced argillic
alteration formed by a different mechanism displays
different relationships to mineralisation and may be
distinguished by subtle differences in the mineralogy
and form.
As described above, the porphyry model (figure
2.12) features a hot intrusion driver for convective
hydrothermal cells which may take volatiles into the
upper porphyry environment where they combine
with ground waters and oxidise to form hot acid
fluids. Later, as the spine-like porphyry cools (figure
2.12), in the process of drawdown the outward
moving convective cells reverse and the acid waters
collapse upon the intrusion and adjacent wall rocks
to react with the pre-existing prograde and fresh
B
w
lo
al
sh
collapsing
advanced
argillic
alteration
deep
for
ma
tion
CORBETT ai1544a
Section 2 35
minerals to produce retrograde phyllic alteration
characterised by minerals such as silica, sericite,
chlorite, pyrite, carbonate (typically siderite). The
alteration assemblage varies with temperature and pH
of the collapsing waters (figure 2.26). Sericite grades
with depth to muscovite at high temperature locally
with andalusite, and laterally to illite-chlorite at low
temperature, while chlorite is more prevalent where
alteration is less intense. In more acidic conditions
phyllic alteration may contain pyrophyllite, more
typically associated with advanced argillic alteration.
Consequently, in conditions of extremely low pH
(locally described as negative) advanced argillic
alteration develops in the upper portion of the
porphyry environment by reaction of those fluids
with the intrusion and wall rocks. Drawdown (above)
causes the extremely acidic fluids to collapse into the
porphyry environment and produce characteristic
zoned advanced argillic hydrothermal alteration
grading to sericite as they are cooled and neutralised
by wall rock reaction. In these conditions existing
prograde and fresh minerals are altered to silica-
alunite passing downwards to pyrophyllite-diaspore
assemblages, as the acidic fluid collapses and is
progressively cooled and neutralised, while andalusite
is likely to be present at higher temperatures.
tuff
andesite
formation
basement
stock
magmatic source
CORBETT ai1544
Figure 2.37 Formation of a manto-style collapsing advanced argillic alteration by exploitation of a permeable volcanic rock by
hydrothermal fluids.
36 Section 2
Economic Geo. _ JH
Advanced argillic alteration grades laterally to dickite,
then kaolinite dominant mineral assemblages, in
cooler conditions (figure 2.36). The deeply eroded
high temperature El Salvador porphyry is overlain by
advanced argillic alteration dominated by pyrophyllite
with lesser alunite and diaspore which overprints
earlier andalusite-sericite alteration (Gustafson and
Hunt, 1975). The poorly eroded Bacon-Manito
geothermal field, Philippines, grades from alunite-
cristobalite advanced argillic alteration at the upper
central portion to marginal low temperature kaolin-
illite then smectite, and at depth to anhydrite-
pyrophyllite-diaspore (Mitchell and Leach, 1991;
Corbett and Leach,1998).
The distribution of alteration zonation at the upper
portion of the porphyry environment is governed
by permeability during drawdown and fluid pH.
Structures and fracture zones, such as at intrusion
margins, are likely to focus downward collapse, while
lateral fluid flow may persist for some distance in
permeable volcanic lithologies (figure 2.37) to form
laterally continuous sub-horizontal blankets (mantos)
of advanced argillic - argillic alteration.
shallow
deep
LEGEND
Silica-alunite
Pyrophyllite-diaspore-
serictite
Dickite
Kaolin
Illite-chlorite
Chlorite
Silica-sericite-pyrite
Potassic alteration
Propylitic alteration
Outer propylitic
Corbett Short Course Manual
2.2.4.2.1 Ovoid alteration textures A
are recognised in several well developed bodies of
collapsing advanced argillic alteration (figure 2.38).
The texturally destructive ovoids are distinct from
wormy black quartz veins which are described as
having formed later by Nobel et al. (2010) and
developed at a deeper level at Kupfertal, Yanacocha,
Peru, (Gustafson et al., 2004). The fluid inclusion-
rich wormy veins are interpreted to be derived from
a volatile-rich fluid. Banded black quartz veins lie
immediately blow the advanced argillic lithocap
at Marte, Chile (figure 5.13). The termed ‘gunaso’
(Spanish for worm), locally used to categorise these
textures is not preferred by Noble (op cit) who B

described the ovoids as comprising dominantly

silica-pyrophyllite and some alunite along with local
diaspore, enargite and covellite (Noble et al., 2010).
The enargite-covellite is more abundant towards the
outer rims of the ovoids which are typically set in
a dark silica matrix rich in vapour inclusions (figure
2.38). This texture is recognised within several
advanced argillic lithocaps in the Cajamarca district
Peru (Gustafson, et al., 2004), Tantahuatay, Peru
(Miranda et al., 2014) and Oyu Tolgoi, Mongolia
(Crane and Kavalieris, 2012). In several instances
the advanced argillic alteration overlies and collapses C
upon silica-sericite-pyrite (phyllic) alteration which
may contain chalcopyrite-bornite-pyrite mineralisation
(Gustafson et al., 2004; Miranda et al., 2014; Nobel
et al., 2010). The enargite-covellite within the ovoids
might therefore contain metals remobilised from
earlier prograde mineralisation by the collapsing
extremely acidic fluids responsible for this retrograde
alteration.

In summary, collapsing advanced argillic alteration

develops in the upper portions of porphyry
environments, including wall rocks, where the low pH Figure 2.38 Ovoid textures in the Tantahuatay, Peru.
fluids, normally responsible for phyllic alteration, are A & B - Hand specimen scale from the open pit shown in figure
2.36.
especially acidic. Local texturally destructive ovoid C - In drill core showing covellite-enargite bearing rims.
textures have been derived from a volatile-rich fluid
alteration within the wall rock alteration selvage
and demonstrate a strong association with a magmatic
(Poposa, Argentina) which would normally be
source. Minor enargite-covellite within the ovoids has
expected to be dominated by silica-sericite-pyrite.
been remobilised from earlier prograde mineralisation.
Although the original D vein definition by Gustafson
and Hunt (1975) features enargite in the vein and some
The exploration implication is that collapsing
kaolin in the wall rock alteration, most D veins (in this
advanced argillic alteration is expected to overlie
author’s experience) fall into the low sulphidation deep
porphyry Cu-Au style intrusions but are much less
epithermal class (section 5.2.1) with silica-sericite-
common than barren shoulders in this author’s
pyrite (phyllic) wall rock alteration and ore mineralogy
experience.
dominated by pyrite-chalcopyrite. Some enargite-
barite-alunite with advanced argillic alteration selvages
2.2.4.3 Acid D veins
lie below high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits (La
Coipa, Chile; Pierina, Peru) and so may provide a link
Acid D veins are characterised by the presence of
between the epithermal and porphyry environments
enargite-barite-alunite and possible advanced argillic
within the palaeo plumbing system for the epithermal

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 37

Economic Geo. _ JH
alteration and mineralisation.
2.2.4.4 Alteration associated with high sulphidation
epithermal Au-Ag deposits
High sulphidation epithermal Au deposits are
characterised by zoned advanced argillic grading
to argillic alteration of the wall rocks adjacent to
mineralisation while alunite represents an important
gangue within mineralised veins and breccias.
Terminology: The terminology is high sulphidation
epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation and advanced argillic
alteration, and not high sulphidation alteration nor
advanced argillic mineralisation.
High sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag (± Cu) deposits
are associated with zoned advanced argillic wall rock
alteration which grades laterally to intermediate
argillic then neutral argillic alteration (figure 2.39), and
displays variations in alteration mineralogy with depth
of formation, while the geometry of the alteration
zonation varies according to the structural, breccia
and lithological permeability controls (section 8.4).
Commonly flat dipping, wide lithologically controlled
alteration zones hosted by permeable host rocks
(Pierina, Peru) contrast with narrow, structurally
controlled alteration zones with typically steep dips
and form within competent wall rocks which have
fractured well (El Indio, Chile). Variable geometries
which result from breccia control include brecciated
dome margins (Yanacocha, Peru; Mt Kasi, Fiji), or
steep dipping phreatic-phreatomagmatic breccia pipes
(Veladero, Argentina), or flat dipping intersections of
pipes and dilatant structures (Lepanto, Philippines).
The most common settings for high sulphidation
epithermal ore systems is at the intersection of steep
dipping feeder structures and flat dipping permeable
lithologies (Pierina & Sipan, Peru; El Guanaco, Chile;
Nena, Papua New Guinea), or related to diatreme
flow dome complexes (Veladero & Lama, Argentina;
Yanacocha & La Virgin, Peru; Lepanto, Philippines;
Pascua, Chile; Wafi, Papua New Guinea; Miwah &
Matabe, Indonesia). Some of these intersections form
flat dipping pencil like ore shoots at the structure-
lithology intersection (figure 1.12).

eu
n

tr
steam heated alteration alis
ati
on
w
lo
al
sh

deep

advanced argillic alteration

associated with high
sulphidation epithermal

SC2012_1548

Figure 2.39 Zoned advanced argillic alteration associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits.

38 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
As pointed out in section 1.2.3, the magmatic fluid
responsible for formation of high sulphidation
epithermal mineralisation and associated advanced
argillic alteration, is interpreted (Corbett and Leach,
1998 and references therein) to have developed by
evolution of a volatile-rich magmatic fluid (brine)
during the rapid rise from porphyry to epithermal
crustal levels, without significant interaction with
wall rocks or entrainment of meteoric waters (figure
1.6). This fluid which might be likened as a bubble
progressively becomes depressurised while rising
from a buried magmatic source up a major structure,
causing the formerly dissolved volatiles dominated by
SO2 (but also including H2O, CO2, H2S, HCl and HF)
to come out of solution and oxidise to form H2SO4
(figure 1.6). Thus, a magmatic fluid which was hot and
near neutral at porphyry crustal levels has become
hot and acidic in epithermal regimes. There should
be a clear gap between the porphyry and epithermal
environment in which the fluid evolution occurs,
especially as the no disassociation occurs above
about 400°C. At epithermal levels this hot acidic
fluid becomes progressively cooled and neutralised
by reaction with wall rocks to provide the distinctive
alteration zonation (figures 2.39 & 2.43). The fluid
breaks into a faster moving volatile-rich phase which is
progressively cooled and neutralised by reaction with
the wall rocks to produce the distinctive zoned wall
rock alteration, while the slower moving liquid phase
deposits sulphides, commonly later (section 8.3).
A B
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2
Economic Geo. _ JH
The characteristic alteration zonation derived from
the progressive cooling and neutralisation of a hot
acidic fluid (above and at 250-300°C and pH of 0-2,
section 1.2 .2.3) by wall rock reaction grades outwards
from a silica core through mineral assemblages
dominated by advanced argillic silica-alunite then
pyrophyllite-diaspore, grading to intermediate argillic
dickite-kaolinite, and more marginal neutral argillic
illite and then smectite alteration (figures 2.39 &
2.43). That is, as the fluid is progressively cooled and
neutralised, there is an outward change to alteration
minerals within the wall rocks typical of less acidic
and lower temperature conditions. The central zone
may be called residual silica as only quartz and some
rutile remain after the extreme leaching in the centre
of the alteration zone by the intensely hot acidic fluid,
although the also used term vughy silica denotes the
characteristic texture, apparent either as tabular shapes
pseudomorphing leached feldspars (figures 1.12 &
8.2), or with ovoid forms developed by total textural
destruction in a permeable host rock (figure 2.41 D
& 8.2). Open space vughy textures are commonly
especially well developed where fiamme-bearing tuffs
have provided primary permeability resulting in flat
dipping bodies (figure 2.42 C & 8.16). Alteration
mineralogy varies with depth of formation and in
part wall rock permeability. At deeper crustal levels
alteration zones host more abundant pyrophyllite-
diaspore, while at shallower crustal levels dickite
passes outward to the low temperature form kaolinite
and then to marginal illite and more marginal smectite
neutral argillic clays (figures 2.39 & 2.43).
Nena
Grid
North
True
North
section
Mount 5200N
Nena
Poor
data
silica
alunite
at depth
section
4700N
River
a
Nen
0 500m
CORBETT ai1601
39
 SW DDH 109 NE
C D SW 47000N NE

DDH H 105
DD
105
0 100m
700m

11 9
H 11
9A
800m

DD DH
D
DDH 122A

DDH 111

600m
700m

600m
500m

0
11
H
DD
500m
400m

0 100m
CORBETT ai1603
CORBETT ai1602

E S N F

Residual silica
enargite
+
covellite

Cu+Au+Sb/Te
luzonite
Silica-alunite
Cu
Cu+Au

Pyrophyllite-
luzonite > enargite
dickite-kaolinite
Chlorite-illite-
0 200m
carbonate
1606
CORBETT ai1604

Figure 2.40 Zoned advanced argillic alteration associated with the Nena High sulphidation epithermal Au deposit at Frieda River, Papua
New Guinea.
A - 1990 view looking NW covers a similar area to the map.
B - Map of the alteration zonation.
C - Northern cross section 5200N closer to the structurally controlled fluid up-flow.
D - Southern cross section 4700N showing the horizontal pencil-like ore zone developed at a distal fluid out-flow setting at the
intersection of a permeable horizon and fault and also with relatively narrow alteration zones derived from rapid fluid cooling and
neutralisation at the alteration margin.
E - Long section which illustrates the north to south fluid flow and shows the rootless nature of the high sulphidation system.
F - Legend of advanced argillic alteration assemblages.
All data from Bainbridge et al. (1994) and Corbett and Leach (1998).

40 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A

li n
eo
se

f
c
ti o
n

dip slope
Residual silica

Silica-alunite
True
North Local Alunite + pyrophyllite
Grid
North

F
rties
Alunite + dickite/kaolinite
Raffe
+ pyrophyllite
Dickite/kaolinite
0 500m
+ sericite/illite
on F
Dokert

CORBETT ai1605 Illitic-smectite

+ chlorite
C
Amphibole/albite
+ chlorite
600m

>1 g/t Au in soil

gold anomaly

500m
Diatreme breccia complex

Golpu porphyry (at depth)

400m

300m
Faults
1599/1600
diatreme
0 200m brecccia 200m
complex
CORBETT ai1600

D E

Figure 2.41 Advanced argillic alteration associated with the Wafi high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit, Papua New Guinea.
A - Plan view.
B - Legend.
C - Cross section.
D - Vughy residual silica altered milled matrix breccia which would have provided permeability within the diatreme.
E - View of Wafi about 1992 showing the central ridge along which the alteration is located.

All data from Corbett and Leach (1998) and Leach (1999).

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 41

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A C

NW B SE
0 200m

4100
vughy
(residual) silica E

volcanics
4000

shale scree Cum 8

shale breccia

3900 shale
SILICA-ALUNITE
ZONE
65m S
off section
Cum 1
F
3800

PYROPHYLLITE-
170m @ sil+al ZONE
approx. Cum 2
0.42 g/t Au sil+al PYROPHYLLITE-
4.7 g/t Ag ALUNITE
0.42% Cu ZONE

pyrophyllite 20 m @ 0.14 g/t Au

3600
illite 2.0 g/t Ag
0.6% Cu
fresh PYROPHYLLITE-
ZONE CORBETT ai1730

Figure 2.42 Zoned advanced argillic alteration and mineralisation at the La Coipa high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit, Chile.
A - The open pit about 1999 after mining of the oxide ore.
B - Cross section of geology and zoned alteration extending below the open pit.
C - Vughy silica altered fiamme tuff
D - Silica-alunite altered volcanic breccia.
E - Later dark coloured sulphide mineralisation cross cuts earlier vughy silica.
F - Banded quartz-pyrite-enargite-barite vein hosted within the basement slate blow the open pit.

42 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 Volatiles (mainly H2S) evolved from cooling
CORE MARGIN high sulphidation epithermal Au alteration and
Shallow mineralisation rise and become oxidised at the
and Silica Alunite Kaolin Gp Illite Gp
Marginal opal smectite vadose zone, possibly phreatic zone, to form warm
kaolin
cristobalite acidic waters, which then react with the wall rocks
to produce the characteristic alteration. These terms
illite
smectite are explained in figure 1.5 and Corbett and Leach
vughy
pyrophyllite
illite (1998). While alteration blankets may extend laterally
dickite for considerable distances, neutralisation of the
acid waters at the water table commonly results in
sericite
the formation of a basal silica zone which is locally
massive diaspore brecciated with a fill of kaolin and powdery alunite.
Deep Steam heated alteration is formed from a vapour
phase and so is typically barren of Au-Ag sulphide
CORBETT ai1598a

Figure 2.43 Zoned advanced argillic alteration in high

sulphidation epithermal Au deposits from deep to shallow and mineralisation, although Hg is common as cinnabar,
core to margin. typically with cristobalite (figure 2.46 C).
2.2.4.5 Steam heated alteration,
Barren advanced argillic steam heated alteration zones
Steam heated alteration, as categorised herein (section overlie many poorly eroded high sulphidation deposits
1.2.3), represents the uppermost portions of intact (Pascua, Guanaco & La Coipa, Chile; Veladero,
high sulphidation epithermal Au alteration and Argentina; Pierina, La Arena, Peru; Quimsacocha,
mineralisation systems, formed at the vadose zone, and Ecuador) where they may obscure blind mineralisation
so locally preserved in arid and youthful environments (Quimsacocha), or locally collapse upon ore (Coipa
(figure 2.44). Alteration commonly occurs as laterally Norte, Chile; Veladero, Argentina; Guanaco; Chile).
extensive blankets in which total destruction of the Mixing of ore fluids with these intensely oxidising
original rock texture is associated with the formation waters may promote elevated Au deposition in
of a mineral assemblage comprising: cristobalite, association with hypogene oxidation to deposit
powdery alunite, kaolin and sulphur (figures 2.44 - covellite (Guanaco, Chile; Pierina, Peru; figure 8.16)
2.46). Note some workers use the term steam heated or hypogene jarosite (Veladero, Argentina). There is a
alteration in a much wider sense to describe all health caution as the distinctive powdery alunite may
alteration above the vadose zone including within low become windborne and turns acidic upon contact with
sulphidation epithermal environments. moisture
in the eyes.

SO2
magmatic sulphur
sulfatara flows

steam heated alteration as:

kaolin
powdery alunite
H2 S Fluid Upflow cristobalite/opal
+
m et e o

SO 2 Hg F palaeosurface
ri c

wa
ter
s Hg
S vadose
S
zone
* * water table
watertable at aquifer
silica ledge low pH fluid
collapses
oxidation of H S as:
down
H2S + 2O2 H2SO4
structure
collapsing
magmatic rising magmatic
source vapour plume oxidising
H2S, SO2, CO2 fluids
HF, HCI

CORBETT ai1541

Figure 2.44 Model for the development of steam heated alteration in high sulphidation epithermal
environments.
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 43
Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B C

D E

Figure 2.45 Steam heated alteration in the Pascua-Lama-Veladero region.

A - Pascua-Lama alteration blanket from the Pascua side (Chile).
B - The same blanket from the Lama side (Argentina).
C - Textural destruction in cristobalite-powdery alunite, kaolin rock, Veladero, Argentina.
D - Basal silica ledge overprinted by collapsing steam heated powdery alunite-kaolin alteration, Lama, Argentina.
E - Detail of brecciated basal silica with powdery alunite-kaolin in-fill Lama, Argentina.

A B C

D E F

Figure 2.46 Steam heated alteration in the La Coipa region.

A - At Coipa Norte pit in 1998 at the start of mining.
B - Close up of steam heated alteration at the Coipa Norte pit face in 1998.
C - Silica-cinnabar in the Coipa Norte pit in 1998.
D - The steam heated blanket collapses upon mineralisation at the Coipa Norte pit in 2009.
E & F - Steam heated alteration blankets showing basal silica ledges.

2.2.4.6 Acid sulphate alteration,
typical of low sulphidation epithermal environments
(section 1.2.2.1.1), characterised by kaolin, cristobalite
with lesser alunite and local sulphur forms by the
interaction with wall rocks of warm acidic ground
waters typically developed above the water table by
the oxidation of volatiles (H2S) in the vadose zone.
Ledges of massive silica are common at the base
defined by the palaeo water table (figures 2.47 & 9.***
) as neutralisation of the low pH fluids by mixing
with ground waters promotes silica deposition. Acid
sulphate caps are herein categorised as near surficial
blanket-like zones of acid sulphate advanced argillic
44
Economic Geo. _ JH
alteration (kaolin, cristobalite, lesser alunite and
local native sulphur) which may cap flat-lying silica
ledges and/or overlie low sulphidation epithermal
Au mineralisation (section 9). Acid sulphate caps
tend to be only preserved in youthful low rainfall
settings (figure 2.47). In regions of elevated rainfall
the softer clays are eroded and the exposed silica ledge
which may break up into a boulder train (Broken
Hills, New Zealand figure 9.**). Acid sulphate caps
pass downwards and laterally into argillic alteration
characterised by illite, carbonate, chlorite and pyrite,
(section 2.2.3.2 above), locally termed steam heated
alteration by some workers, as collapsing acid waters
Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual
have become cooled and neutralised
by rock reaction.

Acid sulphate caps may overlie feeder

structures for low sulphidation
epithermal mineralisation and the low
pH waters responsible for alteration
may collapse to quite deep levels
within epithermal ore environments
(figures 2.47-2.52), mixing with
ore fluids to promote elevated Au
deposition (Section 7.5.4.4; Leach
and Corbett, 2008). Hypogene kaolin
recognised to collapse up to 1 km
below the paleo surface is typically
deposited late in the paragenetic
sequence with mineralised sulphides
and so has been interpreted by
some workers as post-mineral, but
is here in interpreted as commonly
syn-mineral. The lack of supergene Figure 2.47 Model for the development of near surficial acid
oxidation where kaolin is in contact with sulphides is sulphate caps, also showing the presence of oxygenated ground
waters and bicarbonate waters, in the upper portions of low
indicative of hypogene rather than supergene kaolin. sulphidation epithermal environments (from Leach and Corbett,
Dickite, the high temperature polymorph of kaolin, is 2008).
locally developed, typically at depth,as the collapsing
low pH fluids become heated (Sleeper, Nevada; figure
2.51) and elsewhere alunite, pyrophyllite or diaspore
have also been recognised.

A B C

D E
Figure 2.48 Acid sulphate cap alteration at
currently active Waiotapu, New Zealand.
A - Aerial view of the Champagne pool pipe
with marginal acid sulphate alteration.
B-D - Acid sulphate alteration comprising
cristobalite, alunite and kaolin in outcrop.
E - Acid sulphate alteration comprising
cristobalite, alunite and kaolin and sulphur
deposited from vapour.

Whereas traditional geological models suggest blanket (figure 2.50), often only discernible in the
sulphur-rich volatiles are derived from boiling fluids, silicified portion, as the clay alteration is texturally
field studies by this author suggest cooling pyritic destructive. Sulphur is locally mined and Hg might be
intrusions such as sub-volcanic domes and veins might present.
also represent effective sources of sulphur. Dilatant
structures (Arcata, Peru; figure 2.49) and phreatic
breccia pipes (Champagne pool, New Zealand, figure
2.48) localise acid sulphate caps, although permeable
host rocks might aid the lateral spread of the alteration
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2 45
Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

C D

Figure 2.49 Acid sulphate cap alteration.

A - Localised on the Veta Baja fault, Arcata, Peru
B - Arcata, Peru.
C - Alteration formed by acidic waters collapsing within permeable milled matrix breccia and with domes in the distance, San Cristobal,
Bolivia.
D - View of the acid sulphate alteration exposed by early mining with domes at the margin of the diatreme in the background, San
Cristobal, Bolivia.

A B

C D

Figure 2.50 Acid sulphate cap alteration.

A & B – Barren surficial relict alteration which passes down to high Au-Ag mineralisation with kaolin at Guadalupe, Palmarejo, Mexico.
C & D - Sierra Moreno, Argentine Patagonia, where spectral studies demonstrated kaolin veins cut an illite-kaolin wall rock alteration.

46 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B
interpreted
palaeosurface
current surface
cover vein
final not shown
strong
pit
weak
sleeper
1000m vein basalt
listric
fault
Figure 2.51 Evidence of a now eroded acid sulphate cap and associated Au
mineralisation at the Sleeper mine Nevada.
A - Cross section of spectral data showing decreasing kaolin intensity with depth
collapsing down structures.
B - Kaolin in contact with fresh pyrite as a demonstration that it is of a hypogene
rather than supergene origin.
C & D - Quartz with Au in contact with kaolin.
2.2.4.6.1 At the Hatchobaru geothermal field,
Kyushu, Japan, geothermal drilling has allowed the
delineation of two styles of advanced argillic alteration
(Taguchi et al., 2006; Taguchi et al., 2003; Kiyosaki et
al., 2003; Takuchi and Hayashi, 1984). An acid sulphate
cap crops out in the south where initial exploitation
from 1967 was the first water only geothermal power
produced in Japan, while a barren shoulder can be
discerned from the drill data pertaining to a 1990
power plant which was the largest geothermal power
producer in Japan (figure 2.52). A youthful geothermal
system in the southern part area hosts early
prograde zeolite-feldspar alteration as an indication
of a magmatic source for H2S volatiles which are
interpreted to have oxidised to provide the warm
acidic waters for the formation of the later collapsing
acid sulphate cap. Reaction of the acidic waters
collapsing down faults with wall rocks has produced a
shallow alunite zone which passes to marginal kaolin
and smectite. The intensity of alteration declines (fluid
flow path A in figure 2.52) due to the progressive
cooling and neutralisation of the warm acidic fluids by
wall rock reaction. By contrast the 1990 exploration
program identified surface alunite which passes down
to pyrophyllite with local, andalusite, zunyite and topaz
in the northern area. Clearly this alunite is typical of
hot acid conditions, which decline laterally due to rock
Corbett Short Course Manual
Range Front
Fault
interpreted
rhyolite
C
1000m
100m
100m
SLEEPER NEVADA SECTION 6400N
CORBETT ai1596
D
reaction to deposit pyrophyllite, while the included
andalusite and topaz form in high temperature
conditions. The volatile-rich topaz is typical of barren
shoulders. Taguchi et al. (2003) suggest these acid
waters were derived from the disproportionation of
SO2 at depth and so the alteration here results from
the reaction with wall rocks of a hot extremely acidic
fluid (fluid flow path B in figure 2.52). The progressive
evolution of the rapidly rising fluid to become more
acidic is apparent from the alteration zonation of
alunite grading down to pyrophyllite (fluid flow path
B in figure 2.52). Furthermore, these workers (op
cit) and Kiyosaki et al., (2003) suggest the light δ34S
isotopes in the southern area are typical of meteoric
hot springs, whereas the heavy δ34S in the north are
typical of a magmatic source, as might be expected
from the application of the models in use here to the
field data.
Consequently, similar alteration minerals may be
associated with different styles of advanced argillic
alteration with highly variable relationships to
mineralisation. Analysis of the geological setting
allows the distinction between advanced argillic
alteration derived from different hydrothermal
processes.
Section 2 47
Economic Geo. _ JH
 A C

Alunite

Pyrophyllite

Path B Kaolin

Smectite

Fresh

Zeolite - K-feldspar

Z Zunyite

A Andalusite

T Topaz

Path A
Figure 2.52 Cartoon illustrating
alteration mineral assemblages at
the Hatchobaru geothermal district,
Japan.
A - Plan view showing the location of
the two sections.
B - Two sections at the same scale,
one showing collapsing acid sulphate
N waters (left) and the other, rising
progressively acidified magmatic
volatiles (right).
C - Legend.
Data compiled from Taguchi et al.,
0 500m 2006; Taguchi et al., 2003; Kiyosaki et
al., 2003; Taguchi and Hayashi, 1984.
CORBETT ai1525b

B SW Path A Path B N

1000m
silica
core not
neutralisation of shown
collapsing warm
acid waters Z

A
A Z
A
T

sea level
F
F F

rising and
evolving
volatile
rich fluids
0 500m
CORBETT ai1525

48 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B
C D
Figure 2.53 Magmatic solfatara, White Island, New Zealand.
A - View of the eroded stratovolcano.
B-D - Sulphur deposited from vapour.
2.2.4.7 Magmatic solfataras
Magmatic solfataras form as magmatic gases deposit
native sulphur at the surface with variable adjacent
advanced argillic – argillic alteration. Some, such
as Kava Iazhen and Kawah Ijen in Indonesia, are
currently mined for sulphur, while others in the
Philippines (Mitchell and Leach, 1991), White Island,
New Zealand (figure 2.53) and throughout the Andes
have been important historical sources of sulphur.
Some zones in the Andes may be associated with
substantial colour anomalies, and like White Island
occur within stratovolcanoes.
2.2.4.8 Supergene weathering
Supergene weathering of sulphides provides acidic
ground waters which react with wall rocks to deposit
supergene kaolin, local alunite (figure 2.54) and a host
of secondary minerals (Chavez, 2000). Kaolin grades
to smectite clays as wall rock reaction neutralises
the acid fluids. Iron and other oxides with boxwork
textures are indicative of original sulphide minerals
(Blanchard, 1968).
2.3 Conclusion and exploration implications
In conclusion, variable styles of wall rock
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
hydrothermal alteration, with well documented
zonation in time and space, characterise different
epithermal-porphyry mineralisation sub-types
(table 2.1). Consequently, an understanding of
these alteration zonation patterns may facilitate the
development of 3 dimensional models for mineral
exploration projects and aid in the discovery of
blind mineralisation. The application of time to the
staged model for porphyry mineralisation allows an
understanding of overprinting alteration relationships.
Explorationists should build a skill set that will enable
them to identify the important mineral assemblages in
the field using tools such as a hand lens and scratcher.
Spectral devices might define larger scale alteration
pattern data bases, which need to be placed in a
geological context by field examination.
Some exploration implications apparent from
an understanding of hydrothermal alteration in
epithermal and porphyry deposits include:
• Porphyry systems display patterns of zoned
prograde alteration grading inwards from wall
rock propylitic to magnetic potassic altered
intrusions which might be used to target hidden
intrusions.
Section 2 49
• Retrograde alteration of porphyry deposits
is characterised by magnetite destruction and
increased chargeability (associated with pyrite
introduction) discernible on geophysical data
which represent exploration tools if correctly
interpreted.
• In low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits,
the zonation towards higher temperature illite
clay (argillic) alteration might identify hidden vein
zones.
• Low sulphidation epithermal Au vein systems
may be capped by acid sulphate alteration and
collapsing acid sulphate waters are associated with
bonanza Au deposition (section 7.4).
• In high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits,
zonation patterns in advanced argillic – argillic

Type Setting Distinguishing features

Barren shoulders Magmatic arc overlying margins to Wall rock alteration vertically and laterally zoned
buried intrusion source from feeder
Structural and lithological control
Massive not vughy silica
Volatile-rich – topaz & zunyite
Local high temperature andalusite
Strongly pyritic

Collapsing AAA Where phyllic alteration results Characterised by alunite-sericite-silica-pyrite

from very low pH fluids within phyllic alteration
Ovoid textures of silica-alunite with enargite

AAA with high Magmatic arc removed from Zoned outwards from core of vughy or residual
sulphidation intrusion source silica
epithermal Structural, lithological and breccia control
Mineralisation commonly as a later overprint

Steam heated Blankets overlying high Fine grained with destruction of original rock
sulphidation epithermal Au texture
Comprise cristobalite, powdery alunite, kaolinite,
sulphur and local cinnabar
Basal silica

Acid sulphate caps Overlie low sulphidation Funnel shaped rising around feeders and locally
epithermal Au-Ag collapsing to deeper levels
Fine grained cristobalite, kaolin lesser alunite
and local sulphur. Kaolin veins.

Magmatic solfatara Commonly close to volcanic vents Abundant sulphur with variable kaolin-alunite
in magmatic arcs alteration

Weathering Commonly weathering of pyritic Abundant FeO commonly with boxworks after
alteration pyrite and with quartz veins. Liesegang rings
from pyrite & water access and variable FeO
deposition.

Table 2.1 Summary of characteristics of different types of advanced argillic alteration.

50 Section 2 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 alteration may vector towards mineralisation
within the silicia cores.
• The several types of advanced argillic alteration,
which are often grouped together in the lithocap
terminology, display variable relationships
to mineralisation and should be categorised
separately in order to facilitate effective
exploration as discussed herein. Importantly,
magmatic hydrothermal fluids evolve to take on
an acidic character during the rise from porphyry
environments and so advanced argillic alteration
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 2
Economic Geo. _ JH
is not expected to immediately overlie the source
intrusion. Syn-mineral uplift and erosion may
locally telescope the distance between them
and cause alteration to cap intrusive stocks
derived from the same magmatic source at
depth. Elsewhere, epithermal mineralisation and
advanced argillic alteration commonly cap older
porphyry deposits.
51
3 STRUCTURE
Structure controls the development of epithermal and
porphyry ore deposits in several ways:
• Major structures localise ore systems, particularly
magmatic source rocks, generally at dilatant sites.
• Dilatant fracture systems bleed ore fluids from
magmatic source rocks at depth to higher crustal
levels (both epithermal and porphyry) where
mineral deposition occurs, while epithermal fluids
evolve during upwards migration.
• More dilatant structural sites control the setting
and geometry of ore shoots.
• Structural intersections represent sites of ore
deposition by fluid mixing.
• Syn-mineral structures offset ore systems to
facilitate telescoping.
• Post-mineral structural offsets also influence the
geometry of an ore system and require analysis in
the exploration for displaced ores.
Terminology
Ore shoots (clavos in Spanish) are defined as vein
portions which are typically wider and host higher
magmatic
arc conjugate fractures
orthogonal
convergence
vein
Continental
Plate
back arc
arc parallel structures σ1
component of oblique convergence
Figure 3.1 Illustration of three classes of major structures which participate in epithermal-porphyry ore formation in magmatic arc-back
arc environments and described herein.
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
precious metal grades, and are most easily discernible
on long sections as plots of width x grade, commonly
termed gram-metre plots.
Telescoping is most commonly regarded as telescoping
inwards as younger, higher crustal level ore systems
and alteration are placed upon older, deeper level
systems, often with only small differences in their
ages. However, telescoping outwards may occur as
dilatant structures attenuate ore systems such as in the
formation of sheeted vein wallrock porphyry deposits.
3.1 MAJOR STRUCTURES
In subduction-related magmatic arcs, major crustal-
scale structures influence the setting of epithermal
and porphyry ore systems, mainly by localisation of
the magmatic source for metals (figure 3.1; Corbett,
1994, 2012; Corbett and Leach, 1998). Porphyry Cu
models used throughout the 1960’s and 1970’s featured
porphyry intrusions emplaced below stratovolcanoes
as part of the magmatic source for that extrusive
volcanism (Sillitoe, 1972; Titley, 1982). However,
many former and recent discoveries feature porphyry
mineralisation within basement of sedimentary and
Oceanic
Plate
Transfer
σ1
Structure
accretionary
wedge
ic Plate
splay Ocean
ting
duc
sub
magmatic arc
CORBETT ai1269
Section 3 1
metamorphic host rocks without associated volcanic
piles (Grasberg, Indonesia; Porgera epithermal and
Golpu porphyry, Papua New Guinea; Ridgeway and
Cadia porphyry deposits, Australia). Major structures
localised all these porphyry intrusions above magmatic
source bodies without associated extrusive volcanism.
Indeed, the absence of volcanism may provide quality
porphyry deposits as volatiles and metals have been
constrained within the buried porphyry intrusion
rather then dispersed by volcanism. Both high and
low sulphidation epithermal Au deposits are related
Figure 3.2 Structures in Northern Chile including the Falla
Oeste-Domeyko Fault system which localises many porphyry
systems and epithermal deposits, locally at the intersections with
conjugate fractures. See figure 3.5A for location.
to buried magmatic source rocks for metals which are
commonly localised by major structures. Movement
on these major structures provides the kinematic
regime for the development of dilatant fractures
which localise ore systems and influence ore geometry
2 Section 3
Economic Geo. _ JH
such as sheeted veins.
Three styles of major structures localise porphyry Cu-
Au and epithermal Au-Ag ore systems in subduction-
related arc - back arc environments (Corbett, 1994,
2012; Corbett and Leach, 1998) as:
3.1.1 Arc-parallel structures
Arc-parallel structures, also termed accretionary
structures (Corbett, 1994), form within compressional
magmatic arcs as part of the structural grain of the
district and so commonly feature steep dips and
lateral continuity as terrain boundaries between
highly varied rock groups, generally of different ages
(figure 3.1). Extensional structures such as range-
front faults in Western US - Northern Mexico, also
occur in in this group. Flat dipping thrust faults or
other layer-parallel features may host ore but rarely as
regionally significant structures. Arc-parallel structures
display protracted histories of activity commonly
with multiple senses of movement. In compressional
magmatic arcs many of these structures spent much
of their history as reverse faults (Domeyko Fault,
Chile, figure 3.2; Gilmore Suture, NSW, Australia,
figure 3.3), while others display country scale
dominant senses of strike-slip movement (Philippines
Fault, Philippines; Trans Sumatra Fault, Sumatra),
and vary from discrete easily discernible structures
(Philippine Fault) to corridors of structures (Domeyko
Fault, Chile). All of these structures localise ore
systems, generally in discernible dilatant settings
(discussed below). Other less well studied structures
have been defined from the alignment of ore systems
(Kalimantan Suture, Borneo; van Leeuwen et al.,
1990), or contain individual ore systems (Frieda-
Nena on the Fiak-Leonard Schultz Fault, Papua
New Guinea, Corbett, 1994; Bainbridge et al., 1994;
figure 3.38). In extensional settings major arc-parallel
structures localise ore systems as elements of the
structural grain and may reflect underlying deep
crustal geological contacts or discontinuities (Carlin-
Goldstrike and Battle Mountain Trends, Nevada).
Throughout the extensional Nevada-Sierra Madre
(Northern Mexico) terrains, ore systems are localised
by generally regionally extensive listric faults organised
as arc-parallel packages (Sleeper, Nevada, USA;
Palmarejo, Mexico). At Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea,
the regional slaty cleavage changes to a crenulation
cleavage close to the ore-hosting structures formed
parallel to the Markham Fault, demonstrating that
these arc-parallel structures formed in the order of 5
km depth prior to uplift and mineralisation closer to
1-2 km depth (figure 3.4; Corbett et al., 1994b).
Corbett Short Course Manual
Arc-parallel structures tap deep magma melts and
focus the overprinting emplacement of ore-bearing
intrusions into dilatant sites, such as second order
structures, commonly developed by transient changes
in the nature of convergence (section 3.4).
3.1.2 Arc-normal structures
Arc-normal, also termed transfer (Corbett, 1994) or
trans-arc structures (figure 3.1), transect magmatic
arcs at high angles to the structural grain, cutting it
and commonly extend into the underlying basement
to tap mantle derived melts as sources of Au
mineralisation, or focus overprinting magmatism.
Ore systems are localised by arc-normal structures
at Porgera and Wafi in Papua New Guinea, Grasberg
in West Papua and the Cadia Valley by the Lachlan
Transfer Zone, Eastern Australia (figures 3.3 &
3.4). Transfer structures locally offset (or transfer)
the structural grain of the magmatic arc and
accommodate variations in the rate of subduction
or dip of the down-going subducting plate segments
along convergent plate boundaries (Corbett, 1994).
The fold-thrust belt of western Papua New Guinea
is offset and changes orientation across the Porgera
Transfer Structure, which localises the Porgera
Intrusion System, and the Wafi Transfer Structure,
which localises the Wafi-Golpu Complex, represents
Peel
part of the corridor of structures formed as the
contact between the western and eastern orogens
of Papua New Guinea (figure 3.4; Corbett, 1994,
2005b). The Porgera Transfer Structure transects the
Mesozoic basement at depth (Hill et al., 2002) and taps
the interpreted deep mantle source for the alkaline
Porgera Intrusion Complex. Movement on structures
related to the Wafi Transfer Structure localised the
Golpu Porphyry in a regional scale fault jog (Menzies
et al., 2013) and facilitated the opening of the
Bulolo Graben, an intra-arc basin which hosts felsic
magmatism and the Morobe Goldfield, Papua New
Guinea (Hidden Valley, Hamata, Kerimenge, Wau and
Edie Creek Au deposits; Corbett and Leach, 1998).
Many structures display protracted histories of activity.
The Lachlan Transverse Zone, in Eastern Australia,
which has long been recognised to host many ore
systems (Scheibner and Stevens, 1974),contains
individual elements formed as growth faults during
volcanism and later active to localise mineralisation in
the Cadia Valley where porphyry, skarn and wallrock
porphyry ores are aligned along this same structural
trend. Other transfer structures include the Walker
Lane Trend, Nevada and the Chicama-Yanacocha
Structural Corridor (Turner, 1999) which localises the
Yanacocha epithermal-porphyry district, Northern
Peru. The arc-normal Uinta Axis (Guen et al., 2010)
is considered to have been active since the Archaen
and localise the giant
Bingham Canyon
porphyry Cu-Au-Mo
deposit. Recent workers
Drake (Cooke et al., 2014)
Volcanics
have used the term
‘slab tear’ to describe
what are arc-normal or

La Cobar
ch Mt
lan Terrible transfer structures. The
F

Bobadah north-south aligned

Peak Hill and mineralised Tabar
Mineral Hill Fifield Bowdens
Goonumbla Copper Hill and Lihir Island groups
Cadia
Tran
sver
are localised within
Cowal se Z
West Wylong Browns one several roughly NS tear
Gilm

Gidginbung Creek structures developed in

o

Dobroyde the downgoing (upper)

re S

Mt Adra
Pacific (Solomon Sea)
u tu

Adelong
re

Plate segment as it was

folded above the curved
New Britain Trench
subduction zone (figure
3.4; Corbett and Leach,
1998).

Figure
Corbett3.3 Aeromagnetic image of New South Wales, Australia, showing several ore systems localised along the Gilmore suture terrain
SC2012_1371
boundary and Lachlan Transverse Zone. Note the NS trending segments of the Macquarie Arc which host the Goonumbla, Copper Hill
and Cadia districts.
1992 image by NSW and Commonwealth of Australia Departments of Mineral Resources.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 3

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 3.4 Geological framework of Papua New Guinea (from Corbett, 2005b) showing some ore systems localised by arc-normal and
arc-parallel structures. The set of NE arc-normal transfer structures such as the Porgera Transfer Structure extend into the underlying
Mesozoic basement, while the (set of) Wafi Transfer Structure(s) separate the eastern and western orogens of Papua New Guinea.
Arc-parallel faults which localise mineralisation include the Fiak-Leonard Schultz (Frieda-Nena porphyry-high sulphidation epithermal),
Lagaip (Porgera) and Markham (Bilimoia) Faults. The NS structural elongation of the Tabar and Lihir Island chains is also apparent
(Corbett and Leach, 1998).

3.1.3 Conjugate fractures
Conjugate fractures are recognised at much lower
angles to the arc than the arc-normal structures
and appear to be best developed within orthogonal
compressional magmatic arcs (figure 3.1). Some
settings host similar opposing fractures in the one
location or distributed throughout the arc, while
elsewhere one fracture may be dominant. Although
conjugate fractures are interpreted to have formed
during orthogonal compression and display associated
strike-slip senses of movement (figure 3.1), vein
kinematics suggest many have been reactivated during
extension associated with transient relaxation of
compression. Vein orientations within the conjugate
fractures demonstrate the Batu Hijau porphyry,
Indonesia (figure 3.**) and the Mastra Au veins,
Turkey (figure 3.**) were emplaced during a relaxation
of compression.
There is considerable variation in the angular
relationship between the conjugate fractures and
the structural grain of the district. Most conjugate
fractures (northern Chile, figure 3.2 and Deseado
Massif, Argentina, figure 3.5) are equally aligned in
relation to the arc-parallel fractures and display 60°
separations typical of conjugate fractures (Price,
1966; Blés and Feuga, 1986). Variations in the angular
relationship may be consistent with brittle or ductile
failure (Price and Cosgrove, 1990) and hence crustal
level of formation. Low angles (to 38°) are recognised
at the Batu Hijau, Indonesia (figure **) and very high
angles (125°) in the deeply eroded crystalline terrain
of the Pontides in the Eastern Black Sea (Güven, 1993
in Moon et al., 2001; figure **).
In northern Chile-Argentina (figure 3.2) the NW
conjugate fractures may dominate over NE. Some
important fractures include the NW La Escondida
trend which localises the La Escondida porphyry
district at the intersection with the Domeyko fault
system, and the NW Veladero trend which localises
the Pascua-Lama, Chile-Argentina and Veladero,
Argentina high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits.
The El Quevar high sulphidation system is localised
by the NW Co. Ricon Azure fracture, which hosts
many volcanic centres, while in northern Chile the
El Guanaco high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit
and San Cristobal, low sulphidation Au deposit in
are localised by adjacent NW and NE conjugates,

4 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
respectively (figure 3.2).

The Jurassic Deseado Massif of Argentine

Patagonia (figure 3.5) is dissected by conjugate
fractures interpreted to have been active during low
sulphidation epithermal vein formation to facilitate ore C
shoot formation (figure 3.41). In north Queensland,
Australia, a set of conjugate fractures influence the
distribution the Permo-carboniferous volcano-plutonic
complexes within Proterozoic basement and localise
many ore systems such as the Kidston breccia pipe
(figure 3.6).
A

Peru
Brazil Figure 3.5 Conjugate fractures influence ore formation in the
Bolivia
Deseado Massif, Argentine Patagonia.
A - Regional setting and location, including of figure 3.2 a the top
Chile box and figure 3.5 B as the lower box.
B - Mines and exploration projects within the Deseado Massif.
C - Fractures apparent on a remote sensing image in the Cerro
Moro district (from Climax Mining website). See also section
0 1000km
3.2.3.2.1 and figure 3.42 for discussion of these structures in ore
Argentina
shoot formation.
Subduction-related 144
o

compression Einasleigh

σ1 Forsayth
Cop

Wirra Wirra
Caldera
perfi
eld

t
en
Scotia Plate Mt Borium m
ar
ne
Li

CORBETT ai1681

Kidston X
B
Percyvale
Lochabar
X Ring Dyke
19 00 19 00
o

X
o

Complex
Line

n
rto
arm

lbe
Gi X Christmas Hill
ent

X
Baystow
Ring Dyke
Gilberton X X
Complex

0 100 km
144
o

gravity high dyke

gravity low Proteozoic underlain by

Permo-Carboniferous intrusions
Proteozoic metamorphic
landsat lineaments
and granitic rocks
Permo carboniferous
volcanoplutonic rocks
X mine/prospect
CORBETT ai1731

Figure 3.6 Conjugate fractures in north Queensland influence

of the distribution of Permo-Carboniferous volcano plutonic
complexes and localise many Au occurrences (from Corbett,
unpubl. data, 1983; Corbett and Leach, 1998).

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 5

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2 DILATANT STRUCTURAL SETTINGS 3.2.1 Orthogonal extension

At prospect scale dilatant fractures control the Orthogonal extension responsible for epithermal
geometry of epithermal veins, especially the vein formation is commonly manifest as sets listric
development of better mineralisation within ore faults with sub-parallel strike and normal senses of
shoots, kinematics of the larger scale structures movement which may define the structural grain of
such that better mineralisation generally occurs in the district (Sierra Madre, northern Mexico; Great
second order structures. Many porphyry deposits Basin, US; southern Peru; Argentine Patagonia;
are localised by dilatant splay faults and some of the Gosowong, Indonesia; Hidden Valley, Papua New
best mineralisation may occur within sheeted veins Guinea). Bedding may be reoriented while subsidiary
or breccias. Sheeted fractures not only host porphyry faults develop in the hanging wall to the principle
mineralisation, but as dilatant fractures, participate in fault with dips towards that structure (figure 3.7).
the transport of ore fluids from the magmatic source Drag on the fault tips during normal movement
at depth to higher crustal levels where mineralisation provides a curvature to each structure in plan view
deposits under cooler conditions. Polyphasal activity with opposite senses (Arcata, Peru; figure 3.8). Vein
accounts for elevated metal grades within banded and and lode mineralisation typically exploit the most
laminated veins with elevated metal grades derived dilatant portion of the listric (including subsidiary)
from multiple episodes of mineralisation. Wallrock faults and so flat pitching ore shoots dominate in the
porphyry deposits comprise sheeted veins of porphyry steep dipping portion of the listric fault and veins
mineralisation which, in dilatant settings, extend from decline in thickness and Au grade as the listric fault
the source porphyry into the adjacent wall rocks flattens (figure 3.7; Corani, Peru; figure 3.9, Corbett in
(figure 1.1). Swarthout et al., 2010; Palmarejo, Mexico, figure 3.10;
Gosowong, Indonesia; figure 3.43 Sleeper, Nevada,
Dilatant settings for the development of epithermal US). Smaller scale parallel tension veins may from
vein mineralisation categorised as orthogonal stockwork veins arrays within the wall rocks adjacent
extension, oblique extension and transpression, and to listric faults or between listric fault elements
compression, influence the geometry of ore shoots (Hidden Valley, Papua New Guinea).
(figure 3.7), either separately or combined. Ore shoots,
defined earlier as containing the widest and highest In many exploration examples vein thickness and
metal grade vein portions, are most easily identified precious metal grades have declined as the dip of
using gram x metre plots, typically on long section listric faults shallowed. Variations of just a few degrees
data. dip of the listric fault may account for the limitation
of ore shoots with depth. This is well illustrated in
the exploration data for Palmarejo, Mexico where on
the long section vein
steep flat
portions steeper
C
A splay A sheeted veins than 55° dip hosted
B
blind COMPRESSION ore shoot metal
bedding
ORE SHOOTS sector grades (figure 3.10),
jog or
link
collapse
C
although in many
σ 1 OBLIQUE A A
reverse systems inflection
EXTENSION
fault point is steeper
A
flexure B (66° for Kupol in
thrust C
pull-apart eastern Russia).
cros
s acid
basin σ 1 Consequently, some
faul
t sulphate AB high C listric
cap sulphidation fault exploration projects
hanging B
arc
parallel
may host significant
B
exposures of flat
*
wall splay vein
C
listric dipping listric faults
refraction fault
C arc with extensive

* bonanza normal hydrothermal

alteration but little
mineralisation
CORBETT ai12104

Figure 3.7 Model illustrating the three main structural settings in which mineralised epithermal veins occur, (Corani, Peru, figure
showing the ore shoot geometry for each (from Corbett, 2012). 3.9).

6 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
SW
A NE B
Veta Baja
and acid sulphate cap Marion vein

fluid mixing

hanging
* principal
listric fault

wall splay
felsic
domes

CORBETT ai1682

C D E

Figure 3.8 Listric faults at the Arcata Au-Ag mine, Peru.

A - NE-SW conceptual cross section showing the Marion SW dipping principle listric fault and Veta Baja as one of the many hanging wall
splay faults.
B - Map of the listric fault system locally exploited by known veins (adapted from data in a Hochschild Mining presentation, 2010).
C - Veta Baja listric fault in outcrop showing steep pitching slickensides indicative of normal fault movement, with geologists for scale.
D - Veta Baja vein underground helmet for scale.
E - Veta Baja vein mining.

A B

Figure 3.9 Listric faults at Corani, Peru. D

A - Conceptual graphic (from Corbett, unpubl. report used in Swarthout et al., 2010)
which illustrates the restriction of best Ag to the steep dipping fault portions and
hanging wall stockwork veins.
B - Steep dipping portion of the listric fault.
C - Flattening of listric fault with a group of geologists at the base for scale.
D - Flat dipping portion of the listric fault with extensive alteration but no
mineralisation.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 7

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

D E

La
Prie
ta

1000 1100

Rosario
Tucson
3032000 Clavo
Clavo
00

Chapotillo
12

(Halls) Clavo

1300

76 Clavo

108 Clavo
La
Bl
an
ca

3031000 0 500m

756000 757000
CORBETT ai1706

F
Figure 3.10 Listric fault at Palmarejo, Mexico.
A - View of Palmarejo during exploration with drill roads on the ore shoots.
B - Conceptual cross section.
C - Long section aligned along the La Prieta structure showing the Rosario-
Tuscon clavo as >50 gram x metre vein portion restricted to the > 55° dip fault
segment.
D - Map showing the location of ore shoots and long section section (adapted
from Masterman et al., 2005)
E - Legend
F - La Prieta listric fault in underground workings.

8 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

M
L

C D

E F

Figure 3.11 Listric fault hosted mineralisation at Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
A - 1984 view of the Luise Caldera shows the yet undiscovered Minifie (M) as well as Lienetz (L) and Coastal (C) Zones under exploration.
B - Composite onshore slide looking radar and off shore bathometric map of Lihir island showing detritus derived from sector collapse
(from Corbett, 2005b)
C - Conceptual model for sector collapse of the Luise volcanic ediface.
D - Listric faults facilitated Mt St Helens-style sector collapse for comparison.
E - A cross section, located between the Minifie (left) and Lienetz (right) zones, showing steepening of the listric fault which cuts the
earlier porphyry event and is exploited by the epithermal mineralisation.
F - Steep dipping Minifie fault in the open pit (2004) which hosted elevated Au grades.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 9

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.1.1 At the Ladolam Au deposit, Lihir Island,
Papua New Guinea, epithermal gold mineralisation
was localised by listric faults developed during sector
collapse of a stratovolcano, much like the sector
collpse failure at Mt St Helens in 1980 (figure 3.11;
Corbett et al., 2001; Corbett 2005b). As collapse took
place only 100,000 years ago detritus is discernible
on the sea floor bathymetry. Similar sideways sector
collapse is recognized in many other youthful
stratovolcanoes throughout Papua New Guinea. Early
exploration at Ladolam identified the flat dipping
buried mineralisation at the Coastal and Ladolam
Zones, but the project only advanced when sub-
crop of better quality mineralisation was identified
within the steep dipping Minifie Zone close to the
caldera wall. It was proposed (Corbett, 2005b) listric
faults which facilitated the sector collapse slid on an
interface formed between the upper plate brecciated
volcanics and underlying earlier anhydrite matrix
potassic altered porphyry breccia. Flat dipping fault
portions of the listric fault near Luise Harbor, are less
mineralised than the steep dipping portions such as
the Minifie Zone close to the caldera rim. The early
identification of K-feldspar as the low temperature
form adularia, promoted in the geological literature
as evidence of precious metal deposition by boiling
(Simmons and Brown, 2000b), led to the use of the
“boiling zone” model to focus exploration at Ladolam
within the flat dipping fault zones (Moyle et al., 1990).
Later steep dipping fault portions were subsequently
identified as more prospective (Corbett, unpubl.
reports) for higher grade Au mineralisation interpreted
to have been deposited by cooling and sulphidation
reactions (Leach, unpubl. report, 2007).
3.2.1.2 Hanging wall splays
Hanging wall splays develop as dilatant tension
fractures within the wall rocks above steep dipping
normal faults (figure 3.7), including listric fault
arrays (Arcata, Peru, figure 3.8; Waihi, New Zealand,
figure 3.31). Continued normal fault movement
dilates hanging wall splays as settings of repeated
and enhanced flow of mineralised hydrothermal
fluids which may host high Au grade banded veins.
Furthermore, intersections of hanging wall splays
and principle normal faults represent common
settings for the development of bonanza epithermal
Au mineralisation within pencil shaped ore shoots,
aligned along the intersection lineation of the two
structures. Here, the rapid rise of depressurised ore
fluids up a normal fault may draw near surficial waters
down the hanging wall splay, (somewhat similar to a
venturi pump) and promote fluid mixing at the fault
intersection, described in section 7.5.4 as an efficient
10 Section 3
Economic Geo. _ JH
mechanism of Au deposition (Leach and Corbett,
2008). These ore shoots are most pronounced where
the hanging wall splay taps low pH waters associated
with acid sulphate caps or bicarbonate waters (section
7.5.4).
3.2.1.2.1 At Porgera, Papua New Guinea, low
sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation of the
carbonate-base metal Au style related to augite-
hornblende diorite stocks (section 7.2.1.2.4.1)
is overprinted by epithermal quartz Au style
mineralisation related to feldspar porphyry dykes
(section 7.2.1.3), best developed in the Romane
Fault and overprinting the earlier veins. While early
veins exploit NNE elements of the Porgera Transfer
Structure, syn-mineral uplift and thrust erosion
(below) focus later feldspar porphyry within the
Roamane Fault extending into a hanging wall splay and
also a smaller sub-parallel fault (figure 3.12). A blind
ore shoot of as much as 8 M oz Au developed at the
intersection of the Roamane Fault and the hanging
wall splay as rising fluids became quenched at the
structural intersection (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and
references therein).
3.2.1.2.2 At the Tolukuma gold mine in Papua New
Guinea, the throughgoing Tolukuma vein lies within a
hanging wall splay fracture localised above the graben-
like structural contact between the Cretaceous Owen
Stanley Metamorphic basement rocks and overlying
Pliocene Mt Davidson Volcanics (figure 3.13; Semple
et al. 1995, 1998; Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett,
2005b). Here, the dilatant hanging wall splay has
facilitated the rise of saline mineralised ore fluids to
an elevated setting where mixing with near surficial
bicarbonate waters promoted the deposition of high
grade Au, which is best developed at the intersection
of the two structures (figure 3.13). Early lower grade
Au mineralisation, deposited by boiling within banded
quartz veins with adularia and quartz after platy
calcite, is overprinted by more abundant electrum
with siderite-clay (chlorite-kaolin-smectite) deposited
by fluid mixing within the hanging wall splay (Corbett
et al., 1994c; Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references
therein).
Corbett Short Course Manual
 A B Tupagi
Liawin transfer
structures

Peruk

Jez lode N

Rambari
ne
ma
Ro
Roamane ult
Fa

II
eV
Zon
structure

line of Feldspar porphyries

Waruwari section
Dioritic intrusions

Calc-shale

C N S Bleached sediments

0 500m

Tawisakali
from Corbett (1980) CORBETT ai1685

0 100m

Roamane
Fault

calc-shale
bleached sediments
augite-hornblende diorite
hornblende diorite
feldspar porphyry

CORBETT ai1686

Figure 3.12 Hanging wall splay fault at Porgera, Papua New Guinea.
A - View of Porgera about 1991 from the south, with the Waruwari carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation to the left, two adit levels
and the line of drill sites in the hanging wall to the Romane fault in which each peak represents a resistive intrusive.
B - Porgera geology showing augite hornblende diorite stocks, adjacent bleached sediments and some structural elements stock
(adapted from Corbett unpubl. map 1980 and other sources).
C - Cross section 22,410N through the Roamane fault showing the feldspar porphyry which locally exploits the hanging wall splay (from
Porgera Joint Venture data 1989).
D - Roamane fault underground in about 1991.
E - Bonanza Au grade roscoelite breccia in the immediate hanging wall to the Roamane fault about 1991.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 11

Economic Geo. _ JH
 W E A

vein

6 m @ 15.72 g/t Au

volcanics

10 m @ 17.31 g/t Au

1600m

4.8 m @ 22 g/t Au + 97 g/t Ag

B
5.3 m @ 48.38 g/t Au

5.5 m @ 48 g/t Au

0 50m 1500m
metamorphics

CORBETT ai1690

Figure 3.13 Hanging wall setting of the Tolukuma vein, Papua

New Guinea.
A - Cross section through the Tolukuma vein showing high Au
grades near the intersection with the graben structure (from
Corbett and Leach, 1998). Figure 3.14 Cap Oeste bonanza ore shoot El Tranquillo, Argentine
B - Tolukuma vein underground showing the banded texture. Patagonia, (from Bow, 2012 in www.patagoniagold.com).
A - Plan view.
B - Cross section with red > 30 g/t Au
C - Interpretation showing the formation of a pencil-like ore
3.2.1.2.3 The Cap-Oeste, El Tranquillo, Argentine shoot at the structural intersection.
Patagonia (Bow, 2012 in www.patagoniagold.com),
epithermal Au mineralisation is localised by NW Hanging wall tension veins in exploration drill tests are
trending structures formed as part of the conjugate considered below (section 3.2.2.4.4).
fracture pattern of the Deseado Massif, in which EW
trending dilatant zones would be expected to develop
in conditions of orthogonal compression (section
3.2.3.2.1; figure 3.41). The Cap-Oeste high Au grade
zone occurs as a moderate pitching pencil-like EW
trending ore shoot (figure 3.14) developed by the
mixing of pregnant fluids rising up the principle NW
trending structure with low pH acid sulphate waters
collapsing down the hanging wall splays. Kaolin
intergrown with the bonanza Au grade ore provides
evidence of mineral deposition by fluid mixing
(section 7.5.4.4.5).

12 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.1.2 Refraction
Just as light refracts moving from air to more dense
water, dipping fractures which host mineralised veins
refract to steeper dips upon entering more competent
host rocks (figures 3.7 & 3.15). As discussed in section
7.3 vein mineralisation is likely to be best developed
in the more competent rock units, in these settings.
At El, Peñón, Chile, mineralisation is hosted by a
competent felsic sill within incompetent lapilli tuffs,
while silicified sandstone/arenite units constrained
within volcanic rocks host veins at Palmarejo, Mexico
and Chatree, Thailand. A moderate dipping normal
fault refracts to a steeper dip as it passes from
incompetent to competent host rocks so that it then
displays a more dilatant character during continued
normal fault movement and a flat pitching ore shoot
develops at the intersection of the steep normal fault
portion and competent host rock (figure 3.15).
Figure
12945 3.15 A moderate dipping normal fault refracts to
a steeper dip as it passes through a competent rock unit
interlayered within an incompetent volcanic sequence. During
continued normal fault movement this steep fault portion is
more dilatant and so a flat pitching ore shoot develops at the
intersection of this steep dipping fault portion and the competent
rock unit.
3.2.2 Oblique convergence
Oblique tectonic settings including transpression
(oblique compression) and transtension (oblique
extension) are characterised by strike-slip movement
on structures which may create dilatant ore hosting
environments, either within perturbations in the
throughgoing strike-slip structure or within adjacent
second order structures, commonly constrained
within corridors of strike-slip faults. The terminology
used here to describe different dilatant ore settings
developed in this environment includes (figure 3.16):
• Fault jogs form where strike-slip fault movement
transfers or steps-over from one controlling
structure to another in a corridor of strike-slip
structures.
• Link structures and cross-overs represent fractures
which facilitate the transfer of fault movement
Corbett Short Course Manual
from one controlling structure to another within
a fault jog and become dilated as hosts for
mineralised fissure veins. Sheeted vein arrays may
also develop in this setting. Controlling structures
and link structures may be viewed in plan or in
section, the latter as normal faults and hanging
wall spalys.
• Pull-apart basins, which form by down-drop
on the basin margin link structures, represent
the surficial portions of fault jogs and may be
distinguished by the typical rhomboidal shapes
and the presence of epiclastic sediment fill. Pull-
apart basins represent the surficial portions of
negative flower structures (below).
• Tension fractures develop by the application of a
shear component to a brittle rock and host open
space which becomes filled with hydrothermal
minerals to form tension veins. Some exploit link
structures and cross overs while others form en
echelon vein arrays.
• A flexure is a dilatant bend in a throughgoing
structure which may represent a dilatant
perturbation.
• Splay faults or horse tails commonly represent
short dilatant faults adjacent to a major strike-
slip structure that form at deep crustal levels and
locally represent the terminations of strike-slip
structures. Splays are the deepest parts of fault
jogs within negative flower structures.
In settings of simple oblique (strike-slip) movement
Corbett
the dilatant ore-hosting features described above
form steep pitching ore shoots which host wider and
higher precious metal grade vein portions (figures 3.7
& 3.16). Combinations with normal or reverse fault
movement provide a moderate pitch to ore shoots
(below). Dilatant fractures are oriented to link the tails
of arrows which illustrate the movement direction on
faults, whereas fractures oriented to join the arrow
heads will be compressional and so form restraining
bends characterised reverse or thrust faults or domes
(Corbett and Leach, 1998), considered in section
3.2.3.3.1.
Section 3 13
Economic Geo. _ JH
 3.2.2.1 Negative flower structures

Negative flower structures (figure 3.17) provide a

3 dimensional section through the various dilatant
structural elements of a fault jog passing from surficial
pull-apart basins down to link structure-hosted tension
vein arrays that host epithermal Au-Ag veins and
deeper level splay faults as sites of porphyry Cu-
Au emplacement. Hydrocarbons collect in domes
formed by positive flower structures in compressional
settings (Lowell, 1985). The same tectonic and
structural environment may continue to be active from
volcanism and sedimentation to mineralisation and
so it is common for mineralised structures to display
earlier activation as growth faults, and in many districts
there is more pronounced growth fault activity on
the better mineralised structures (Gympie goldfield,
Australia and Waihi, New Zealand in Corbett and
Leach, 1998; Palmarejo, Mexico; Kupol, E. Russia;
Kelian, Indonesia).

Figure 3.16 The terminology used herein to describe subsidiary

dilatant structures developed in environments of oblique
convergence.

Figure 3.17 Illustration of a negative flower structure as described herein.

14 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.2 Fault jogs
Fault jogs (Sibson, 1987) represent dilatant cross-
overs, of the strike-slip fault movement from one
structure to another in a segmented fault or corridor
of fractures, typically involving the development of
subsidiary dilatant cross-over or link fractures between
the strike-slip faults, termed controlling structures
(figures 3.16-18). These dilatant features are also
termed releasing bends (McClay and Moody, 1995),
and fault jogs are most easily identified as rhomboidal
pull-apart basins in poorly eroded terrains (Crowell,
1974; Sylvester, 1988; Price and Cosgrove, 1990), while
restraining bends represent anti-dilatant jogs. The
array of link or cross-over fractures are progressively
dilated by the continued strike-slip movement on the
controlling structures with associated down-drop as
normal faults or fill of open space by hydrothermal
minerals within tension fractures to form mineralised
fissure veins or lodes. The controlling strike-slip
structures are generally not mineralised whereas most
dilation and hence mineralisation is recognised on
the link structures which extend to depth as part of
the negative flower structure. Continued strike-slip
movement on the controlling structures provides
internal rotation and increased dilation of the link
structures or step-overs as mineralised tension veins
(below, sections 3.2.2.5 & 3.2.2.5.3).
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3
Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.1.1 A modern analogy of a fault jog
is apparent as the cross-over in strike-slip movement
between segments of a fault activated during a 7.2
magnitude earthquake at Dasht-e Baўaz, Iran in 1968
(figure 3.19), delineated in an analysis of air photo
linears (Tchalenko and Ambraseys, 1970). The EW
trending strike-slip structures, labelled as controlling
structures in figure 3.19, are linked by the subsidiary
fractures which in an ore system would be expected
to progressively open during appropriate strike-slip
movement on the controlling structures, in order to
develop as mineralised tension veins. Here, sinistral
movement has dilated the second order fractures
(figures 3.16-19, whereas dextral movement would
provide compression on those fractures (figure
3.42) within a restraining bend. In ore systems hot
pressurised hydrothermal fluids rising rapidly up the
open fractures would be expected to cool and boil to
deposit minerals on the fracture margins or breccia
clasts. Repeated opening associated with earthquake
activity over geological time, would promote
polyphasal mineral deposition as banded veins which
might host high grade precious metal mineralisation.
Many epithermal veins appear to grow inwards (figure
1.11 A). Offsets of cultural features in the Dasht-e
Baўaz example provide a sense of displacement of
only 4.5m, for a fault jog (step over) which is almost
2 km long and 1 km wide, between segments in a
structure identified over an 80 km strike distance
(figure 3.19, Tchalenko and Ambraseys, 1970). Such
small movements are typical of faults which host
mineralisation as excessive strike-slip movement on
the controlling faults may dismember veins. Note in
figure 3.19, formation of the subsidiary fractures was
initiated at angles of about 45° at the intersection with
the controlling structures, and the dilatant fractures
bend to higher angles in the central portions during
progressive strike-slip movement, as discussed below
(sections 3.2.2.5 & 3.2.2.5.3).
Figure 3.18 Small scale fault jogs evident as fill of dilatant
fractures formed by strike-slip movement on the controlling
structures, marble pavement, Spain.
15
 INTERPRETATION

controlling structures
0 2km

DASHT-E BAYAZ, IRAN EARTHQUAKE link or subsidiary

31st August 1968 fault jog structures
aka pull-apart basin aka splay faults SC2012_1531
From Tchalenko & Ambraseys 1970

Figure 3.19 Analysis of fractures associated with an earthquake at Dasht-e Baȳaz, Iran, 31 August 1968 from Tchalenko and Ambraseys
(1970), showing a fault jog which hosts dilatant subsidiary fractures developed where strike-slip movement has crossed from one
controlling structure to another.

16 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.2.2 At the Thames district, New Zealand, link the Ohio Creek porphyry to the Thames goldfield
a regional scale fault jog hosts the Thames 1.4 M are therefore interpreted to have developed as tension
oz goldfield, Ohio Creek porphyry and Lookout veins and display increased rotation in the vicinity of
Rocks barren shoulder of advanced argillic alteration the Thames bonanza goldfield. It has been suggested
(Merchant, 1986; Corbett and Leach, 1998). Regional- (Corbett and Leach, 1998) ore fluids derived from a
scale dextral movement in New Zealand, which is magmatic source in the vicinity of the Ohio Creek
most apparent on the Apline fault in the South Island, porphyry migrated SW along the dilatant quartz-
continues northward to Mio-Pliocene Coromandel sulphide reefs to deposit bonanza Au by mixing with
Peninsular, discernible from the orientation of meteoric waters at the intersection with NS fractures
vein fabrics (Waihi and Golden Cross below). By at Thames. The early miners traced the SW-NE lodes,
contrast orthogonal extension is currently apparent obtaining only low grade Au grades (as typical of low
at the Taupo Volcanic Zone. The Hauraki fault, sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation),
which defines the contact between the Coromandel in order to identify the intersection the NS structures
Peninsular and the Hauraki graben displays a side termed flinties from the chalcedony-pyrite fill
step in the Thames district and so forms a 10 x 20 km (Fraser, 1910), which localised bonanza grade Au
dilatant fault jog under the influence of the regional mineralisation (typical of low sulphidation epithermal
scale dextral movement (figure 3.20; Corbett and quartz Au style). Ore shoot formation related to
Leach, 1998). The many quartz-sulphide lodes which down-drop at the Sons of Freedom reef is shown in
figure 3.30 D

Coromandel
Peninsula

Havre
Trough

Taupo
Volcanic N
Zone
Coromandel
Whitianga

0 100 km Thames -
Ohio Creek - Monowai
Lookout Rocks
district Ohui
coast line

Neavesville

Ohio Creek
Hauraki porphyry
Waihi
Graben
m
St

Karangahake
ru
ra

0 20km
Ta

Tui
Ha

Tin
k
ur

ers Lookout Rocks

ak

Gu
lly
i

Day alteration zone

Dawn
m
e do
Fa

Hau

re e
Ag
u

fF
lt

FAULT JOG
ar

o en
rak

s
nP

Hauraki d
on l
Go tari-ria N
i

S
be

Graben
ai b
Ru

W m
Mo Ca
an
Ohio Creek ata Horseshoe
ri
porphyry
tension vein Thames
Lookout Rocks F
formation bonanza veins
alteration zone
TIM

Hauraki
Gulf Thames
E

Fault

Goldfield m Jupiter
e St
Nap Una Hill

Ha
ur
ak
i
Fa
u 0 2km
N lt

0 10 km
CORBETT ai1582

Figure 3.20 The Thames-Lookout Rocks district, New Zealand showing development of a regional scale fault jog in the Hauraki fault and
development the quartz-sulphide tension vein lodes which link the Ohio Creek porphyry and Thames goldfield.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 17

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.2.3 The Umuna lode at the Misima gold mine,
in Milne Bay Provence of eastern Papua New Guinea
in the recent period of exploitation from 1990 to
2004 produced 3.7 M oz Au. The Misima goldfield
was discovered in 1889 and produced an estimated
200,000 oz Au to 1911. In the mine area, controlling
structures of the WNW structural grain of Milne
Bay have undergone a component of dextral strike-
slip movement, resulting in the development of
the Umuna Lode as a link structure mined over a
A
distance of 2 km. The dilatant setting has provided
normal fault movement on Umuna Lode, which is
characterised by open space fill vein textures along
with banding formed by repeated activation of
the controlling faults. Although deeply oxidised,
mineralisation is of a typical carbonate-base metal
style Au mineralisation consistent with the MnO stain
(figure 3.21; Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references
therein). Gold grades no doubt display a strong
component of supergene enrichment in oxide zone
ores.

B C

Figure 3.21 The Umuna Lode, Misima gold mine, Papua New
Guinea.
A - Graphic illustrates the development of the lode as a 2 km
long link structure constrained between controlling structures
with a dextral sense of movement.
B - Open pit mine aligned along the lode in 1990 at the early
stage of development.
C - Banded quartz-MnO oxidised ore.

18 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.2.4 Cracow goldfield, SE Queensland, Australia,
produced about 850,000 oz Au mainly from the
Golden Plateau area to 1992 (Worsley and Golding,
1990) although current mining and exploration are
focused upon low sulphidation chalcedony-ginguro
style veins about 2 km west in the Klondyke area
(Creenaune et al., 2003). Competent Early Permian
Camboon Andesite hosts many gold-bearing quartz
veins including the arc-parallel Golden Mile and
White Hope trends which are interpreted (Corbett
and Leach, 1998) to have undergone a component of
sinistral strike-slip movement to form the 700 m long
Golden Plateau link structure (figure 3.22). At the
time of discovery in 1875, much of this vein system,
was obscured by the Cretaceous Precipice Sandstone
(figure 3.22). Banded veins attest to repeated fault
activity although the high fineness, high Au grade
chlorite breccia ores (of the epithermal quartz Au
style; section 7.2.1.3) are best developed within steep
pitching ore shoots (Brooks, 1971) at the intersections
with NS structures (Corbett and Leach, 1998). These
ores are of a more magmatic character than the
banded chalcedony ginguro veins which dominate at
Klondyke (figure 7.5).

B C

Figure 3.22 Golden plateau, Link structure, Cracow goldfield, SE Queensland.

A - Plan illustrates the Golden Plateau link structure formed by interpreted sinistral strike-slip movement on the two controlling
structures which host numerous small gold showings (from Brooks, 1971).
B - Banded quartz adularia vein/breccia from Golden Plateau.
C - View showing Precipice Sandstone cover.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 19

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

structural
pretation grain
ter

in

co
nju
ga
dilation

te
fra
ct u
re
El Indio

Argentina
Chile

0 5km

continues CORBETT ai1687

Figure 3.23 Localisation of El Indio within a regional scale cross over of dextral fault movement.
A - Remote sensing image in which major structures are apparent as drainage anomalies.
B - Line diagram showing the dilatant link zone formed by the transfer of dextral strike-slip movement from the NE to SW major
structures.
3.2.2.2.5 The El Indio Au district, Chile, is localised display any down-drop (figures 3.16 & 17). Ratios
within a regional scale cross over between arc-parallel between the long and short axes of pull-apart basins
structures interpreted to have exhibited a dextral vary from 2 to 5: 1 (Aydin and Nur, 1982 in Price
strike-slip sense of movement in order to trigger ore and Cosgrove, 1992, p. 142). Pull-apart basins are
formation, discernible in the kinematics of individual commonly grouped along country scale transcurrent
ore zones (figure 3.28). Repeated movement led to or strike slip-structures such as the San Andreas fault
the development of banded veins (figure 3.13 D) and (Crowell, 1974), Sumatran fault (Pudjowalujo, 1990)
floating clast breccias are indicative of the dilatant and Philippine fault (figure 3.39). Importantly, vein
ore environment (figure 3.28 D). The El Indio mine mineralisation is only likely to be localised within
hosts ore within a sigmoidal loop (Caddy in Jannas et the short limb faults of the rhomboid which display
al., 2000) apparent as a fault flexure which hosts early dilatant down-drop and activation as growth faults,
banded pyrite-enargite veins and later quartz-gold whereas the long limb strike-slip faults tend not to
veins, while the individual ore shoots at the Viento be dilated and mineralised. Multiple mineralised
vein to the east also occur within flexures formed by growth faults are common in many pull-apart basins
the same dextral sense of movement (figure 1.13 & (Gympie goldfield, Australia; Corbett and Leach,
3.28) 1998) and structures with more dilation display both
greater growth fault down-drop and better later vein
.3.2.2.3 Pull-apart basins development. Consequently, exploration targets might
emerge within steeper portions of growth faults, from
Pull-apart basins are recognised as rhomboidal down- stratigraphic analyses of volcanic successions.
dropped blocks formed by normal fault movement on
the rhomboid short dimension normal faults, dilated Pull-apart basins are commonly discernible at the
by strike-slip activation of the controlling structures surface by recognition of the rhomboidal shape of
which host the rhomboid long limbs and do not fault bounded basins filled by epiclastic sedimentary

20 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
rocks in which rapid syn-deformational down-drop
might be evidenced by common disconformities
(figure 3.24 D). However, the epiclastic sediments
which fill pull-apart basins are generally incompetent
and may restrict vein formation. At Kelian (below)
these rocks have been rendered competent by
silicification, whereas at the Way Linggo district
(below) dilatant veins are developed in the footwall
competent basement rocks. The controlling structures
are likely to be aligned within the structural grain
of the district, whereas the link structures will be
initiated at 45° and rotate to higher angles where best
mineralised (figure 3.19 & below).
3.2.2.3.1 The Kelian Au mine, Kalimantan, Indonesia,
lies within a pull-apart basin formed at a cross-
over in the dextral movement on two conjugate NS
fault elements localised within the NW trending
Kalimantan Suture fracture corridor which hosts
several mines (figure 3.24; van Leeuwen et al., 1990;
Corbett and Leach, 1998). This sense of movement
suggests the basin and mineralisation developed
during orthogonal convergence. The mine lies in
the NW corner of the interpreted pull-apart basin
evidenced by fill of epiclastic rocks, overlying a
basement shale sequence, and constrained by the
NE trending Burung normal fault and adjacent
West Prampus strike-slip structure (figure 3.24A).
Spectacular disconformaties in the epiclastic sequence
testify to the substantial and rapid down-drop within
the pull-apart basin (figure 3.24 E). Andesite domes
(lacoliths) and a felsic diatreme-flow dome complex,
have been emplaced into the pull-apart basin followed
by sheeted vein and breccia mineralisation aligned in
the (Burang Fault) dilatant direction of the pull-apart
basin (figure 3.24). The permeable epiclastic rocks

B C

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 21

Economic Geo. _ JH
 D

Figure 3.24 The Kelian pull-apart basin hosted, low sulphidation epithermal carbonate-
E
base metal Au deposit.
A - Setting within a compressional magmatic arc which provides a dextral sense of
movement to the NS conjugate fracture.
B - Sheeted quartz-pyrite Au veins.
C - Carbonate-base metal breccia mineralisation formed by increased dilation of the
sheeted veins. Figures from Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein.
D - Mine area in the NW corner of the pull-apart basin showing the Burung normal
and West Prampus strike-slip faults, andesite domes, diatreme-flow dome complex and
sheeted veins grading to breccias with increased deformation.
E - Disconformities in the epiclastic sediments.

were readily silicified to facilitate the formation of
fracture-controlled mineralisation, whereas the shale
basement and diatreme breccia rocks which underwent
ductile deformation did not fracture and so are barren.
Continued strike-slip movement created increased
dilation on sheeted fractures with quartz-sulphide Au
mineralisation (figure 3.24 B) and so facilitated the
transition to open space breccias with higher Au grade
carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation (figure 3.24 C;
section 7.2.1.2).
3.2.2.3.2 The Ocampo, low sulphidation polymetallic
Ag-Au deposit lies in Sierra Madre region of northern
Mexico, characterised by extensional tectonism
on parallel listric faults (figure 3.25 A). While vein
mineralisation typically occurs in the steeper portions
of listric faults, the Plaza de Gallos pitching ore shoot
is developed within a fault jog localised by an offset
between two fault segments with a component of
strike-slip fault movement derived from the curvature
of the listric fault system (figure 3.25 B). The fault jog
link structures have been activated as normal growth
faults to result in development a localised pull-apart
basin (figure 3.25 C).

22 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 19,000E 20,000E
A D
N

F 0 200m

F 11,000N

Con
ico
Ve F
i n
El Rajo Teodora
Str
P
trendG E
d

Refugio Arroyo 3
Vein F
45 Picacho
Arroyo 1
F

Plaza 50 10,000N
de Gallos Arroyo 2
F

Clay alteration
62

CORBETT ai1692

B
Volcaniclastic sediments
fill pull-apart basin
Expansion breccia

40
silicified fault

shape due to dipping

fault on slope

ore shoot pitches pit F

due to dip in 52 D
controlling structures D
50
puggy F 55
RPRETATIO
TE N
IN

pull-apart basin
on fault jog
50

D controlling structures
dip to west
D

50 0 100m

19600m 19800m
CORBETT ai1693

Figure 3.25 The development of the Plaza de Gallos ore

C
shoot within a pull-apart basin at Ocampo, Mexico.
A - Map of the listric faults (by Hall Stewart) showing
location of the Plaza de Gallos ore shoot.
B - Detail of the pull-apart basin and ore shoot.
C - Surface exposure of the pull-apart basin showing
thickening of volcanic units across the growth faults
(person in the bottom right for scale).
D - Drill core through the ore shoot showing the
dilatant character of the mineralisation.
E - Faults which control the ore shoot underground.
F - Ore shoot from old mine data.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 23

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.3.3 The Way Linggo district in the Lampung 2002 and references therein). The Way Linggo low
district in SW Sumatra hosts some of the many sulphidation epithermal Au project is localised by
pull-apart basins developed along the dextral strike- a NNW trending link structure developed as the
slip Sumatran fault system, developed in response cross over of dextral strike-slip movement between
to collision between the northward moving Indo- elements of the Trans Sumatran Fault System, which
Australian plate with the Eurasian plate (Hall, also facilitated development of the pull-apart basins

A Thailand C

14N
Cambodia

Vietnam
10N

EURASIAN PLATE
6N

Malay
Penninsula

2N D

Borneo
Sumatra

2S
Su
nd
aT

Indian Ocean
ren
ch

4S Java

Trans Sumatran Fault

6S Way Linggo District Sumba

Java Trench
E
0 500 km
INDO AUSTRALIAN PLATE
10S
94E 98E 102E 106E 110E 114E 118E

B
N

SU
MA
TR
AN

FA
U LT Talang Santo

PRETATIO
TER N
IN
Way Linggo

ZO
strike-slip dilation NE
structures

0 10km
CORBETT ai1691

Figure 3.26 The Way Linggo district hosts low sulphidation epithermal Au veins within the dilatant fractures formed in a several pull-
apart basin terrain associated with dextral movement on the Sumatran Fault system.
A - Tectonic setting of the Way Linggo district.
B - Remote sensing image with an overlay of structure.
C - View of pull-apart basin about 1993.
D - Way Linggo banded low temperature opal-bearing vein identified during exploration about 1993.
E - Banded chalcedony-ginguro ore mined in the 2011-17 era.

24 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.4 Flexures
Flexures are defined above as dilatant bends formed at
a side-step (pertubation) within throughgoing strike-
slip structures (figure 3.16, 3.27 & 3.28) and may be
grouped along individual structures as settings for ore
shoot formation, and so have long been recognised
as are a setting for high precious metal grade vein
mineralisation (fig 92, McKinstry, 1948). Repeated
activation of movement on the strike-slip structures
provide banded high grade veins (figure 3.29 C) or
open space breccias (figure 3.28). The throughgoing
fractures may include steep dipping portions of
listric faults, and flexures are recognised in the central
vertical portion of negative flower structures where
down-drop is common on these structures. In purely
strike-slip structures flexure-hosted ore shoots pitch
vertically in the plane of the fault (figures 3.7) but the
A B
Figure 3.27 Small scale flexures.
A - Banded open space filled flexure within a quartz vein, with an offset of an earlier vein to show the sinistral direction of movement,
from the La Arena region of Central Peru.
B - Calcite vein in a marble pavement, Spain.
pitch varies if an oblique fault movement is combined
with normal or reverse movement (section 3.2.4). As
discussed above dilatant fractures join the tails of
arrows which illustrate the movement direction on
faults, whereas compressional restraining bends which
join the arrow heads are likely to develop as reverse of
thrust faults (figure 3.16).
Explorationists should be aware that in many vein
systems all the meaningful mineralisation is restricted
to flexure-hosted ore shoots, while the intervening
vein portions may be essentially barren or sub-
economic (figure 3.29 A). Consequently, careful
geological mapping is required in order to design drill
programmes to correctly evaluate the flexures. This
may necessitate not using traditional grid arrays.
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.4.1 The Viento veins in the El Indio district
of Chile host a series of moderate pitching ore
shoots, which detailed geological mapping (Corbett,
unpubl. report., 2000) demonstrated are localised by
flexures in a throughgoing structure with a dextral
component of strike-slip movement (figure 3.28).
Cross-structures are interpreted to account for the
setting of each dilatant flexure by development
of step-overs in the main structure, dilated by the
continued dextral strike-slip movement. Within each
flexure, link structures facilitated the rise of magmatic
fluids and therefore host bonanza Au grades (figure
3.28 A), locally as sulphide matrix fluidised breccias
(figure 1.13 B). Entry of meteoric waters drawn into
the dilatant flexures no doubt contributed towards
the development of quartz in-fill expansion breccias,
including floating clast breccias (figure 3.28 B &
C), a characteristic feature of dilatant structural
environments, (section 4.4.7.5). Quartz-gold breccias
(figure 1.13 B, C & D) were therefore derived from
progressive mixing of the south to north migrating
evolved magmatic ore fluid with increased ground
waters (sections 1.2.2.4 & 7.5). The flexure shape
evidences the dextral sense of movement and the
northerly pitch of the ore shoots is derived from
a combination of this dextral strike-slip and west
block up movement, discernible from slickensides
(figure 3.28). The presence of abundant quartz is
indicative of transition along strike from high to
lower sulphidation epithermal mineralisation (section
1.2.2.4).
Section 3 25
 A B
σ1
puggy fault shoot 4

high grade ore

zone localised
by NE fractures

ore in dilational
adjacent link
structures shoot 3
NE structures
localise fault jog
link structures

C
up down

σ1 local laminated quartz

228° from silicified fault
Tessier (1998) puggy fault
12386 shoot 2
South North

Viento veins
4200 RL

4100 RL
shoot shoot
4000 RL 2 3 shoot
4
Figure 3.28 Flexures in the Viento vein El Indio
3900 RL district (figure 3.22), Chile.
3800 RL shoot 1 A - The Viento vein system, from figure 1.13,
vertical control to
3700 RL high grade gold showing a series of flexures which account for
0 200m the moderately north pitching ore shoots in long
section. A detailed model in plan view, derived
12387

from the mapping multiple of flexures, illustrates

the distribution of high grade Au mineralisation in
relation to the link structures, while slickensides
provide an indication of the sense of movement
(from Corbett, unpubl. report, 2000).
B & C - Quartz-sulphide fill floating clast breccias
mined illustrate the pronounced extension within the
flexures, in underground exposure (B) and drill core
0 250m (C), and locally take on the appearance of floating
CORBETT ai1697 clast breccias (section 4.4.7.5).

3.2.2.4.2 At Vera Nancy, in the Pajingo Mining host (section 3.2.1.3), although Mustard et al., (2005)
District of North Queensland Australia, steep pitching suggest structural complexities restrict definition of
ore shoots viewed in long section are localised along a the stratigraphy. Simms (2000) interpreted the veins to
major NW trending structure, described as a regional dip steeply within the ore shoots also apparent on the
scale rift (figure 3.29; Butler, 2004; Hoschke and data of Mustard et al. (2005). It is common for several
Sextan, 2005). Although younger sandstone cover factors to contribute towards the development of ore
obscures the structure at the surface, underground shoots (section 3.2.4).
mapping has demonstrated that each ore shoot lies
within a flexure where the structure deviates from
NW toward EW, locally apparent on geophysical A
data (Simms, 2000). Indeed other ore systems in that
district (Scott Lode, Anne, Cindy) are also hosted by
EW vein portions (see Mustard et al., 2005). In long
section the ore zones bottom at a shallow SE pitching
zone (figure 3.29), possibly due to a combination of
the flattening of the host structure (as a listric fault)
at the base of the ore zone, and the confinement of
mineralisation to a competent portion of the east
dipping Mt Janet Andesite host rock. There may
also be dilation due to a component of refraction
of the major structure upon entering the competent

26 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 B

Figure 3.29 Flexure-hosted ore shoot mineralisation at Vera Nancy, Australia.

A - Vera Nancy banded epithermal quartz vein mineralisation formed by the repeated activation of the strike-slip structural setting.
B - Model for the development of steep pitching flexure-related ore shoots (from Corbett, 2012).
C - Long section illustrating the steep pitch on ore shoots and the manner in which drill holes between ore shoots are barren (from
Hoschke and Sextan, 2005).

The exploration implication is that the host
structure between the ore shoots may exhibit only very
low grade mineralisation varying to essentially barren,
and so it is important to plan drill programs to attempt
to intersect the flexures and not rely on grid drilling.
3.2.2.5 Tension veins
Tension or extension fractures develop by the
application of a shear component to a brittle rock
and these fractures transition to veins as the open
space becomes filled by hydrothermal minerals. While
clusters of tension veins are commonly grouped
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
as en echelon vein arrays, this terminology might
also include many other variably termed dilatant
fractures and veins such as link structures, cross overs
developed within fault jogs, fissure veins and larger
lodes, localised in a negative flower structure setting
between the near surficial pull-apart basin and a
deeper splay fault (figure 3.17). McKinstry (1948) also
notes an association with horse tail (splay) faults which
places tension veins in the central portion of negative
flower structures (figures 3.17). Therefore tension
veins represent an important site of epithermal vein
mineralisation development and local normal fault
activity.
Section 3 27
Tension vein geometry is apparent from analyses
of modern analogies (figure 3.19) and exposures
from outcrop (figure 3.27) to mine (figures 1.13) and
district (3.19, & 3.22) scale. Tension veins develop as
fractures initiated at angles in the order of 45° (see
Price and Cosgrove, 1990) to the controlling strike-
slip structures, and progressively widen as tension
gash rotates in response to continued movement on
the controlling strike-slip structures (figure 3.30).
The wider gash continues to fill with hydrothermal
minerals to form a tension vein. At an angle of just
past 90° to the controlling structures, the rotated
portion of the existing tension gash vein becomes
anti-dilational and a new vein initiates in the vicinity
of 45° to the controlling structures and the process
continues. Importantly, the wider reoriented tension
veins host higher precious metal grades in addition
A
B D NW
shaft
n’s
cL
ea
M
specimen
leaders
200m
C and Leach, 1998; Braithwaite et al.,
100m
Figure 3.30 Tension veins.
A - Develop by the fill of progressively reoriented tension gash fractures during strike-slip movement on the controlling structures to
form veins which are wider and host higher precious metal grades.
B & C - Tension veins in marble pavement, Spain. The vein above the pen top in A displays the theoretical form.
D - A cross section through Sons of Freedom reef, Thames goldfield, New Zealand (figure 3.20) illustrates the development of bonanza
Au grade specimen leaders (veins) as tension veins by a component of normal fault movement on the larger scale veins, modified from
Fraser (1910).
28
Economic Geo. _ JH
to the greater amounts of vein material and so
commonly represent ore shoots.
At the Thames goldfield, New Zealand (figure 3.20)
large scale tension veins within the Thames fault
jog become more prominent and vary from NNE
trending at the Day Dawn mine, to the corridor of
NE trending tension veins extending from the Sons
of Freedom to the Jupiter veins, and then the EW
trending Thames bonanza veins. The fluid flow model
(Corbett and Leach, 1998) suggested magmatic ore
fluids migrated in a SW direction from the vicinity of
the Ohio Creek porphyry-Lookout rocks alteration
zone, along NE tension veins, which host low Au
grade quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation, to deposit
bonanza Au grade at the intersection with flinties in
the Thames bonanza Au field. Normal fault down-
drop on these large scale dilatant tension veins in plan
view resulted in the development intervening tension
veins in cross section (specimen leaders) which host
bonanza Au grade ore shoots (figure 3.30 D) described
by Fraser (1910) as “richly gold-bearing ... highly
pyritised quartzose veinstone”.
3.2.2.5.1 The Waihi Mine, New Zealand, provides
a good example of a set of mineralised tension
veins (figure 3.31). The Coromandel Peninsula of
New Zealand displays dextral strike-slip movement
on regional NS structures (figure 3.20), such that
throughout the district veins vary from
SE NNE to mostly NE trends where
better mineralised, with high grade
ef
re shoots commonly developed within
EW vein portions. At Waihi several
reef
tension veins up to 1 km long, which
dom
are constrained between NS trending
Free
dextral strike-slip faults, include the
s of
prominent Martha vein normal fault
Son
and lesser Royal, Empire and numerous
other small hanging wall veins (Corbett
2006 and references therein each). Well
banded veins have been deposited by
regular opening of this dilatant structural
tension setting controlled by country scale fault
vein
movement and regular deposition of
rapidly cooling and boiling hydrothermal
0 50m
fluids. Veins in the more dilatant settings,
such as the near EW Martha vein tend
CORBETT ai1723
Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual
to host more banded quartz (chalcedony) deposited
from circulating meteoric waters and sulphides as the
evolved ginguro bands. The base metal sulphide-rich
veins at Corenso (Hobbins et al., 2012) described by
Singh (2015) as carboante-base metal Au style, occur
in a less dilatant orientation and so contain less banded
quartz. Eruption breccias with low temperature clay
alteration cap the nearby Favona veins (Torckler et
al., 2006) described in section 4.4.6.3.1. Note in figure
3.31 how the andesite thickens on the down-drop
side to the normal fault which hosts the Martha vein
3.2.2.5.2 The Golden Cross mine, New Zealand,
exploited one of several tension fissure veins and
overlying stockwork veins. Early miners discovered
the outcropping NNE to NE tension veins (Hippo,
Taranaki and Golden Cross) developed by interpreted
(Corbett and Leach, 1998) dextral movement on NS
structural elements of the Coromandel Peninsular,
recognised throughout the Hauraki Goldfield. The
blind Empire Vein was discovered in the mid 1980’s
during exploration of the stockwork veins adjacent to
the west (figure 2.23). Recent interpretation of steep

Figure 3.31 Structure of the Waihi mine New Zealand (modified from Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein) showing NS
controlling structures recognised from air photo interpretation and mapped in underground workings, while the cross section shows
development of the tension veins as a listric fault (Martha Vein) and hanging wall splays (Empire and Royal Veins). The Correnso veins
are oriented in a much less dilatant setting than the main NE portion of the Martha vein.

indicating that this structure displayed some activation
as a growth fault prior to mineralisation. A series of
steep dipping veins (Union, Amaranth, Gladstone and
Favona) extend for about 3.5-4 km SE in the hanging
wall of the Martha normal fault (figure 3.31) towards
the Waihi Basin described (Bromley and Braithwaite,
1991) as a possible collapse caldera. Some workers
have speculated the Martha structure might represent
a regional scale listric fault with extension to the SE
related to the down drop at the Waihi caldera, from
where the ore fluids may have been derived.
east dipping bedding in the Waipupu Formation host-
rock andesite, (below the flat dipping post-mineral
Whakamoehau andesite of Simpson et al., 2001,
previously termed Omahine andesite by Corbett and
Leach, 1998), led Begbie et al. (2007) to suggest the
Empire Vein originally dipped east and the now flat-
lying stockwork veins on the eastern side developed as
steep dipping hanging wall splay faults. Post-mineral
normal fault are offset by Steep-dipping bedding-plane
faults. If this post-mineral clockwise rotation in the
order of about 70° is removed, then the Golden Cross
fissure vein might have dipped in the order of 65° east
and the stockwork veins steep west (approx. 82°).

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 29

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.5.3 Exploration of tension veins requires some
care in the design of drill programs. As described
above, in the formation of tension veins, fractures
initiate at approximately 45° to the controlling
strike-slip structure within competent host rock, and
progressively widen as they rotate in response to
continued movement on the controlling strike-slip
structures (figure 3.30). In addition to greater width,
the re-oriented veins display high precious metal
contents, although a new tension vein develops at
an angle just past 90o to the controlling structures.
Some larger scale tension veins host steep pitching ore
shoots in conditions of purely strike-slip deformation.
The end result of this process commonly represents
a set of tension veins in which the highest Au grade
and widest veins (potential ore shoots) are normal
to the orientation of the controlling structures and
commonly including the structured grain of the
district (figures 3.30 & 3.32). Any negative flower
structure (fault jog or pull-apart basin) style soil
geochemical anomaly is likely to be elongate along
the direction of the controlling structures, which
commonly lie within the structural grain of the
district. There is a natural tendency to drill across the
structural grain of the district and any elongate soil
geochemical anomaly. However, in this case some
drill holes may bore along (down) the highest grade
veins (normal to the structural grain) and yield long
drill intersections of high Au-Ag grade mineralisation
(figure 3.32), yet other barren drill holes might lie
between veins, and so the overall drill program
might provide irregular results which are difficult to
interpret. The intercept of a drill hole bored down a
narrow vein will make a much greater contribution
towards the resource than is justified, locally with dire
consequences for resource estimates (figure 3.32).
There are other explanations for core parallel veins.

A B
co
str ntro
wi uctu llin
g
str thin re
of uctu
dis ra
tri l g
ct ra
in
progressive development
of wider reorientated
tension veins with
higher Au grades
C

soil geochemical
anomaly

tension vein
forms
ore shoot
drill hole bored
normal to soil anomaly
and structural grain
parallels the tension veins
CORBETT ai1740

Figure 3.32 Tension vein mineralisation and drill direction.

A - Tension veins rotate during progressive strike-slip deformation to host wider and higher precious metal grade central portions at
90° to the controlling. Vertical drill holes would not intersect the veins. Some of the drill holes bored across the structural grain and
elongation of the soil anomaly trend would be parallel the tension veins might bore down veins and give high results while others might
not intersect veins. The resulting irregular grade x thickness pattern might be difficult to interpret.
B - High grade vein sub-parallel to a drill hole (1.64 m down hole @ 61.4 g/t Au & 4100 g/t Ag).
C - Mineralised vein parallel to the core axis that influenced a resource determination.
D - Fluidised breccia intersected parallel to the core axis.

30 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
At Mt Kasi, Fiji, a series of tension veins lie at high
angles to the structural grain and an elongate early
open pit (Corbett and Taylor, 1994). The initial drill
test across the grain and open pit yielded highly
irregular results such as those described above (figure
3.32). Subsequent geological mapping by Geoff Taylor
recognised the importance of the tension veins and
planned better a oriented drill test, and eventual mine
development proceeded some years later.
The exploration implication is that explorationists
should carefully monitor the angle of veins to the core
axis in conjunction with the metal distribution in drill
results as:
• Irregular grade x thickness distribution combined
with veins at a low angle to core axis should
prompt a review of the geological model to test
for the scenario described above and initiate a
possible change in drill direction.
• Resource estimates might be biased by drill
intercepts which have bored down veins.
• Documentation of drill results should provide an
indication of the true vein thickness or sufficient
information on the context to allow the reader to
evaluate the results.

B C D

Figure 3.33 Tension vein mineralisation and drill direction, Mt Kasi, Fiji.
A - Sketch (from Corbett and Taylor, 1994) illustrates the development of tension veins at a high angle to the elongation of the old open
pit, soil anomaly and structural grain of the district which an early unsuccessful drill program bored directly across.
B - Looking long the old open pit and the structural grain with the Waidamudamu dome in the background.
C - Fractures and tension veins at a high angle to the open pit wall, Geoff Taylor for scale.
D - Detail of the mineralised tension vein breccias in drill core.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 31

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.5.4 Tension veins and normal faults Elsewhere the recognition of these veins supports any
interpretation of normal fault movement on the main
The drill cores obtained by the drill tests of many structure.
epithermal vein systems bored from the hanging
wall towards dipping veins commonly host small 3.2.2.6 Splay faults
scale sigmoid-shaped tension veins with long axes
aligned parallel to the core axes and constrained Splay faults represent the deepest crustal level element
between barren shears at moderate angles to the of dilatant negative flower structures present as link
core axis (figure 3.34). Orientation of the drill core structures or cross overs which facilitate the change
consistent with the original drill hole demonstrates in strike-slip movement from one structural element
these tension veins have developed by activation to another, in the development of fault jogs (figure
of fractures, as mini-normal faults, parallel to the 3.17). Multiple splay arrays are termed horse tail faults
main normal fault which hosts the epithermal vein (figure 3.35) and splay or horsetail faults may mark
system under investigation. Tension fractures have the termination of strike-slip fault systems (figure
A
B

major normal faults

drill hole
banded sulphides in structure
open space
breccia infill
vein fragments in breccia C

shear
sh formation
n ga
nsio
Te

tension veins
(droppers)

increased
quartz vein with normal fault
shear sulphides parallel movement
to core
shear

CORBETT ai1680

Figure 3.34 Sigmoid veins aligned along the drill core axis and constrained by small scale shears, are common marginal to veins
developed within normal faults.
A - Graphic to illustrate the relationships discussed herein
B - Core-parallel sigmoidal tension vein limited by shears, Palmarejo, Mexico.
C - Core-parallel sigmoidal tension vein limited by shears, Drake goldfield, Australia.
become reoriented and dilated by continued normal 3.16). At this deep dilatant environment splay faults
fault movement on the parallel fractures, in order to localise porphyry intrusions, particularly as stock-like
develop mineralised tension veins at high angles to the apophyses to larger deeply buried magmatic source
controlling faults and commonly parallel to the drill rocks. Sheeted veins which transport ore fluids from
core axis. Consequently, irregular Au grades may occur the magmatic source into the overlying stock are
outside the main ore envelope of the normal fault- aligned along the dilatant splay fault orientation.
hosted fissure vein (figure 3.34). Prior to the classification of porphyry deposits,
Lindgren (1933), Bateman (1950), McKinstry (1948)
The exploration implication of this model explains all describe horsetail faults as mineralised fissure veins
the presence of locally elevated Au grades within small mostly citing the example of Butte, Montana, as a
core-parallel stockwork veins which, during resource clearly dilatant mineralised vein array. Splay faults
calculations, must be taken into account as not part therefore participate in the creation of the space
of the main fissure vein but as a marginal stockwork. required for porphyry emplacement within essentially

32 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 510000

N Radomvo
Tomic

Fault

F
az
ga
7540000

ro
Za
s
q ue
Estan s
nco
Figure 3.35 Horsetail fault array as the termination of this Bla
structure, El Indio, Chile.
compressional magmatic arcs and later mineralisation
Bal m aceda
of the stock drawing fluids from the deeper magmatic
source.
Chuqui
porphyry INTERPRETA
3.2.2.6.1 The Chuquicamata porphyry lies within 7535000 T

IO
a continuous zone of mineralisation up to 22 km

N
long from Radomiro Tomic in the north and the
Toki cluster in the south as shown in recent mapping
(Rivera et al., 2012). The Chuquicamata porphyry
is localised at the intersection of NS trending Falla
Oeste (West Fault), as a local element of the Domeyko splays
West

fault corridor, and splay faults discernible as the NNE

Zaragoza and NE Estanques Blancos faults and
parallel mineralised veins (Boric et al., 1990; Lindsay,
7530000
1997; Lindsay et al., 1995), and so the term horsetail
may be appropriate (figures 3.2 & 3.36). The West
Fault cannot easily be traced north of Chuquicamata
0 2km
suggesting it might terminate at this point, and
movement could cross to another structure further
east. If so, then the splay faults would represent link
CORBETT ai1724

or cross over structures. Localisation by the porphyry
by such a splay would suggest there has been a
component of dextral movement on the Domeyko
fault structural corridor at the time of mineralisation
which contrasts with the expected reverse movement
for most of the history on the West Fault and a
speculated sinistral movement suggested by Rivera
et al. (2012). The Chuquicamata Porphyry is cut at
the western margin by probably post-mineral reverse
movement on the West Fault which places Palaeozoic-
Triassic metamorphic rocks against Calama Formation
Eocene-Oligocene gravels on the eastern side (Rivera
et al., (2012).
3.2.2.6.2 The La Escondida porphyry system
(including Zaldivar and Escondida Norte) lies within
an NE trending link structure interpreted (Corbett,
unpubl data, 1998) between NS tending segments
of the Domeyko Fault Corridor (figures 3.2 &
3.37). That study further suggested a component of
dextral strike-slip on the Domeyko corridor dilated
Figure 3.36 Structural setting of Chuquicamata within the
Domeyko fault corridor shown in figure 3.2, here localised at
the intersection of the West Fault and splay faults such as the
Zarogaza and Estanques Blancos faults, from Boric et al., 1990;
Lindsay, 1997; Rivera et al., 2012.
this NE link structure in order to trigger porphyry
emplacement and mineralisation. NE trending
mineralised intrusions and faults are consistent with
the suggestion by Herve et al (2012) the La Escondida
Porphyry emplacement and mineralisation took place
under conditions of dextral strike-slip movement
on the Domeyko Corridor. The setting of the La
Escondida district in a link structure could give the
impression that the corridor of NS Domeyko faults
terminate there (figure 3.37). Folklore in the region is
that the porphyry deposits occur close to terminations
of structural elements of the Domeyko Corridor,
which is consistent with the localisation of intrusions
within the link structures between the main NS
structural elements, including splay faults.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 33

Economic Geo. _ JH
 3.2.2.6.3. The Frieda porphyry Cu-Au district, which
also hosts the Nena high sulphidation epithermal Au-
Cu deposit, is localised in a major splay in the regional
scale Fiak-Leonard Schultz Fault system (figure 3.38)
which suggests porphyry-epithermal mineralisation
developed in response to a dextral sense of movement
on that structure (Bainbridge et al., 1994; Corbett
and Leach, 1998). In these conditions the elongate
Frieda-Nena structural corridor has developed as
a dilatant structure related to the splay fault and
dextral movement on the Fiak-Leonard Schultz Fault
system. It is dominated by numerous silica-alunite
ledges including the Debom barren shoulder (section
2.2.4.2.2), developed adjacent to the Horse Ivaal
porphyry and the Nena high sulphidation epithermal
Au-Cu deposit (figure 3.38).

Figure 3.37 Interpretation of remote sensing data which places

La Escondida within a link structure in the Domeyko Fault
Corridor.

dilatant Nena-Frieda structural corridor

N
C
River
e da
Fri
NENA

veins
FRI
ED
A FA
FRIEDA ULT
Camp

Cu-Au
porphyry

0 5 km

LEONARD-SCHULTZ FAULT

silica-alunite ledges

From Bainbridge et al. (1994) CORBETT ai1729

Figure 3.38 Frieda-Nena localised by a splay in the Fiak-Leonard Schultz fault, Papua New Guinea and development of the dilatant
Frieda-Nena structural corridor. See figure 3.4 for location.
A - View of the Frieda-Nena structural corridor looking NW towards Nena. See figure 2.31 view of Frieda-Nena structural corridor
looking SE.
B - Interpretation of the Frieda structural elements.
C - Side looking radar image for the Frieda region.

34 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.2.5.4 The Philippine Fault transects the Philippine trending segments which would be expected to display
islands with a consistent sense of sinistral strike-slip the same sinistral sense of movement. The Far South
displacement derived from the plate tectonic setting East porphyry is localised where a splay fault diverges
and evidenced in many ore systems throughout the from one of the Philippine Fault segments (figure
country. In northern Luzon the generally NNW 3.39). The Lepanto high sulphidation epithermal
trending Philippine Fault breaks up into several NS deposit lies at the intersection of the splay fault and
From Auelio et al., 1993
A B Quaternary cover
Young volcanic edifices
Luzon
Lepanto/FSE Limestone
Santo Nino Sediments
Baguio Volcanics
District Granite
Didipo
St Tomas II Ophiolite
PH
ILI

0 20km
P

Dizon
PI

Longos
NE

Taysan

Marcopper
FA

Samar
UL
T

Panay 11°00’
Palawan Atlas Leyte
Negros
Bulawan
Hinoban Placer
Maricalum Siana

N
Mindanao From Corbett & Leach, 1998
Amacan
Tampakan 20 Ohm/m
King King resistivity
Mines Deep well
Prospects Shallowwell

10°30’

0 400km
CORBETT ai1688

elements of
0 2km the Philippine
Fault
124°30’ 125°00’ CORBETT ai1784

D E

Figure 3.39 Splay faults along the Philippine Fault localise ore
systems.
A - The Philippine fault and location of some Philippine ore
systems.
B - Geological interpretation showing the setting of the
Tongonan geothermal field on the island of Leyte, from Corbett
and Leach, 1998, hosted within in a fault jog in the Philippine
Fault where splay faults, which localise greatest fluid flow in
geothermal wells at depth, are similar to mineralised fissure
veins. Geological map from Auelio et al. (1993).
therein).
C - The buried Far South East porphyry is localised at the
D - Philippine strike-slip fault adjacent to the Tongonan
intersection of the Lepanto splay fault and elements of the
geothermal field in a non-dilatant portion of the structure.
sinistral Philippine fault, while the Lepanto high sulphidation
E - The dilatant surficial pull-apart basin formed between in
epithermal Au-Cu mineralisation, also projected to the surface,
two segments of the Philippine Fault which hosts the Tongonan
is located at the intersection of the dilatant Lepanto fault and a
geothermal field as a site of intrusion-related geothermal
diatreme margin (from Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references
activity.
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 35
Economic Geo. _ JH
a diatreme breccia pipe (section 4.4.5), and displays a
fluid evolution trend consistent with models that ore
fluids were bled from the Far South East environment
at depth (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references
therein). The Didipio porphyry district in Northern
Luzon is constrained by NS trending fault segments
formed parallel to the Philippine Fault. Here the
Dinkidi porphyry hosts NW trending sheeted veins
developed as tension veins in response to sinistral
movement on those NS structures (Corbett, unpubl.
reports; Garrett, 1996). The sheeted veins not only
host mineralisation but are interpreted to have bled
ore fluids from the magmatic source at depth to a
higher crustal level of mineral deposition in cooler
conditions. On the island of Leyte the intrusion-
related Tongonan commercial geothermal field is
located within a fault jog, discernible as a surficial
pull-apart basin, developed as a cross-over between
segments of the sinistral Philippine Fault (figure 3.39;
Corbett and Leach, 1998). Highest (intrusion-related)
geothermal fluid flow in 1-2 km deep drill holes is
associated close to splay faults which might therefore
be analogous to mineralised epithermal fissure veins
developed as part of a negative flower structure below
the surficial pull-apart basin.
There is an exploration implication in the
recognition that splay faults or link structures formed
within structural corridors with oblique senses of
movement represent sites for the localisation of
porphyry Cu-Au intrusions or epithermal veins. Once
the sense of strike-slip movement is estimated on
such a corridor of individual structures, defined use
of geological mapping, remote sensing or magnetic
imagery, an inspection for cross overs could easily
identify exploration targets. Link structures in one
orientation will be dilatant releasing bends (figure 3.16)
and in the other orientation represent anti-dilational
restraining bends.
3.2.3 Orthogonal compression
Orthogonal compression not a common setting for
mineralisation, despite the overall compressional
nature of subduction-related magmatic arcs which
host epithermal vein deposits and porphyry intrusions.
Several settings for the development of mineralised
veins and ore shoots include steep dipping structures
normal to the structural grain and parallel to
compression, conjugate fractures and arc-parallel
reverse faults or thrusts. Reverse faults host flat
pitching ore shoots best within flatter dipping fault
portions (figure 3.7), described below.
36 Section 3
Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.3.1 Arc-normal veins
In settings of orthogonal compression veins may
develop parallel to the direction of principle stress
and hence normal to the arc (figure 3.7) as steep
dipping fissure veins. Movement on conjugate
fractures which are common these settings during
orthogonal compression (section 3.1.3) may promote
the development of ore shoots by rotation of the arc
normal fractures as tension veins (figure 3.40)
3.2.3.1.1 The El Guanaco high sulphidation
epithermal gold deposit in northern Chile hosts
both structurally controlled feeder structures,
within competent andesites, and larger bodies of
lithologically controlled mineralisation, within fiamme
tuffs (section 8.4.1.7). The ore system occurs as a
several km long, roughly EW-ENE trending, steep
dipping, structural corridor of veins, formed at a
very high angle to the NS trending structural grain of
the district, and constrained between both conjugate
fractures and reverse faults developed as part of the
structural grain (figure 3.40). Limited components of
strike-slip movement during orthogonal compression
on the NE-SW and NW-SE trending conjugate
fractures discernible on remote sensing imagery, have
locally deformed and dilated the EW veins to result in
the development of steep pitching ore shoots within
flexures (figure 3.40). See also Cerro Vanguardie
(below).
3.2.3.2 Conjugate fractures
Conjugate factures described above develop at
variable angles to the orientation of compression
from the order of 30° in epithermal-porphyry terrains
to as much as much as 60° in deeply eroded crustal
levels such as the Pontides of NE Turkey (section
3.1.3). Although these structures are interpreted to
have formed in response to orthogonal compression,
transient relaxation or changes in the orientation
of compression may trigger their involvement
in ore formation. It is common for one of the
conjugate fractures to become more dominant. The
development of mineralisation under conditions of
orthogonal compression is considered here.
Corbett Short Course Manual
 ore
shoot
within open pit
flexure

1679b

Figure 3.40 Structure of the El Guanaco high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit, Chile for which lithologies, alteration and
mineralisation are shown in section 8.4.1.7, as an aerial image with superimposed veins, from www.australgold.com.au.

A B
horsetail of
splay veins

link vein
sigmoid vein
fault
σ1 jog
σ1

flexure
flexure

CORBETT ai1701

a
V. V ulem
a ng V. Z
ua
rdi
a
F. V
an
gu
ard
ia
N.

F. V
an
gu
V.

ard
O.

ia
S.
D
iez

0 20m
N

0 2km

CORBETT ai1700

Figure 3.41 Mineralised veins and ore shoots related to conjugate fractures.
A - Model based upon conjugate fractures in the Deseado Massif of Argentine Patagonia features NW dominant over NE conjugate
fractures, each with components of strike-slip deformation during EW orthogonal compression. Dilatant veins include: EW link
structures developed between NW fracture/veins and splay veins, flexures sigmoid loops, which feature the progression to wider veins
with higher metal grades as veins rotate (from NW to WNW and EW) during progressive deformation.
B - Magnetic data for Cerro Moro which illustrates the NW-SE and NE-SW conjugate fractures along with many prospects along with
the most prospective EW trending Escondida vein group in the bottom left (from Perkins and Williams, 2007).
C - Ore shoot formation at Veta Osvaldo Diez, Cerro Vanguadia, (from Zubia et al. 1999).

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 37

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.3.2.1 The Deseado Massif, Argentine Patagonia,
which lies in a back arc setting within Argentine
Patagonia, is cut by prominent conjugate fractures
interpreted to have developed in response to
orthogonal compression (section 3.1.3; figure
3.5). Many mines and exploration projects feature
mineralised veins hosted by the within NE-SW
and NW-SE conjugate fractures which are clearly
discernible on remote sensing or magnetic imagery
(Cerro Vanguadia, Zubia, et al., 1999; Cerro Moro,
Perkins and Williams, 2007; Cerro Negro, Shatwell
et al., 2011; San Jose [aka Juevos Verde], Dietrich et
al., 2012; Cap Oeste, Bow, 2012). Activation of the
conjugate fractures, with only small components
of strike-slip movement, in response to orthogonal
compression, has facilitated the formation of dilatant
sites which host ore shoots characterised by wider
and higher metal grade vein portions. Dilatant sites
formed by strike-slip movement on the NW fractures
in response to orthogonal compression include
EW link structures locally developed within jogs to
between fault segments and including splay veins and
flexures developed as dilatant bends in throughgoing
veins (figure 3.41 A). Sigmoidal shapes develop as
veins grade to wider forms with higher metal grades as
the angular relationship to the master fault increases
(figure 3.41 A). At Cerro Vanguadia ore shoots with
wider veins and higher Au grades are discernible as
dilatant flexures within the throughgoing veins (figure
3.41 C). Many ore systems also feature a change
kinematic conditions to NE extension discussed below
(section 3.5.2).
3.2.3.3 Restraining bends and thrust-related
mineralisation.
Whereas figure 3.16 illustrates dilatant second order
structures, compression results if the second order
structures are oriented at 90° those fractures, or if
there is the opposite movement on the controlling
strike-slip structures. In that case, restraining bends
develop at compressional flexures, while folds and
domes are common within anti-dilational jogs,
locally developed as positive flower structures
prospected as oil traps (figure 3.42). Reverse faults
which take up compressional movement locally host
vein mineralisation, within ore shoots that are most
prevalent in the flatter dipping portions, which might
therefore be blind at the surface and pitch flatly in
the plane of the fault (figure 3.7). Combinations of
reverse and strike-slip movement provide an inclined
pitch to ore shoots.
38
Economic Geo. _ JH
COMPRESSIONAL
restraining bend
hosts reverse fault
cross section
anti-dilational
jog hosts dome
reverse or folds
fault
ore shoot in
flat dipping
portion
CORBETT ai1735
Figure 3.42 Second order compressional structures formed in a
setting of oblique fault movement, showing development of an
ore shoot in a flatter dipping portion of a reverse fault developed
in a restraining bend.
3.2.3.3.1 At Kencana, Gosowong, Indonesia,
slickensides formed normal to the dip of the fault,
which hosts vein mineralisation, indicate movement
has been either orthogonal dip-slip or reverse.
Comparison of the dip angles of the host structure
and Au content (as gram-metres) indicates best
mineralisation occurs in the flatter dipping fault
portions contoured in figure 3.43. Consequently,
the Kencana mineralisation is interpreted to have
developed within a reverse fault. The 90° divergence
in strike between the mineralised Kencana reverse
structures to the Gosowong extensional listric fault is
consistent with these two divergent ore systems having
formed in the same kinematic environment. Whereas
ore shoots have been identified in the flatter dipping
portions of the Kencana reverse faults, Gosowong
vein ore shoots are hosted by the steep dipping fault
portion (figure 3.43). The Kencana veins, which are
blind at the surface were identified during step out
drilling from the Gosowong vein (Richards et al.,
2005).
Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual
 True A C
50 Vein dip terminates at
North 40 s

te
ep
Au in gram x metres 20

str
re

uc
ctu

tu
Link structures stru

re
link RL
Gosowong
σ1
0 4800
A 20
North 20

20 4700
0
C

40
30 4600
B

0
4500
20

Gosowong
19200 19300 19400 19500 19600 19700
CORBETT ai1703

1000N
15.5m @ 41 g/t Au

11.7m @ 17 g/t Au

8.0m @ 11 g/t Au
3.4m @ 5.6 g/t Au

K-1
Kencana 2.4m @ 21 g/t Au

σ1
100mRL

K-2
11m @ 140 g/t Au

2.5m @ 15 g/t Au

13.5m @ 2.5 g/t Au

50mRL

6.0m @ 2.5 g/t Au

0 1km D <1.0 g/t Au

0 50m

4000E CORBETT ai1702 6000E

5000E
CORBETT ai1704

B
Vein Mudstone Ignimbrite Andesite Volcaniclastics

Figure 3.43 Kencana ore zone, Gosowong Project, Indonesia.

A - East Gosowong district in which the Kencana thrust lies at 90° to the Gosowong extensional listric fault and so both are related to
SW-NE compression, from Richards et al., 2005.
B - Cross section of the Kencana veins, from Richards, et al., 2005 and updated in Corbett, unpubl. report, 2007.
C - Long section for the Kencana K2 structure showing the close correlation between flat dipping portions of the thrust and higher
grade mineralisation in gram metres, from Corbett, unpubl. report, 2007.
D - Gosowong listric vein formed in the same kinematic regime but at 90° to Kencana, graphic redrawn from Richards, et al., 2005.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 39

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.3.3.2 The Talang Santo mine in the Way
Linggo District, South Sumatra hosts banded
chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag vein mineralisation
within a compressional structural setting (figures
3.26 & 3.42). Throughout west Sumatra dextral
movement on the NW trending Trans Sumatran
Fault System derived from the NS collision of the
Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates (section 3.2.2)
resulted in the development of roughly NS trending
dilatant fractures. However, at Talang Santo the NW
structural grain of the district progressively changes
to WNW and then east-west orientation, and in
that configuration the EW fractures can no longer
accommodate dextral movement apparent on the NW
structures (figures 3.26 & 3.42). Rather, EW trending
banded veins developed within reverse faults and host
steep pitching ore shoots at the intersections with
steep dipping splay faults (figure 3.42). Close to these
intersections the generally NW trending splay faults
are dilated as NS trending flexures, which are also
aligned within the NS compression.
strike-slip PLAN
faults σ1
oblique
movement
splay dilation
fault
EW
N
compression σ1 reverse
fault
Figure 3.44 Talang Santo
A - Structural setting of the Talang Santo vein in red as plan and
cross section views.
B - Talang Santo banded chalcedony ginguro Au-Ag epithermal
vein mineralisation in the underground workings.
40
3.2.4 Ore shoot orientation
Ore shoots which host best ore within many
epithermal vein systems vary in orientation from steep
where hosted by flexures activated by components
of strike-slip deformation, to flat within the steeper
dipping portions of listric faults or flatter portions
of moderate dipping reverse faults or thrusts (figure
3.7). Combinations of dip-slip and strike-slip fault
movement (commonly in listric faults) provide inclined
ore shoots, just as ore shoots delineated as structural
intersections also display highly variable orientations.
Other ore shoots develop at structural intersections
which represent settings of Au deposition by fluid
mixing (section 7.5.4) or at the intersections of
structures with breccia pipe margins (Lepanto,
Philippines) or other settings.
Consequently, ore shoots, which commonly display
pencil-like forms (see McKinstry, 1948 for examples),
are often considered with respect to the controlling
structure. Linear features such as ore shoots define
A
NS a pitch (rake in Bateman, 1950) as the angle between
SECTION
the shoot and a horizontal line on the controlling
fault (Lindgren, 1933), whereas plunge is the angle
between the linear feature and the horizontal (Price
and Cosgrove, 1990), but not within the plane of the
controlling fault (figure 3.45). The orientation of ore
shoots is typically considered with respect to the host
vein/fault in long section where the term pitch is most
appropriate (figure 3.45), although drill intercepts may
be projected from an inclined fault onto a vertical
plane.
Corbett 1788 3.3.4.1 At Palmarejo, Mexico, best ore lies within
ore shoots localised at the intersection of competent
B
host rocks such as andesite and silicified sandstone
with several structural settings in association with
the corridor of NW structures. The Rosario clavo
formed at the intersection of the La Prieta and La
Blanca veins, while flexures host the 76 and 108 clavos
(figure 4.46 A). The Guadalupe mineralisation lies in
a fault jog 6 km along strike to the SE (figure 4.46 B).
Here, ore shoots are interpreted to have formed by
combinations of dip-slip movement on listric faults
and a strike-slip component. The intersection of
host structures with competent rock types (silicified
sandstone and underlying andesite) also provides a
sub horizontal character or limits to ore shoots. Some
shoots (76) are characterised a combination of west
block down listric fault dip-slip and sinistral strike-slip
movement to provide south pitching ore shoots.
Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
 steep dipping portion
of listric fault

plunge ho
riz
on
ta
l

up
e
p lan pitch
ult wn
fa do pitching
up n oreshoot
w
do

fault with sinistral strike-slip

steep and dip-slip movement
dip

listric
faults

flat dip
CORBETT ai1537

Figure 3.45 The orientation of an ore shoot formed in the steep dipping portion of a listric fault by the combination of strike-slip and
dip-slip movement showing the position of pitch and plunge.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 41

Economic Geo. _ JH
 B Guadalupe
Norte INTERPRETATION

Gu
NW

ad
pitching

alu
ore shoot 3028000

pe
Str

e o ox
lin ppr
f
a

n
io
ct
40

se
Guadalupe
55

3027000

45
An
im
Clay bloom as
St
Historic mine r

0 500m
761000 762000
CORBETT ai1705

Figure 3.46 Structural control to ore shoots at Palmarejo,

C
Mexico including Guadalupe, see figure 3.10 D for map of
Palmarejo and legend
A - Palmarejo long section showing ore shoots localised
at a structural intersection (Rosario fault intersection) or
76 and 108 flexures, with competent andesite or silicified
sandstone.
B - Geological map of the Guadalupe zone at Palmarejo
showing the localisation of mineralisation within link
structures.
C - Guadalupe cross section showing mineralisation and
normal fault movement apparent from the offset of the
bedded basalt.

42 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.4.2 The Viento vein at the El Indio Mine, Chile, A
hosts pitching ore shoots within the host structure
(Corbett, unpubl. reports, 2000; Heberlein, 2008).
Geological mapping sought to define the controls
to shoot formation (figure 3.28) within the Viento
Vein system, which parallels the more significant El
Indio Veins. The NNE trending regional structures
which localise the El Indio district lie within a regional
scale link structure developed between the southern
termination of a NS structure to the east with the
northern termination of a NS structure to the west
(figure 3.23), activated by an interpreted transient
component of dextral movement on the regional NS
structures. Underground mapping at the Viento vein
demonstrated that each ore shoot is localised within a
NE trending flexure in the NNE controlling structure
localised at the intersection with NE cross-structures
(figure 3.28). The pitching ore shoots are interpreted
to have formed by a combination of dip-slip (down on
the east) and dextral strike-slip movement supported
by slickensides (figure 3.28). Mapping of the main El
Indio veins by Stan Caddy (Jannas et al., 1999) had
already demonstrated the El Indio mineralisation
is developed within a sigmoidal loop formed by a
component of dextral movement on the NNE link
structures.
B

3.2.5 Collapse and flat dipping structures

In addition to compressional settings above (section

3.2.3.3), flat dipping ore shoots also form as a result
of collapse and reactivation of bedding planes locally
as bedding plane shears.

3.2.5.1 The Emperor gold mine, Fiji, is localised at

the intersection between a Tavua collapse caldera
margin and an EW regional structure which terminates
as a set of NW trending dilatant splay faults within
a fault jog environment. These dilatant splay faults
display normal fault movement to facilitate subsidence
of the bedded submarine basalts adjacent to the
caldera as a series of blocks (figure 3.47). In this
environment some bedding planes within bedded
basalts have become dilated and host flatmake
mineralised structures with variable shallow dips.
This model (Corbett, unpubl. data) further suggests
the steep dipping dilatant NW shears (e.g, Brewster,
Prince of Wales and Crown) are have acted as
mineralised feeder structures for the flat-dipping
mineralised flatmakes.
Figure 3.47 Development of ore hosting flatmakes at the
Emperor gold mine, Fiji.
A - Structure of the mine area with different colours to
distinguish collapsed blocks within the wall rocks adjacent to the
Tavua caldera and flatmakes shown in red.
D - Flatmake in the mine workings.
3.2.5.2 In the Drake Volcanics of eastern Australia,
geological mapping by Grace Cumming has defined
a 20 km diameter collapse caldera with resurgent
domes within an area of subdued magnetic response
termed the Drake Quiet Zone (Cumming et al.,
2013). Collapse associated with the caldera resulted
in activation of bedding planes within the adjacent
volcanic sequence to form bedding plane shears
which host carbonate-base metal style Au-Ag lodes
such as at the Red Rock Mine (figure 3.48). In some
cases disseminated mineralisation grades away from

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 43

Economic Geo. _ JH
the shears into permeable wall rocks. Normal fault shapes, terminating in the shears which facilitated their
movement on the shears during collapse facilitated formation and have commonly been intersected at low
the formation of intervening steep dipping tension angles to the drill core axis (figure 3.34). High level
gash veins which contain abundant quartz in addition felsic domes are interpreted to have been related to
to carbonate-base metal Au-Ag mineralisation (figure the magmatic source for mineralisation and host best
3.48). The banded tension gash veins display sigmoid Ag-Au grades.

A B

Red Rock

Mt Carrington

White Rock
C

limit of
Drake Magnetic
Quiet Zone

0 5 km

Gilgarry mudstone of the Drake Volcanics

Intermediate volcanics of the Lower Permian Drake Volcanics

Felsic domes of the Drake Volcanics

Sediments of the Carboniferous Emu Creek Fm

Diorite

Granite of Permo-Triassic New England Batholith

CORBETT ai1699

ground water

andesite sill
sheeted
or flow
veins
O2 tuff mineralised bedding
stockwork
fluid sand plane shears
mixing ston Figure 3.48 Mineralised bedding plane shears
e
tuff
at the Drake Caldera.
high angle A - Caldera collapse structure with locally
ande vein interpreted
site mineralised resurgent felsite domes, from
link collapse Cumming unpubl reports and Cumming et al.
tuff structure (2013).
B - Red Rock mine showing mineralised
cross bedding plane.
structure
speculated
C - Mineralised bedding plane shear, Hampton
intrusion workings, 5.1 g/t Au.
D - Conceptual model for development of
bedding plane shear and tension vein (figure
3.34) mineralisation, from Corbett, unpubl.
CORBETT ai1712 report and Cumming et al. (2013).

44 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.2.5.3 At the Ladolam gold mine, Lihir Island,
Papua New Guinea, described above (section
3.2.1.1), unroofing during seaward sector collapse
of an andesitic stratovolcano provided a trigger for
mineralisation, best developed within the listric faults
which facilitated collapse of the volcanic edifice
(figure 3.11). Sub-horizontal ore zones (Lienetz
and Coastal) prospected early in the exploration
history are now interpreted (Corbett, 2005b) to have
been localised within flat dipping portions of listric
faults, whereas better quality mineralisation was
later identified in the sub-vertical Minifie structure
developed as a steep-dipping portion of a listric fault
close to the caldera boundary (figure 3.11).
3.2.5.4 Flat-moderate dipping bedding planes
may be reactivated within folded rock sequences
during compression within magmatic arcs and host
stockwork vein mineralisation which extends into the
wall rock (Kelian, Indonesia and Cowal, Australia,
Corbett, pers. observ.).
3.3 STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH
PORPHYRY DEPOSITS
Porphyry stockwork and sheeted quartz-sulphide veins
which host and locally transport most Cu-Au-Mo
mineralisation represent the main structures associated
with porphyry Cu-Au deposits, commonly developed
within stocks or vertically attenuated spine-like
intrusions, which overlie buried more major magmatic
sources of metals and volatiles, and locally extend into
the adjacent wall rocks (see section 5). The dilatant
settings which localise porphyry intrusions influence
vein orientations which are considered (Corbett and
Leach, 1998) in order to:
• Understand the 3 dimensional form of the
porphyry intrusion to guide drill tests and
resource determinations.
• Develop exploration models to explore for
porphyry intrusions in any district.
3.3.1 Some definitions
Stockwork veins comprise multi-directional vein arrays
with either no preferred orientation, or with multiple
directions derived from the intersection of conjugate,
orthogonal or other vein orientations, either developed
as one event or the result of multiple overprinting
events, the latter locally related to repeated porphyry
emplacement (figure 3. 49 A & B).
Sheeted veins form as arrays of parallel veins which
reflect the stress conditions active at the time of
vein development, and as dilatant features, facilitate
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
the transport of ore fluids some distance from the
magmatic source at depth to higher crustal levels
where mineral deposition takes place either within
intrusive stocks (figure 3.49 C) or wall rocks (figure
3.49 F). Sheeted veins may display a polyphasal
character (figure 3.49 D).
Laminated veins host mineral (quartz, magnetite) bands
separated by linear zones of weakness which may be
reactivated and host later sulphides, locally apparent as
crack-seal textures (figure 3.49 E).
Wallrock porphyry Cu-Au deposits host metals within
the wall rocks away from any obvious intrusion source
and are typically characterised by dilatant sheeted vein
arrays which have facilitated metal transport (figures
3.16, 3.49 E & F). Most porphyry deposits feature
some continuation of mineralisation from intrusions
into the adjacent wall rocks.
Isotropic wall rocks or intrusions exhibit no preferred
grain as a control to vein formation, whereas
anisotropic wall rocks may contain a cleavage or
volcanic/sedimentary layering as a control to fracture/
vein formation. In some volcanic sequences only the
competent lavas host wallrock porphyry veins, while
incompetent intervening lapilli tuffs and breccias do
not fracture to facilitate vein formation, especially if
these permeable rocks become clay altered. Breccia
pipe environments are commonly associated with
concentric veins (below).
Stress characteristics which control porphyry
emplacement are provided by the analyses of vein
directions, assuming the two are relatively coeval,
as orthogonal compression-extension or oblique
convergence, while vein directions are also influenced
by the crustal level in the porphyry system under
consideration and host rock characteristics (Heinrich
and Titley, 1982; Titley, 1990; Corbett and Leach,
1998).
Concentric structures such as ring dykes, sheeted cone
fractures, or veins, may develop as circular arrays of
fractures within the wall rocks overlying the outside
of a buried intrusion or breccia pipe. These fracture
patterns are interpreted (Phillips 1973, 1974) to
have developed in response to the upward force of
retrograde boiling and may be enhanced by collapse
following evacuation of volatiles from the top of
a magma chamber (section 4.4.4.1). Mineralised
concentric, locally sheeted fracture-veins are well
developed in breccia pipes with interpreted significant
components of collapse (section 4.4.4.6), and locally
kink around pipe margins (Kidston, Australia; figure
4.17).
Section 3 45
 emplacement without significant collapse (figure 3.51
Radial veins and lodes are common within wall & 3.52; Cargo, Eastern Australia; San Juan, Safford
rocks outboard of the upward projection of source District, Arizona, Heidrick and Titley, 1982).
intrusions in settings of dominantly upward intrusion

A B

C D

E F

Figure 3.49 Porphyry quartz-sulphide vein styles.

A - Multi-directional stockwork quartz veins derived from one event, La Granja, Peru.
B - Multi-directional stockwork quartz veins derived from 4 vein events associated with multiple intrusion emplacement, Ridgeway,
Australia.
C - Sheeted porphyry AB veins, Goonumbla, Australia.
D - Sheeted porphyry M cut by B veins, Namosi, Fiji.
E - Laminated quartz-magnetite vein with bornite on the crack partings and cut by a B and then later C which exploit to re-opened
crack-seal partings, discussed in section 5, Ridgeway, Australia.
F - Sheeted wallrock porphyry A veins within volcaniclastic host rocks, Cadia East, Australia.

46 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.3.2 Porphyry vein formation
The evolution of mineralised porphyry veins is
Porphyry vein orientation are influenced by a number interpreted to include a paragenetic sequence of
of factors which vary according to: events characterised as:
• Mainly the stress pattern active at the time of
quartz vein formation, typically at failure of an 3.3.2.1 Initial emplacement of a stock or spine-
overpressurised carapace. These patterns might be like intrusive body of molten magma results in
distinguished as: the development of a chilled margin to the inward
• Vertical (and no doubt some lateral) cooling intrusion and formation of adjacent hornfels
compression stress. developed as contact metamorphosed wall rocks,
• Localised collapse. which together combine to act as a seal to constrain
• Orthogonal extension. volatiles within the intrusion carapace (figure 3.50 A).
• Transpression.
• Time as the stress patterns vary, especially as
triggers for mineralisation.
• Crustal level from within or above an intrusion.
• Host rock competency.

STAGED PORPHYRY VEIN DEVELOPMENT

A. INTRUSION EMPLACEMENT B. COOLING C. CARAPACE FAILURE

Volatiles migrate Stockwork
hornfels and sheeted
to porphyry
chilled carapace quartz vein
margin formation
inward
cooling
ptygmatic
A veins intrusion

magmatic source magmatic source magmatic source

E. POLYPHASAL PORPHYRY D. MINERALISATION

EMPLACEMENT
Sulphides within Ore fluids derived from
additional stockwork the magmatic source
as sheeted quartz exploit quartz veins,
veins and exploit to deposit sulphides,
pre-existing veins locally extending into
wallrocks within sheeted
quartz veins

magmatic source magmatic source CORBETT ai1575

Figure 3.50 Stages in the development of mineralised porphyry quartz veins discussed herein.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 47

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.3.2.2 Cooling of the molten spine-like intrusion
features separation of the solid and volatile
components as hot pressurised fluids (water and gases)
rise and gather towards the carapace of the vertically
attenuated intrusion. The sealed carapace traps the
rising fluids from not only the spine-like intrusion,
but also derived from the cooling magmatic source at
depth, causing the uppermost portion of the intrusion
to become over-pressurised (figure 3.50 B). The
magma source at depth and possibly the core of the
intrusion have not solidified at this stage.
3.3.2.3 Failure of the over pressurised carapace
is described in the model of retrograde boiling
(Phillips, 1973), to take place when the volatile fluid
pressure exceeds the lithostatic (confining) pressure
and tensile strength of the confining rock. However,
more recent field studies (Corbett and Leach, 1998)
suggest external structural processes may also initiate
failure of the carapace. The regional structure which
has localised a porphyry intrusion might be expected
to feature repeated movement and so crack the brittle
over pressurised carapace. Failure of the carapace
results in a dramatic drop in fluid pressure which
promotes quartz deposition (figure 3.50 C) developed
as veins fill fractures locally dilated by the stress regime
active at that time. Pressure exerts the prime control
to silica solubility (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Thus,
vein orientations may be used to estimate the stress
prevailing at the time of carapace failure, essentially
porphyry emplacement. It is also possible to estimate
the sense of movement on any controlling major
structure during vein development.
3.3.2.4 Cu-Au mineral deposition no doubt began
with initial depressurisation and quartz vein formation
as early linear A veins host sulphide mineralisation
(section 5.2.4.1). However, Corbett and Leach (1998)
point out much of the Cu-Au mineralisation in many
porphyry deposits has been introduced following
initial quartz vein formation, at a lower temperature.
Textures in the discussion of porphyry mineralisation
herein (sections 5.2.4 & 5.2.5) illustrate the common
parallelism of quartz and sulphide veins as the
latter exploit central vein terminations (B veins),
or laminations within banded quartz-magnetite (M
veins), as an indication that the same stress regime
responsible for quartz vein development has been
active to facilitate later sulphide introduction (figures
5.16, 5.19 & 5.20), although sulphide (as C veins)
may also cross-cut quartz veins (figures 5.21 & 5.22).
A significant proportion of the later sulphides are
derived from the progressively cooling magma source
at depth and utilised the dilatant structures, originally
exploited by quartz, to rise to higher crustal levels
of ore deposition (figure 3.50 D). The laminated
48
Economic Geo. _ JH
nature of many barren (figure 5.15) and mineralised
M veins (figure 5.16) supports repeated activation of
the same dilatant structural setting to promote quartz,
magnetite and later sulphide deposition. The later
variable sulphide introduction provides an explanation
for the presence of barren quartz-magnetite (M) veins
particularly in the cores of some porphyry intusions
(section 5.2.4.2).
Most economic porphyry Cu-Au deposits are
characterised by the presence of many individual
porphyry intrusions, each with several overprinting
vein styles which may introduce additional
mineralisation along with overprinting hydrothermal
alteration (sections 5.2.4 & 5.2.5).
In summary, several stages in the development
of quartz-sulphide porphyry veins feature quartz
deposition in response to pressure drop upon
failure of an over pressurised intrusion carapace
and evolution of ore fluids from a magmatic source
at depth using the same dilatant fracture system.
Earlier dilatant quartz veins may be reactivated and
exploited by later sulphide mineralisation which may
either parallel earlier events, or fracture and cross-cut
pre-existing brittle quartz veins, including as C veins
(figure 3.50 E).
The exploration implication is that this process of
repeated porphyry emplacement and mineralisation
may upgrade a sub-economic single-event porphyry
deposits to form an economic ore systems.
3.3.3 Porphyry vein orientations
Porphyry vein orientations are controlled by several
factors dominated by the stress regime active at the
time of carapace failure and quartz vein formation,
which generally also facilitated sulphide introduction.
Several variations in stress regime and hence vein
configuration recognised in porphyry deposits (figure
3.51) include:
3.3.3.1 Forceful upward intrusion emplacement
without other stresses or host rock anisotropy,
in which a pronounced vertical σ1, results in the
development of radial fractures (Phillips, 1974)
grading from the intrusion into the adjacent and
overlying wall rocks. These fractures which may be
exploited by porphyry style quartz-sulphide veins as
recognised at San Juan, Arizona or thicker D vein style
lodes such as at Cargo, eastern Australia (figures 3.51
A & 3.52).
Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual
 VERTICAL COMPRESSION ORTHOGONAL COMPRESSION ORTHOGONAL EXTENSION TRANSPRESSION

pull-apart basin at
porphyry structural high crustal level
veins grain &
localising
lodes structure eliptical
intrusion splay
fault
concentric σ1 σ1
fractures

sheeted quartz sheeted conjugate

radial lodes/veins veins veins fractures

tension sheeted
veins veins strike-
slip
fault

stockwork
radial quartz
concentric veins
fractures
resulting
from σ1
collapse

CORBETT ai1577a

Figure 3.51 Different quartz vein configurations formed in varying structural settings. The sheeted veins in the transpressional setting
may rise above the porphyry environment to form wallrock porphyry deposits.

A B

Zn

Au

Cu Mo

ad
ro
lode

propylitic phyllic

potassic

TN MN

C 0 500m

Rangott & Weston 1987

CORBETT ai1375

Figure 3.52 Fracture/veins overlying forcefully vertically

emplaced intrusions.
A - Radial and concentric fractures formed marginal to the upper
portions of a porphyry intrusion, at San Juan, Arizona (from
Heidrick and Titley, 1982).
B - Lodes which radiate from a breccia at the Cargo prospect,
eastern Australia (from Rangott and Weston, 1987 unpublished).
C - Radial fractures at the Cargo porphyry prospect which
contain sulphide lodes and later andesite dykes.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 49

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.3.3.1.1 A component of collapse, most commonly localised by intersection of NE-trending splay faults,
recognised in association with breccia pipes, and and the NS-trending Falla Oeste (West Fault) of the
also many intrusions, follows intrusion emplacement Domeyko Fault System, such that porphyry veins,
and degassing. Caldera ring dyke complexes develop sericite alteration and Mo distribution form roughly
following collapse of some major magma sources NE trending horsetail arrays (Lindsay, 1997; Lindsay
such as the Permo-Carboniferous Lochaber and et al., 1995). At Didipio, Philippines, NW trending
Bagstow Ring Dyke Complexes south of Kidston sheeted veins within the spine-like Dinkidi porphyry
in NE Australia (Branch, 1966). Concentric quartz developed in response to sinistral movement on the
veins rim porphyry intrusions such as at San Juan, NS controlling structures, governed by the regional
Arizona (figure 3.52), here forming a stockwork with sinistral transpression, apparent on the Philippine and
the intersecting radial fractures, or kink as straight associated faults (figure 3.53; Corbett unpubl. report,
segments around the margins of breccia pipes such as 1995 in Garrett, 1996).
at Kidston (figure 4.16).
There is an exploration implication that the dilatant
3.3.3.2 Oblique convergence (transpression) provides sheeted veins are interpreted to not only host sulphide
a common control to porphyry mineralisation in mineralisation, but to have participated in the bleeding
settings where a component of strike-slip movement of ore fluids from the magmatic source at depth,
on throughgoing structures has localised the to a higher crustal level where mineral deposition
porphyry intrusion, typically within splay faults, while occurs in cooler conditions. Consequently, parallel
mineralisation is hosted within dilatant structures sets of overprinting sheeted veins may host elevated
varying from lodes to sheeted porphyry veins, which metal grades, discernible as high grade Au in bornite-
parallel the splay faults (figure 3.51 D). bearing M veins (figure 3.49 D) and must be tested
with correctly oriented bore holes. The activation of
The Chuquicamata porphyry deposit, Chile, is sheeted veins is discussed further in the context of
triggers for mineralisation, below.
A B C
sh ear
Biak
ral
ine
-m
post

calc-silicate

D F

0 100m sheeted
quartz veins
CORBETT ai1709

E
Tjuna (dark diorite) - biotite-clinopyroxene-monzonite

Quan - crowded hornblende quartz monzonite porphyry

Bugoy breccia

Bufu - quartz monzonite (syenite)

Calc-silicate 1711

Figure 3.53 Sheeted veins developed by oblique convergence, Dinkidi, Philippines.

A - The Dinkidi intrusion at Didipio, Philippines also shown as part of a wider angle view in figure 2.27 E which includes the marginal
barren shoulders of alteration.
B - Plan view of the Dinkidi intrusion and NS faults which, by a component of strike-slip movement, facilitated the development of
tensional sheeted veins.
C - Spine-like polyphasal porphyry intrusion, redrawn from Garrett (1996).
D - Sheeted quartz veins in outcrop.
E - Legend

50 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.3.3.1 The Browns Creek skarn is localised by the
NS structural grain of the district which defines the
contact between the Carcoar Granodiorite and a
limestone (metamorphosed to marble) unit within
the Blayney Volcanics (section 6.2.4). While some
(post-mineral) fault slices of Au-Cu skarn trend NS,
most Au production was from a set of NW trending
en echelon skarn bodies constrained between the NS
faults (figure 6.17). Highest Au grades, locally greater
than 100 g/t Au are associated with the wollastonite-
bornite dominant skarn, while Au grades with a 15 g/t
head grade were mined where NW trending sheeted
quartz veins transect the skarn. The model proposed
(Corbett, unpubl. report, 1997) suggested sinistral
strike-slip movement on the NS structural grain
provided the dilatant structural environment for skarn
and higher Au grade sheeted quartz vein development
(figure 3.54). A component of post-mineral dextral
fault movement has dismembered some skarns as fault
slices.
skarn
sheeted quartz veins
Figure 3.54ai1713
CORBETT Structural control to the Browns Creek Au skarn
using data in figure 6.17.
3.3.3.3 Orthogonal extension
may provide for the development of both sheeted
(figure 3.51; Goonumbla, Eastern Australia), or
stockwork quartz veins, the latter formed either by
the exploitation of pre-existing conjugate fractures
(Batu Hijau, Indonesia, figure **), intersections of
a principle fracture direction and an orthogonal set
(Golpu, Papua New Guinea, figure 5.14), or other vein
configurations.
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
3.3.3.3.1 In the Goonumbla district, eastern Australia
(figure 3.55 A), strongly vertically attenuated spine-like
quartz monzonite porphyry intrusions are linked to
a batholitic larger magmatic source of equigranular
quartz biotite monzonite at depth (Heithersay et
al., 1990) although it contains xenoliths of earlier
and deeper diorite. Several of these intrusions and
the Nash’s Hill barren shoulder of advanced argillic
alteration are aligned along the NNW-NS trending
Tenandra structural corridor which locally forms a
shoulder-like batholith margin (Corbett and Leach
unpubl. report, 1995). Sheeted quartz veins from the
E26 porphyry (figure 3.55 B) occur as a 340° set which
overprints 240° and 290° conjugate veins (Harris and
Holcombe, 2014). Similarly, the E48 ore body on the
same structure is dominated by roughly NS trending
sheeted quartz-sulphide veins (figure 3.55 C). A major
contributor to the development of the Goonumbla
ore systems has been the reactivation of high
temperature sheeted quartz veins formed in the 600-
800° C range as dilatant brittle fractures for the later
transport of cooler ore fluids in the 200-400° C range,
from the magmatic source at depth into the spine-like
intrusions (Corbett and Leach, unpubl. report, 1995).
The bornite-rich ore is Au rich and is locally enhanced
in the presence of sericite overprint on potassic
alteration, including quartz-albite.
Metal grades of the Au-rich bornite ore is locally
enhanced in the presence of sericite overprint on
potassic alteration, including quartz-albite (see
also Owens et al., in press; Quigley et al., 2017).
The consistent NS sheeted quartz vein orientation
is interpreted to result from the trigger for vein
development, and mineralisation, provided by EW
extension on the regional NS structural grain derived
from transient relaxation of subduction-related EW
compression.
Section 3 51
 A B

600000 E D
C

Silurian to Devonian cover Wombin Volcanics

Monzonite Goonumbla Volcanics

Monzodiorite Mines and prospects

630000 N 1715

Figure 3.55 Sheeted quartz vein formation at the Goonumbla

district, Eastern Australia.
-20m Gal B ougue
A - Sheeted quartz veins from the E26 porphyry in hand
gravity a n omaly
specimen.
E48 B - Sheeted quartz veins showing bornite mineralisation from
E48 porphyry.
C - Geological setting of the E 26 and E48 porphyry systems, from
E26
Owens et al., in press; and Corbett and Leach, unpubl. report,
1995.
D - Legend

transfer
A
Nash’s
structures
Hill
635000 N

Tenandra
Structural Corridor
0 20 km

CORBETT ai1714

3.3.3.4 Orthogonal compression, may promote

the formation of veins parallel to the direction of
B
principle stress (figure 3.51).

3.3.3.4.1 The Cadia Valley, Eastern Australia,

includes the Cadia Hill and Cadia East wallrock
porphyry sheeted veins and the Ridgeway vertically
attenuated spine-like porphyry, each with sheeted
and laminated veins aligned along the WNW trend
of the arc-normal Lachlan Transverse Zone (Wilson
et al., 2007 and references therein). A prominent
magnetic anomaly is associated with the elongation
of the interpreted buried magmatic source for
mineralisation (Newcrest Mining Staff, 1996), along
with magnetite skarn deposits. Only Ridgeway Figure 3.56 Cadia East wallrock porphyry.
displays overprinting intrusion and vein relationships A - Sheeted A type quartz veins with auriferous pyrite and Mo
and K-feldspar alteration selvages.
to form local stockwork veins where the NW veins B - Down-drop on veins-hosting fractures within the wall rock.

52 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
overprint minor radial veins (figure 3.51). However,
the vertically attenuated nature of the sheeted veins
at the wallrock porphyry deposits, to well over 1000m
at Cadia East (Wilson et al., 2007), is indicative of a
strongly dilatant structural setting which hosts Au-Mo
wallrock porphyry mineralisation (figure 3.56) Some
structural elements of the Lachlan Transverse Zone at
Ridgeway and Cadia East represent early growth faults
reactivated to host lodes and quartz vein packages,
similar to that recognised in pull-apart basin scenarios
(figure 3.17), with down-drop indicative of extension
normal to the Lachlan Transverse structures.
A D
3.3.3.4.2 Thrust fault control is not as common in
porphyry-epithermal deposits as would be expected
in compressional magmatic arcs (above). Packages of
shallow dipping quartz veins are locally recognised
within dilatant flatter dipping portions of moderate
dipping thrust faults (figure 3.57 A). Typical
economic porphyry deposits develop as a result of
the migration of ore fluids from the magmatic source
at depth to the mineralised intrusion apophysis, best
in association with steep dipping dilatant sheeted
veins. Consequently, thrust controlled porphyry
mineralisation will be limited by the quality of any
connection between the magmatic source and setting
of the sheeted quartz veins. Shallow dipping sheeted
veins may also form by decompression of batholitic
magma bodies during uplift and erosion (figure 3.57 D
& E, Rawbelle, Eastern Australia, Corbett et al., 2009).

B D

Figure 3.57 Flat dipping porphyry quartz veins.

A - Thrust-hosted alteration zone, Ortiga, Argentina.
B - Flat dipping thrust with alteration and quartz veins, Hinoba-
an, Philippines.
C C - Flat dipping sheeted veins from B above.
D - Flat dipping batholith-hosted fracture/veins in outcrop,
Rawbelle, eastern Australia, from Corbett et al., 2009.
E - Flat dipping batholith-hosted fractures with alteration
selvages drill core from D above.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 53

Economic Geo. _ JH
3.4 TRIGGERS FOR MINERALISATION
Triggers initiate the rapid and forceful emplacement
of intrusions and fluids responsible for vein
and breccia mineralisation which were formerly
constrained within fertile magma source rocks at
depth during compression, and these dynamic events
contribute towards the development of elevated metal
grades (Corbett and Leach, 1998). The formation of
quality mineralisation might therefore be promoted by
changes in the geological environment such as:
• Rapid depressurisation as:
• Sector collapse of volcanic edifices.
• Thrust erosion.
• Rapid uplift and erosion of the magmatic
arc.
• Transient changes in the nature of convergence
• From orthogonal compression to
components of oblique deformation.
• Relaxation of orthogonal convergence,
typically manifest as a change from
compression to extension.
Tectonic triggers may also responsible for changes in
the nature of magmatism, including from intermediate
to felsic magmatism, commonly synchronous with
the onset of epithermal mineralisation (Coromandel
Peninsula, New Zealand; Japan; Far Eastern Russia),
locally overprinting deeper level epithermal (Porgera,
Papua New Guinea) on porphyry intrusions (Bilimoia,
Papua New Guinea). However, an age gap is likely
in other instances where porphyry and epithermal
alteration and mineralisation are recognised at the
same exploration projects (Woodlark Is. and Misima
Is., Papua New Guinea).
3.4.1 Rapid depressurisation
3.4.1.1 Sector collapse such as that recognised
as the 1980 Mt St Helens failure of a portion of a
volcanic edifice (figure 3.11) may provide sufficient
unroofing to depressurise the rising high level magma
and promote an explosive volcanic eruption as well
as brecciation and degassing of a buried magma
source at greater depth. At the Ladolam ore body,
Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea, the Luise volcanic
edifice, established over the last 1 m.y. of the 3 m.y.
period of island building, underwent seaward sector
collapse at about 100,000 years ago (Wallace et al.,
1983). The youthful trace of the collapsed detritus
derived from the volcanic edifice failure is easily
recognised within Luise Harbor on the offshore
seismic data on (figure 3.11). Similar listric faults to
those which participated in the Mt St Helens sector
collapse have been identified in drill ore and open pit
exposures at the Ladolam Gold Mine (Corbett et al.,
54 Section 3
Economic Geo. _ JH
2001; Corbett, 2005b). The listric faults at Ladolam
slid along the anhydrite matrix brecciated at the top
of a monzonite porphyry intrusion to facilitate rapid
unroofing and then these same structures hosted later
epithermal mineralisation (figure 3.11), best developed
in the steeper-dipping portions of the listric faults
portions (section 3.2.1.1). Consequently, at Ladolam,
while porphyry intrusions were emplaced during
volcanism, sector collapse triggered the change from
subeconomic porphyry to economic epithermal Au
mineralisation derived from the deeper magmatic
source.
3.4.1.2 Thrust erosion has been proposed to account
for distribution and timing of Au mineralisation at
Porgera and Mt Kare, Papua New Guinea (Corbett,
2005b). The Waruwari open pit carbonate-base
metal Au mineralisation is closely associated with
augite hornblende diorite intrusions of the Porgera
Intrusion Complex formed at a deep crustal level
and characterised by dark Fe-rich high temperature
sphalerite and local pyrrhotite at the Jez Lode (figure
3.12; section 7.2.1.24.1; Corbett et al., 1995 and
references therein). The overprinting epithermal
quartz Au style quartz-gold-roscoelite bonanza grade
Au mineralisation is best developed within Porgera
Zone VII of the Romane Fault and was mainly mined
underground, although it extends into Waruwari
open pit. It formed at a low temperature and shallow
crustal level and is associated with post-carbonate-
base metal mineralisation felsite intrusions (figure
3.12; Corbett et al., 1995; Corbett and Leach, 1998).
Although there must be at least 600 m vertical distance
between the crustal level of formation of the two
intrusion and mineralisation events, they are dated at
roughly the same age (Ronacher et al., 2002) and much
the same age as the similar Mt Kare mineralisation,
at about 6.0 m.y. (Richards and Ledlie, 1993). Mt
Kare is located about 17 km from Porgera down
plunge in the direction of thrust movement in the
fold-thrust deformation of the Papua New Guinea
Highlands (figure 3.58 A). While Au mineralisation
at Mt Kare is of a similar carbonate-base metal Au
and quartz-Au-roscoelite style as Porgera and hosted
within essentially similar Chim Formation sediments,
there are fewer intrusions and the ore zones are less
distinct. Detailed drilling at Mt Kare (figure 3.58 E)
demonstrated mineralisation bottomed in a flat lying
fault (Corbett, unpubl. reports 1996-7; Corbett, 2005b)
which separates the upper mineralised sequence from
a lower very incompetent unaltered brown shale.
Thrust erosion is speculated (Corbett, 2005b) to have
removed a substantial body of rock (at least 600 m
vertically) from above the active Porgera system to
initiate a change from mafic to felsic magmatism and
deep to shallow epithermal Au mineralisation, and the
Corbett Short Course Manual
 A B

C D

E
SE NW
LOOKING SOUTHWEST

18 m @ 1.8 g/t Au
sandstone 23 m @ 2.0 g/t Au
2800 m 19 m @ 1.0 g/t Au
and 5 18 m @ 1.4 g/t Au
siltstone 32 m @ 3.1 g/t Au

27 m @ 3.3 g/t Au
mudstone

puggy breccia 31
29
28
r ust
44 Th
mudstone
3 0 50 m
2700 m
4
Corbett 1447
Figure 3.58. Thrust erosion of the top of speculated to now occur as Mt Kare.
F
A - Slide looking Radar image shows Porgera within a coincident topographic
and magnetic circular interpreted (Corbett et al., 1995) to reflect a buried
intrusion source for the outcropping stocks at Waruawri (figure 3.13).
B - Felsite dyke with clast of an earlier carbonate-base metal vein.
C - Thrust in the Waruwari open pit.
D - Double thickness of Dari Limestone at Mts. Paim and Kajende, from
Waruwari, 1980.
E - Mt Kare cross-section.
F - Coarse grained augite hornblende diorite from a stock within in the early
Waruwari open pit mine.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 55

Economic Geo. _ JH
thrust-off top of Porgera occurs down-plunge at Mt
Kare. The Dari Limestone which overlies the Chim
Formation caps the eastern portion of Mt Kare but
is absent from Porgera, although a thrusted double
thickness of limestone crops out a few km south of
Porgera at Mt Paim and Mt Kajende (figure 3.58 D)
and between Porgera and Mt Kare.
3.4.1.3 Rapid uplift and erosion may unroof
a magma source in order to promote intrusion
emplacement locally capped by magmatic
hydrothermal breccias. Skewes and co-workers
suggest in Central Chile in the late Miocene, major
porphyry-related breccia events resulted from late
stage rapid uplift and erosion due to the flattening of
the subduction angle (Skewes and Stern, 1994; Skewes
et al., 2003).
The Ok Tedi Porphyry Cu-Au in Papua New Guinea
is interpreted (above) to have been emplaced in
conditions of rapid uplift and erosion (section
5.1.7), in a terrain characterised by substantial lateral
(65 mm/y) and vertical movement at a collisional
plate boundary (figure 3.4). The spatially dominant
intrusions, Sydney monzodiorite and Fubian
monzonite porphyries are of 2.6 and 1.1-1.2 Ma
respectively in age, with the latter forming the main
host to mineralisation (Page, 1975; Rush and Seegers,
1990), yet this porphyry is well exposed by erosion.
Assuming a depth of emplacement of 1-2 km to
the top of the porphyry now exposed by erosion,
then even the wet tropics rate of 1-2 km per million
years or 1 m per 1,000 years represents a high rate of
erosion. Rather, is assumed many porphyry intrusions
are emplaced into settings of rapid uplift and erosion.
Similarly, elsewhere in Papua New Guinea younger
epithermal deposits occur in proximity to porphyry
intrusions (Bilimoia, Woodlark Is., Misima Is.) in
response to rapid uplift and erosion.
The Copper Hill, Cu-Au porphyry deposit in Eastern
Australia (Hayward et al. (2015) interpret progressive
syn-mineral uplift and erosion accounts for
overprinting events of mineralisation and alteration
emplaced at progressively shallower crustal levels as:
NW trending low grade Cu-Au mineral associated with
tonalite intrusion, followed by EW trending laminated
and sheeted quartz veins associated with microdiorite
intrusion, higher crustal level carbonate-base metal Au
mineralisation typically within the same EW trending
veins, overprinted by late stage low temperature
laumontite + gypsum veins.
56
Economic Geo. _ JH
3.4.2 Transient changes in the nature of
convergence
As suggested above, vein kinematics provide an
indication of the tectonic conditions under which
porphyry and epithermal deposits were formed and
so are commonly consistent with regional scale trends.
In the Philippines many NW veins or breccia are
constrained between NS sinistral strike-slip structures
related to sinistral movement on the Philippine Fault
(Lepanto & Dinkidi in Luzon or others in Mindanao).
Similarly, NE trending epithermal veins in the
Coromandel Peninsular, New Zealand are associated
with country-scale dextral oblique plate movement,
well developed at Thames (figure 3.20) and Waihi
(figure 3.31).
By contrast, elsewhere analyses of ore deposit
veins suggests many deposits formed in kinematic
conditions contrary to the expected regional
kinematics active in that region at that time and
these discrepancies may be consistent for many ore
deposits throughout districts across geological time.
Consequently, working in the SW Pacific rim Corbett
and Leach (1998) proposed a model that transient, and
locally multiple, changes from orthogonal to oblique
convergence, active for only a brief period of time,
facilitated the development of dilatant structural sites
in which ore formation took place, but as only brief
events that are not readily apparent in other aspects
of the geological record. The change in the nature
of convergence has provided a trigger for magma
and ore fluids constrained at depth in conditions of
orthogonal convergence to be forcefully emplaced into
the dilatant structural sites. Intrusions may include
polyphasal spine-like porphyry bodies. Importantly,
this model has the potential to resolve the space
problem associated with the emplacement of porphyry
intrusions within compressional magmatic arcs.
The forceful emplacement contributes towards the
development of porphyritic textures and rapid cooling
of ore fluids to promote the development of elevated
metal grades. The link zones developed within cross-
structures as individual dilatant sites, locally present
as negative flower structures (figure 3.17) grading
vertically from surficial pull-apart basins downwards
to fissure fractures (which host epithermal veins)
and splay faults (which localise porphyry intrusions).
Repeated fault activation and multiple fluid flow forms
banded epithermal veins.
In conclusion, transient changes in the nature of
convergence provide triggers to facilitate the rapid
Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual
emplacement of magma and ore fluids within dilatant
structural sites, to high crustal levels where rapid
cooling promotes metal deposition. This model
developed in the SW Pacific rim (Corbett and Leach,
1998) has since been found to apply to ore formation
in other magmatic arcs.
3.4.2.1 Transient changes from orthogonal to
oblique compression
The activation of conjugate-like cross structures
provides dilatant sites which host ore during transient
changes in convergence commonly recognised as
changes from orthogonal compression to oblique
convergence (Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett,
2012). Many ore systems appear to be localised by the
intersection of a cross structure with major structural
corridors such as arc-parallel sutures or terrain
boundaries. For instance, the La Escondida porphyry
Cu appears to be localised within the Domeyko Fault
System by the intersection of a NW conjugate fracture
(figures 3.2 & 3.37) and the Kelian epithermal Au
deposit lies at the intersection of a Kalimantan Suture
and a NS structure, which facilitated formation of
a pull-apart basin (figure 3.24). Intersections of NS
cross structures with the Lachlan Transverse Zone
no doubt also play a role in the localisation of the
individual Cadia Valley porphyry-related deposits.
A model proposed (Corbett and Leach, 1998) to
account for the general NW trend of many ore
systems constrained between structures of the NS
structural grain in the Lachlan Orogen of eastern
Australia, utilised a transient change from orthogonal
to sinistral oblique compression (figure 3.59). In many
cases the major structures may also represent arc-
parallel terrain boundaries or sutures, locally present
at corridors of individual structural elements such
as fractures, faults or shears, with a reverse sense
of movement during orthogonal compression. It is
possible, in response to orthogonal compression,
for a major arc-parallel structure to be offset by the
cross-structures which then form link zones between
segments of the major structure, or elements of
a structural corridor, apparent at perturbations in
throughgoing fractures (figure 3.59 A & B). Later
transient changes to sinistral oblique convergence may
reactivate the major structure or structural elements
with a strike-slip sense of movement (figure 3.59
C). Correctly oriented perturbations may act as link
zones to facilitate the transfer of strike-slip movement
between elements of the structural corridor and
become dilated in that process (figure 3.579C;
section 3.2.2). Dilatant sites such as these represent

A B C D
σ1 σ1

σ1
link
zone dilation compression

CORBETT ai1717

Figure 3.59 Formation of dilatant ore-hosting sites by the activation of cross structures during transient changes in the nature of
convergence.
A – Typical structural scenario characterised by a major structure, here an arc-parallel terrain boundary with a reverse sense of
movement, and conjugate-style cross structures in conditions of arc subduction-related compression.
B – Offset of the major structure by cross fracture and development of a link zone during compression.
C – Transient change to oblique convergence, here suitably oriented to facilitate reactivation of the former reverse faults and strike-slip
structures and development of a dilatant site in the link zone suitable of hosting porphyry or vein emplacement.
D – Non-suitably oriented convergence results in the development of anti-dilatant sites which might be manifest as folds, domes or
thrusts with lesser potential to host mineralisation than C.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 57

Economic Geo. _ JH
common settings for the forceful emplacement of
porphyry intrusions and development of structurally
controlled epithermal veins. Alternatively, other link
structures, including those developed by relaxation
of convergence, may be oriented in a anti-dilatant
or compressional orientations as sites of dome or
thrust fault formation (figure 3.59 D), the latter only
locally associated associated with lesser ore formation
(section 3.2.3.3).
3.4.2.1.1 In the Lachlan Orogen, Eastern Australia
many ore systems (figure 3.3) were interpreted
(Corbett and Leach, 1998) to have formed in
conditions of sinistral movement on the roughly
NS structural grain of the district (Mineral Hill,
Sofala, Cowal, the entire Cobar district in the data
of Glen, 1987; Browns Creek, skarn-sheeted veins;
all the deposits along the Gilmore suture such as
Gidgingung, Adelong; West Wyalong, etc). This
sinistral sense of movement continues north in the
Lachlan Origin of Queensland (Gympie goldfield;
Corbett and Leach, 1998 and elsewhere in that region)
and is also recognised as alternating events in Triassic
sedimentary basins (Babaahmadi et al., 2015). Most
reconstructions suggest the arc displayed an overall
orthogonal character in the Ordovician (Glen, 2013
and references therein; pers commum, 2013), although
potential for sinistral convergence is included in the
recent model of Cayley (2015). Nevertheless, the
difficultly of any estimates for the conditions of
formation of such old and subsequently deformed
arcs cannot be overlooked. The transient change from
orthogonal compression to sinistral transpression was
provided as the trigger for the onset of mineralisation,
repeatedly active over geological time (Corbett and
More on this topic to come.
58 Section 3
Economic Geo. _ JH
Leach, 1998).
3.4.2.1.2 In Chile, dextral movement on the Domeyko
Fault system (figure 3.2), evidenced by the splay
fault and parallel veins is interpreted to account for
development of the Chuquicamata porphyry and
also localisation of the giant La Escondida porphyry
within a link structure between individual fault
elements (figures 3.36 & 3.37). As the Domeyko
Fault system is widely regarded as a terrain boundary
with a reverse sense of movement, transient dextral
sense of movement may have provided a trigger to
initiate porphyry emplacement and mineralisation.
Furthermore, the El Peñon low sulphidation
epithermal deposit and La Coipa and El Indio high
sulphidation epithermal deposits (figure 3.23) are
also to have developed in response to episodes of
dextral transpression on the NS structural grain of
the district. Thus in Chile, repeated changes from
orthogonal compression, to dextral transpression,
are interpreted herein to have provided triggers for
porphyry and epithermal ore formation. The West
Fault (Falla Oeste) formed as part of the Domeyko
Fault System, displays complex movement over
time and space, as some workers (Dilles et al., 1997;
Tomlinson and Blanco, 1997) record sinistral sense of
movement at Chuquicamata and El Abra, although
ore bodies such as MM are unlikely to be faulted off
portions of Chuquicamata.
Corbett Short Course Manual
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 59
Economic Geo. _ JH
4 BRECCIAS
Breccias are broken rocks studied for their variable
relationship to mineralisation, including as vectors
to ore, although there are a myriad of breccia forms
and modes of breccia development. Explorationists
must therefore be able to distinguish different breccias
and apply names to them as a means to access the
exploration significance of many breccias, which
occur throughout the geological record occupied
by epithermal and porphyry deposits. While pre-
existing volcanic breccias (McPhee et al., 1993) and
to a lesser extent clastic sedimentary rocks (Petijohn,
1975) may host later mineralisation, breccias dealt
with in epithermal-porphyry exploration are derived
from an interaction of hydrothermal-structural-
magmatic–volcanic processes (Davies et al., 2000)
as well as local carbonate dissolution. The challenge
for explorationists is to provide an efficient breccia
nomenclature which will enable us map breccias and
to communicate field studies to our peers, some of
whom will have different ideas on breccias. While
Roger Taylor (2009) points out the difficulty of
breccia nomenclature, noting the 832 page effort by
Laznicka (1988), explorationists might benefit from
earlier discussions of ore-related breccias by Sillitoe,
(1985), Baker et al., (1986), Taylor and Pollard (1993),
Corbett and Leach, (1998), Davies et al., (2000) and
Taylor (2009), which this discussion draws on.
Consequently, from the author’s field experience and
reference to published studies three means of breccia
nomenclature might be considered:
• Descriptive breccia terminology based upon the
appearance of the breccia using characteristics set
out by McPhee et al. (1993) for volcanic breccias
and applied by Davies et al. (2000) to porphyry
and epithermal deposits.
• Colloquial breccia terminology as terms developed
through common use (Corbett, short courses;
Taylor, 2009).
• Genetic breccia terminology based upon the
means of formation (Sillitoe, 1985; Corbett and
Leach, 1998; Pollard and Taylor, 1993).
4.1 PROCESS OF BRECCIA ANALYSIS
When confronted by breccia in outcrop or drill core,
a step-like process might take the explorationist
(Corbett, short courses) through a naming process to
identify the exploration significance of that breccia as
(although other processes are available Davies et al;.
2000; Taylor, 2009):
• Describe the breccia at the first exposure
providing a field name.
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4
Economic Geo. _ JH
• Move to other exposures and refine or change that
description for each breccia type as other breccias
might emerge, and consider any overprinting
relationships.
• Is that breccia type similar to any known breccias
studied previously?
• Does that comparison place the breccia in a
genetic setting?
• What is the exploration significance of that
genetic setting? That is, what influence does
this breccia place upon the evolving exploration
model?
• Move on and test, refine or reject the breccia
name and any influence upon the exploration
model used as an exploration tool.
Some suggestions include:
• A field record using digital photography allows
rapid comparisons.
• If a diamond saw is available, cutting breccias
into slabs will aid in identification of features
such as the softer matrix minerals, not exposed on
weathered surfaces.
• Keep moving and do not get bogged down on
one difficult breccia exposure as the solution may
lie in the next exposure, or in the analysis of a
group of exposures.
• Try to stand back in order to see the big picture.
• Consider the purpose of the exercise and level of
detail required in conjunction with deadlines. In a
1981 at the Kidston breccia pipe, Australia, during
the summary log of many thousands of metres
of drill core, combined with geological mapping,
this author deliberately maintained an approach of
‘rapid identification’ in drill core rather than time
consuming and locally confusing detailed analysis,
in order to provide a three dimensional model
of the pipe in the required time frame (section
4.4.4.4.1).
This process of breccia analysis roughly mirrors the
styles of breccia nomenclature above. The initial
‘descriptive terminology’ provides an accurate and
complete analysis of any breccia from its appearance,
but as is apparent from Davies et al. (2000), these
descriptions may become long and cumbersome, in
an environment where explorationists may have time
pressures to reach a conclusion on the exploration
implications of the breccia, provided by the more
genetic interpretations. However, it is important to
preserve the original description rather than use an
‘interpretative terminology’ too early in the field, so
that as new data comes to hand the interpretation
may change but it is always possible to refer back
to a complete set of factual data. For instance the
individual rock description ‘milled matric breccia’ is
far superior to ‘diatreme breccia’, as many different
1
breccia types make up a diatreme flow-dome complex
and some of these also occur in other settings.
Thus, noting the limitations of the emerging field
data base during mapping, the explorationist should
start to think where any breccia fits in a conceptual
exploration model while still mapping. One could ask
the question “where have I seen this type of breccia
before” in order to understand what it means. Many
geologists who have gone before us provided names
for breccias and therefore allow us to communicate
with our peers, and so there is a set of ‘colloquial
terminology’. Obviously some terms need to be
discarded, but the ones in common use would not
have survived for more than 50 years if they did not
work. If, and only if, a breccia type is established,
then comparisons may indicate how this breccia could
vector to mineralisation. At this stage genetic breccia
models come into use. Thus, breccia analysis is a
step-by-step procedure, and the process described
below seeks to identify ‘stand outs’ which rapidly lead
to the conclusion – ‘the exploration significance of a
breccia’. Lastly, explorationists should keep in mind
that the often time consuming breccia analysis is
merely a step leading to the main game, which is ore
discovery, and so breccia analysis should not become
the primary task.
4.2 DESCRIPTIVE TERMINOLOGY
Descriptive breccia terminology seeks to provide a
name that describes the appearance of an individual
breccia that can be used for comparison with other
breccias and there are many aspects to the appearance
of a breccia (locally as a step-like process [Davies
et al., 2000]) provided in an analysis of descriptive
features including:
• Components
• Clast description
• Matrix description
• Internal structure
• External form
• Stand outs
4.2.1 The three components
of breccias which interact to provide complex forms
include:
• Clasts (also termed fragments) of broken rock are
dominated by wall rock and intrusion, including
local clasts of rebrecciated breccia or matrix.
Therefore a breccia name might acknowledge the
major component type with either a monomictic
or polymictic character.
• Matrix varies from: broken or milled rock clasts,
commonly comminuted to form rock flour and
which is commonly altered, to hydrothermal
2 Section 4
Economic Geo. _ JH
cement comprising entirely hydrothermal minerals
introduced into the breccia and deposited within
open space.
• Local open space occurs within vein breccias
particularly within extensional (dilational)
settings and collapse dissolution breccias. Open
space might be included in the breccia matrix
component.
A stand out here might be clasts which are mineralised
or display alteration which might vector towards
larger bodies of mineralisation. For instance, rucked
up mineralised or altered clasts within breccias
could prompt exploration at depth such as the
Mo mineralised clasts within the rubble breccias
recognised above mineralisation at the Climax mine,
USA (White et al., 1981; Sharp, 1978), and quartz
clasts high up in the fault which hosts mineralistion
at Vera Nancy, Australia. Juvenile intrusion clasts
derived from the magmatic source for brecciation are
a characteristic feature of phreatomagmatic breccia
pipes associated with diatreme-flow dome complexes.
4.2.2 Some aspects of clast description
(although there could be many more) include:
• Size measured in mm typically records the
maximum clast size commonly focusing upon
the largest clasts and may take into account the
size distribution, especially if there is a variation
in clast size with different clast types, as variable
hardness influences degree of comminution
(milling).
• Shape may refer to the degree of clast rounding
by milling during clast transport, from the
angular character of the original broken rock, to
rounded extensively milled clasts, and is therefore
influenced by the rock hardness. Some breccias
feature variable working of wall rock versus
intrusion clasts where there is a different degree
of transport as well as variable hardness. Shingle
breccias formed by collapse feature angular
elongate tabular (roofing shingle- or tile-like)
clasts while exfoliation breccias display a shape
like an onion with exfoliated curvilinear clasts
surrounding a rounded core.
A stand out is apparent as one of the features which
helped to establish Namie Breccias at Wau, Papua
New Guinea, as of a phreatomagmatic origin related
to rapidly emplaced Edie Porphyry intrusions. Breccias
comprise ragged clasts of juvenile Edie Porphyry
intrusion, which were molten at the time of breccia
formation, amongst more angular locally derived clasts
of wall rock Kaindi Schist. A diatreme breccia pipe at
Wau (Sillitoe et al., 1984) is one of several such bodies
Corbett Short Course Manual
(figure 4.28) and phreatomagmatic Namie-like breccias
within these pipes and display variable mixes of Edie
Porphyry and Kaindi clasts. However, mixed porphyry
and schist clasts also form contact breccias adjacent to
adjacent Edie Porphyry domes.
4.2.3 The matrix,
defined as the finer grained medium which supports
breccia clasts, varies from:
• Milled rock flour formed by comminution of rock
clasts, such as in many phreatomagmatic breccias,
which may be clay or silica altered.
• Introduced silica flooding and fine grained angular
clasts found in some eruption breccias.
• Hydrothermal minerals kinematically deposited
to fill open space characterised by coarse grained
centrally terminating crystals or finer grained
hydrothermal minerals deposited from cooling
fluids which participated in rock fracture such
as in magmatic hydrothermal injection, crackle,
fluidised and mosaic breccias.
4.2.4 Breccia organisation
describes the relationship between clasts and matrix
as breccias may be massive with no obvious structure,
or bedded in the case of breccias in the upper
portions of phreatomagmatic breccia pipes. Tabular
or elongate clasts may display an imbricate form
noted in shingle breccias which may be vertical or
horizontal depending upon the setting in the breccia
pipe geometry.
4.2.5 External form
represents the overall shape of a breccia body as many
occur as dykes or pipes and the relationship with wall
rocks, both of which may not always be apparent early
in the investigation of a breccia body. Some linear
fault controlled breccias are recognised as fluidised
breccias or pebble dykes (which is a colloquial term),
whereas many deeper crustal level pipes display
ovoid forms ranging up to several kilometres in size
(magmatic hydrothermal breccia, tourmaline breccia
or many phreatomagmatic pipes). Fault-controlled
or pipe-like breccias should cross-cut wall rocks and
breccia descriptions should consider any overprinting
relationships.
4.2.6 In conclusion,
descriptive breccia terminology is important to record
the overall appearance of a breccia which can then
be compared to others and several breccias grouped
in a geological model. The breccia description and
comparisons between breccias could be aided, but
not replaced, by a set of quality digital photographs.
However, this breccia nomenclature is hampered
as descriptions might become rather long and
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4
Economic Geo. _ JH
cumbersome, and similar breccias may be formed by
different processes in variable settings.
4.3 COLLOQUIAL TERMINOLOGY
Colloquial breccia names are those that are in
common use by geologists but may not be as
ridged as descriptive breccia terms and certainly are
not as long. These terms have evolved over many
years as explorationists sought to describe breccias
while working rapidly in the field and noted similar
breccias in related ore deposits such as pebble dykes
in porphyry deposits. Colloquial breccia terms have
therefore developed over many years and would not
have survived it they did not work.
Some colloquial terms listed here are described in
detail below:
• Shingle breccias (Spanish ripia) are described
below as breccias typically formed by collapse
or pressure release and are common within
tourmaline breccia pipes (figure 4.1), as
characterised by tabular clasts similar to roofing
shingles or tiles.
• Crackle breccias form as cracks either random or
sheeted which become filled with hydrothermal
minerals (figures 4.1 & 4.57) and mineralisation as
a common hydrothermal breccia setting.
• Mosaic or jigsaw breccias (Spanish mosaico) are
characterised as formed by a simple moving apart
of the clasts with matrix fill (like a mosaic) and
so if the matrix were to be removed the clasts
would fit back together (like a jigsaw) (figures 4.2
& 4.57). These breccias fit within the tectonic-
hydrothermal genetic terminology (section 4.4.7)
below as formed in dilatant or extensional settings.
• Fluidised breccias feature substantial transport
and introduction of hydrothermal fluid (with rock
flour) and only minimal transport of clasts which
comprise local wall rock and typically display only
minor milling (figures 4.1 & 4.57).
• Pebble dykes were defined (Gustafson and
Hunt, 1975) as dominated by milled transported
clasts with little matrix (figure 4.1), although
Baldwin et al. (1978) also cite significant matrix
component, at Panguna, Papua New Guinea.
They typically occur in deeper crustal level
porphyry environments and locally act as vectors
to buried porphyry mineralisation, especially if
mineralised clasts are present (below; Section
4.4.4.4). Pebble dykes may be derived from the
deeper level magmatic source for a porphyry and
not neccessarily the porphyry, which might be
developed as an apophysis.
• Floating clast breccias (figure 4.2), commonly
recognised within fault-hosted veins, comprise
3
 (often milled) rock or vein clasts suspended in C
(often banded polyphasal) matrix such that the
clasts are supported entirely by the matrix. The
upward fluid pressure within the fault must have
been sufficient to have supported the clasts while
the matrix was emplaced around them and in
some cases these breccias have been rebrecciated.
• Crumple breccias form on the margins of domes,
especially endogenous domes which vent to the
surface and comprise mostly angular monomictic
dome clasts with only minor rock flour matrix
(figures 4.6 & 4.7) and are therefore described
below as intrusion breccias.
• Hydrothermal breccia is an all-encompassing D

non-specific term for breccias associated with

hydrothermal processes and so should be used
with caution.
• Milled matrix breccia is the preferred term for
phreatomagmatic breccias recognised within
diatreme breccia pipes and dominated by (often
hydrothermally altered) rock flour matrix and
rounded (by comminution) rock clasts (figure 4.2)
which have been milled during transport.

B F

Figure 4.1 Some colloquial breccia terms in common use in the exploration industry.
A - Shingle breccia with tourmaline matrix, Juarez, Peru.
B - Pebble dyke from Mt Turner, NE Australia.
C - Crackle breccia, Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
D - Fluidised breccia (matrix rich), Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
E - Fluidised breccia dyke (clast-rich), Kelian, Indonesia;
F - Fluidised breccia dyke with angular local clasts, Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.

4 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

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Figure 4.2 Some colloquial breccia terms used by this author.
A - Mosaic breccia from the Kidston region, Australia.
B - Mosaic breccia, Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
C - Milled matrix breccia from the Acupan diatreme breccia pipe, Philippines.
D - Floating clast breccias with accretionary banding from the Roamane fault and Porgera
Zone VII, Papua New Guinea.
E - Floating clast breccia with banded quartz matrix and rebrecciated breccia clasts, Cirotan, Indonesia.

• Stope fill breccias have the appearance of

sedimentary structures formed by the deposition
of fill in mine workings, here by the deposition of
debris within open faults (figure 4.3).
• Stockwork veins (figure 3.49 A & B) are regarded
by some workers as breccias but are better
considered as veins.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 5

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B C

E F

Figure 4.3 Breccias formed as subsurface sedimentary structures.

A - Fill within open fractures, Chatree, Thailand.
B - Banded vein which varies from a fluidised breccia on the top left side to central bedded forms normal to banding and hence
approximately sub-horizontal, Favona, New Zealand DDH UW140, 198.6m 3.25 g/t Au & 8.3 g/t Ag.
C & D - Open space sedimentary fill within veins, Cinola, Queen Charlotte Islands, Canada.
E - Layered open space fill, Mungana, Australia.
F - Bedded breccia overprints vughy silica clast as the transition to lower sulphidation (section 8.5.3), La Zanja, Peru.

One stand out in the breccia types is the exploration
significance of any reinterpretation of the formerly
mined 0.85 M oz Au 0.387M t Cu Mt Morgan deposit
Queensland, Australia. Although Mt Morgan has
previously been attributed a syngeneic volcanogenic
origin (Taupe, 1990, and references therein), cross-
cutting pebble dykes and the crackle breccia described
from early mining (Cornelius, 1967 & 1969) support
an epigenetic ore introduction also discussed by
other workers (section 7.2.1.1.5). Other stand outs
include the geopetal aspect of stope fill breccias as
sedimentary structures (figure 4.3).
In conclusion, colloquial terminology provides a rapid
means of comparing different breccias in the field
with a historical perspective related to similar breccias
categorised by many previous explorationists.
4.4 GENETIC TERMINOLOGY
Genetic terminology, developed from the descriptive
terminology (Corbett and Leach, 1998) and including
colloquial terms, focuses upon the process of breccia
formation, using models derived from the study
of many ore systems, to determine the exploration
implications of any breccia. The preservation of
quality descriptive data bases allows genetic models
to be updated as additional data influences earlier
reconnaissance exploration findings. Care must be

6 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
exercised in the use of interpretative terminology
only after a breccia description has been established.
A number of different ore-related breccia types
can be categorised using genetic models as breccias
dominated by:
• Hydrothermal-magmatic processes grading from
deeper crustal level with pronounced magmatic
component to shallower levels with less magmatic
and greater meteoric fluid components.
• Tectonic-hydrothermal processes.
• Dissolution of carbonate.
Note much of the Au-Cu-Ag mineralisation is
emplaced at the end of the brecciation process derived
from the magma source at depth and so breccias with
good structural connections to the metal source are
generally better mineralised.
4.4.1 Hydrothermal-magmatic breccias
The dominant breccias in epithermal-porphyry ore
systems are derived by an interaction of hydrothermal
and magmatic components, the latter varying from
porphyry intrusions at depth to high crustal level
Phreatic eruption
breccias breccia
Dissolution breccias
open
Dilational space
breccias breccia
floating
clast
breccia
Hydrothermal
collapse breccias
CORBETT ai1751
Figure 4.4 Summary of genetic breccia classification.
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
domes and dykes which contribute heat, volatiles and
metals to the breccia process. The breccia classification
employed here is therefore (figure 4.4) based upon a
progression from deep crustal level magma-dominated
breccias with magmatic fluids and little meteoric
water component, to shallow level meteoric-water
dominated breccias with little obvious input from
magma source rocks. Naturally, some breccias are
difficult to categorise within this scheme and tectonic
and dissolution breccias could also be considered
on the periphery of this classification. Although
tectonic/structural processes may trigger breccia
formation (eruption etc) these aspects may not be
readily discernible in the breccia. Therefore, breccias
are discussed essentially in order from deep to shallow
crustal levels as there is a progressive decline in the
magmatic and increase in the meteoric contributions
to the breccia as: contact → intrusion → magmatic
hydrothermal (containing intrusion and collapse) →
phreatomagmatic → phreatic breccias.
Phreatomagmatic breccias
diatreme breccia
F
Magmatic hydrothermal breccias
breccia pipe
Magmatic hydrothermal
injection breccias
fluidised and
crackle breccias
Section 4 7
4.4.2 Contact breccias
Contact breccias develop at deeper crustal levels at the
contact between an intrusion and wall rocks including
other porphyry intrusions, and include crumple
breccias formed at the margins of high crustal level
domes, which may vent to the surface as endogenous
domes. Contact breccias are dominated by intrusion
clasts and distinguished as an end member in a
sequence which continues to intrusion breccias in a
more distal setting to the intrusion with more wall
rock clasts. Contact breccias formed at a coherent
intrusion margin are characterised by locally derived
monomictic angular clasts which are clast supported
with minor locally derived matrix (figures 4.5 A, 4.6,
4.7, 4.8, 4.9), and appear as relatively competent rocks.
Some contact breccias feature clast support of mostly
fine grained chilled matrix and less angular clasts
that might have undergone some transport during
intrusion emplacement (figures 4.5 B & C, 4.8 B &
D), and are expected to occur further from a coherent
intrusion, locally transitional to intrusion breccias
if wall rock clasts are well developed. Nevertheless
clasts are likely to be derived from the intrusion rather
than the wall rocks which would mark a change to an
intrusion breccia.
Crumple breccias generally include the clast supported
contact breccias formed at dome margins and
commonly provide open space for the deposition
of mineralised magmatic fluids, especially where the
domes are linked to larger magmatic sources. Low
sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation is
common in brecciated dome margins where the Au
grade is generally proportional to the sulphide content.
The flow banded brecciated dome margins at Las
Calandrias, Argentina host Au mineralisation within
pyrite-marcasite which increases in Au grade from
crackle to fluidised breccias near the dome margins
(figure 4.7). Similar relationships are recognised
elsewhere where contact breccias at Bulawan and Mt
Wright have been mined, although Lone Sister at Twin
Hills remains too low grade at < 1 g/t Au (figure 4.8
A, C & E). The Bulawan (figure 4.8 A) and Mt Wright
(figure 4.8 F) breccias feature abundant sulphide
within substantial open space and the transition from
quartz-sulphide to carbonate-base metal style Au
mineralisation and so displayed higher Au grades.
In high sulphidation epithermal systems brecciated
dome margins provide important fluid permeability
for the transit of hydrothermal fluids responsible
for the development of alteration and mineralisation
such as at Yanacocha, Peru or Mt Kasi, Fiji (figure
4.9), although best Au grades commonly occur at the
intersection of contact breccias and feeder structures.

A B C

Figure 4.5 Contact breccias.

A - At the margin of a deep level porphyry characterised by packed angular clasts with negligible transport, northern Peru.
B - Contact breccia between two intrusions, Copper Hill. Australia.
C - Contact breccia between two intrusions, Wonogiri, Indonesia.
A B C

Figure 4.6 Contact or crumple breccias at dome margins characterised by angular monomictic
clast supported breccias.
A - Breccia at dome margin, Wau, Papua New Guinea.
B - Close up on crumple breccia at the margin of the dome shown in B illustrating the non-
transported angular clasts, Wau, Papua New Guinea.
C - Crumple breccia at a dome margin, Peru.

8 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

C D

Figure 4.7 Crumple breccias Las Calandrias, Argentina, interpreted to have formed at the margins of endogenous domes.
A - Dome margin.
B - Flow banded dome margin with spherulites and crackle breccia and limited sulphide, 0.8 g/t Au & 22.8 g/t Ag.
C - Flow banded dome margin with spherulites and sulphide segregations, 2.9 g/t Au & 72 g/t Ag.
D - Brecciated flow banded dome margin with sulphide sulphide-rich fluidised breccia, 6.7 g/t Au & 147 g/t Ag.

A B C

D E E

Figure 4.8 Mineralised contact breccias.

A - Brecciated clast-rich dome margin with abundant open space filled by carbonate-base metal Au mineralised matrix graded 3-5 g/t
Au, Bulawan, Philippines.
B - Brecciated matrix-rich dome margin in outcrop Twin Hills, Queensland Australia.
C - Monomictic clast-rich contact breccia towards the centre of the same dome as B with < 1 g/t Au in a mineralised sulphide matrix
Twin Hills, Queensland.
D - Matrix-rich contact breccia at a dome margin in outcrop, Mt Wright, Queensland Australia.
E - Drill core of monomictic clast-rich contact breccia with sulphide matrix which assayed 2-4 g/t Au from closer to the dome than
breccia C, Mt Wright, Queensland Australia.
F - Higher Au grade breccia than D with increased sulphide content and evolution to carbonate-base metal Au style mineralisation
evidenced by the dark Fe-rich high temperature sphalerite, Mt Wright, Queensland Australia.

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 A

B C D

Figure 4.9 Dome margin provides permeability control to high sulphidation alteration and mineralisation at Mt Kasi, Fiji discussed in
section 8.4.1.6.
A – Conceptual model for mineralisation hosted in a brecciated dome margin
B, C & D – Contact or crumple breccias a the dome margin

4.4.3 Intrusion breccias intense phyllic alteration, intrusion contacts might be

discernible as ‘vein clast breccias’ formed as the later
The progression from contact to intrusion breccias intrusion failed to assimilate A-style porphyry quartz
is manifest as increased transport of magmatic clasts veins present in the earlier intrusion (figure 4.10 C).
and mixing with wall rock clasts moving away from
the intrusion and so there is some cross over between A stand out is that the vein clast breccias help establish
the use of the terms contact and intrusion breccia thee polyphasal nature of some porphyry systems.
(figure 4.10). Intrusion breccias therefore display a
bimictic varying to a local polymictic character with
the increased mixing of intrusion with multiple
types of wall rock clasts (figure 4.10). The transition
to magmatic hydrothermal breccias is marked by
increased entry of hydrothermal material, and clast
transport, while the greater breccia matrix permeability
aids mineralisation in those breccias. Permeable
intrusion breccias may display extensive wall rock
alteration. In porphyry settings characterised by the
overprinting of similar porphyry intrusions and
10 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

C D

Figure 4.10 Intrusion breccias characterised by a mix of intrusion and wall rock clasts.
A - Mixture of clasts comprising felsic dome and angular slate, Edie Creek, Papua New Guinea;
B - Mixture of wall rock sandstone/quartzite and felsic dome clasts, La Arena Peru.
C - Intensely phyllic altered contact between two intrusions evidenced here by residual A vein clasts and also by different intrusion
geochemistry, La Arena Peru.
D - Intrusion breccia comprising milled wall rock and quartz vein clasts with additional matrix bornite mineralisation, Goonumbla,
Australia.

4.4.4 Magmatic hydrothermal breccias
Magmatic hydrothermal breccias display a pronounced
hydrothermal component derived from commonly
unseen magmatic source bodies at depth to which
some link should be evident. Several variations are
evident as:
• Pebble dykes
• Wall rock hosted intrusion breccias
• Magmatic hydrothermal breccia pipes
• Decompression breccias
• Collapse breccias
• Tourmaline matrix breccia pipes
Many magmatic hydrothermal breccias contain the
same sequence of events recognised as: initial injection
of intrusion material (eruption), and/or degassing
of volatiles, collapse, and later stage emplacement
of mineralised fluids into open space. Consequently,
there are common themes in the development of these
breccias.
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.4.1 A mechanism for breccia pipe formation
is proposed to account for eruption, collapse
and mineralisation recognised within magmatic
hydrothermal breccias. Elsewhere (sections 3.4
& 5.1.4), it is proposed porphyry Cu-Au-Mo
mineralisation is associated with vertically attenuated
spine-like intrusions, which were forcefully emplaced
into elevated crustal settings within dilatant structures,
and overlie buried more major magmatic sources
for volatiles and metals. The intrusion carapace may
become sealed by a chilled margin and hornfelsed wall
rocks. High water (Burnham, 1997) and high boron
(Allman-Ward et al., 1982) contents allow the porphyry
melt to rise to elevated crustal settings and there
cool at low temperatures to form intrusions. As the
cooling molten intrusion separates into the solid and
volatile components, pressurised fluid (liquid and gas)
which gathers at the intrusion carapace is fed from
the substantial body of vertically attenuated intrusion
and possibly the magmatic source at greater depth. In
the model of retrograde boiling (Phillips, 1973), the
intrusion carapace fractures when the volatile fluid
pressure exceeds the lithostatic (confining) pressure
Section 4 11
 increasing at shallower depths (Phillips,
1973), especially as a considerable
shatter quantity of buried magma may provide
regional structure
taps carapace
breccia substantial volatiles. This sudden
(virtually instantaneously) volume
increase in the carapace promoted
meteoric and by retrograde boiling may provide
bicarbonate collapse breccia
waters pebble explosive stress release which results
dyke
in a lift of the body of rock which
carbonate-base metal
overlies the carapace, facilitated by
Au open space infill shear fractures above the intrusion
shoulders, commonly termed cone
quartz sulphide Au
sheets (figure 4.12; Phillips, 1974).
The formation of decompression
intrusion
breccia
decompression or burst breccias (below) and flat
breccias
pebble dyke dipping fractures that result in the
later development of shingle breccias,
upward milling of imbricate exploits structure
intrusive fragments breccias
were no doubt initiated at this stage.
sheeted fractures with Explosive eruption might also fracture
quartz sulphide Au + Cu
pebble dyke
the carapace and tap the top of a
exploits fault magma chamber in order to promote
off section
the upward emplacement of volatiles
mosaic with intrusion rock and entrained wall
breccia
rock clasts. This eruption therefore
volatiles represents the eruption breccia phase
dammed
at top of
in figure 4.12.magmatic hydrothermal
chamber breccia pipes below. Once fractured
CARAPACE
stockwork the carapace provides a fluid plumbing
veining system for the migration of ore
hornfels
porphyry source bearing fluids from the cooling
CORBETT ai1732
substantial magma source at depth,
Figure 4.11 Conceptual model for magmatic hydrothermal breccia pipes in sub into the overlying breccia pipe.
volcanic terrains based partly upon Kidston, Australia (from Corbett and Leach, 1998).
and tensile strength of the confining rock. In porphyry The explosive degassing and also
Cu deposits, the pressure drop which results from withdrawal of magma are likely to create a void
failure of the carapace promotes quartz deposition as at the top of the magma chamber, into which the
stockwork veins, while the kinematics active during uplifted body of rock would then collapse, aided
failure control the orientation of sheeted veins. The by movement on the earlier shear fractures (figure
sudden pressure decrease to promote retrograde 4.12), although there is some theoretical difference
boiling might also be provided by sector collapse of in the shape of cone sheets associated with uplift
a stratovolcano (Lihir, Papua New Guinea; Corbett et and collapse (Phillips, 1974). This collapse which
al., 2001; Corbett, 2005b), rapid uplift and unroofing follows eruption (Phillips, 1974; 1986) may enhance
(Central Chile in the late Miocene; Skewes and Stern, the development of flat-dipping hydraulic tension
1994), or fault movement (Wau, Papua New Guinea; fractures within the pipe and adjacent wall rocks
Corbett and Leach, 1998). (figures 4.12 & 4.25). During continued collapse and
matrix fluid introduction, the tension fractures within
Breccia pipe formation features an initial eruption the pipe disaggregate to form slab and shingle breccias
event which varies from simply volatile (tourmaline discussed below.
fill shingle breccias) to intrusion clast emplacement
(Kidston-style magmatic hydrothermal breccias). Mineralisation and continued alteration follow
In the formation of breccia pipes, expansion of eruption and collapse as liquid-dominated ore fluids
depressurised volatiles due to retrograde boiling derived from the underlying magma body exit via
gives rise to a volume increase. For instance, water the fractured carapace to exploit any pre-existing
release to form 1% weight at 2 km depth and 500°C, plumbing system, such as marginal steep dipping
would provide a 10% volume increase, progressively fractures and flat dipping tension fractures, and

12 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 4.12 Proposed stages in in the development of mineralised breccia pipes.
deposit by cooling within open space to promote the
development of the matrix-rich angular clast breccias.
The entry of tourmaline-silica-sulphides promotes
continued shingle breccia formation, although
the close association with decompression breccias
suggests the development of these two breccia styles
was initiated at the earlier depressurisation stage.
4.4.4.2 Pebble dykes
Pebble dykes (Farmin, 1934; Bryner, 1961; Cornelius,
1967; Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) typically exploit
linear pre-existing structures at near porphyry crustal
levels and comprise rounded transported clasts in
a polymictic clast rich breccia (figures 4.12 & 4.14).
Pebble dykes result from the rapid degassing of
depressurised volatiles which vent up structures from
cooling porphyry intrusions at depth. Clasts rising
rapidly up the narrow structure become rounded
by milling, aided by hypogene exfoliation during
depressurisation (as decompression breccias, below).
While the common definition is clast supported,
considerable matrix is also recognised, such as the
0-80% cited by Baldwin et al. (1978) for the pebble
dykes which transect the Panguna Porphyry Cu
deposit, Papua New Guinea. Consequently, there may
be transitional relationships to milled matrix breccias
below. In many settings deeper magmatic source
rocks are interpreted to drive the pebble dykes, which
therefore cut the mineralised porphyry intrusions
(Panguna, Papua New Guinea, Baldwin et al., 1998; El
Corbett Short Course Manual
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Salvador, Chile, Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). As pebble
dykes occur above porphyry intrusions they are used
as vectors in porphyry exploration (section 9.**) and
predate the emplacement of low sulphidation quartz-
sulphide Au + Cu (deep) epithermal mineralisation
which occurs overlying porphyry intrusions (Bilimoia,
Papua New Guinea; Corbett et al. 1994; Corbett and
Leach, 1998) and so may exploit the same structures
and transect the pebble dykes. Note that pebble
dykes are commonly derived from the magma source
and transect the mineralised porphyry (figure 4.13;
Panguna, Papua New Guinea, Baldwin et al., 1998) and
so a variety of clast types might be expected. Pebble
dykes at Mt Morgan, Australia (Cornelius, 1967) are
used as part of the reinterpretation of that Cu-Au
deposit as an intrusion-related quartz-sulphide Au +
Cu deep epithermal system. Evaluation of wall rock
hosted pebble dykes as an exploration tool should
carefully check for clasts of any underlying mineralised
porphyry intrusions.
Section 4 13
 A

A N
cover

lin
se eo
ct f
io
n

Pebble dyke
Biuro Granodiorite
Leucocratic quartz diorite C
Feldspar porphyry B
Biotite granodiorite
Biotite diorite 0 200m
CORBETT ai1520
Panguna Andesite

A B C

0 200m volcanic ash cover

Corbett 1521

B C

Figure 4.13 Pebble dykes defined as late stage milled clast

supported breccias
A - Pebble dykes which transect the porphyry Cu intrusions and
extend into the overlying wall rocks at Panguna, Papua New
D Guinea, modified from Baldwin et al., 1978.
B - Pebble dyke characterised by rounded roughly clast supported
clasts with some matrix, Mt Turner, Australia.
C - Pebble dyke with rucked up shale clasts and cut by later
quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation, Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea
D - Pebble dyke with rounded clasts and some matrix, supported
clasts, Nakru, Papua New Guinea

14 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

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4.4.4.3 Wall rock hosted intrusion breccias
Wall rock hosted intrusion breccias feature
mineralisation hosted within wall rocks but commonly
with a strong influence of intrusions such as dykes
related to a deeper magmatic source for mineralisation.
Breccias commonly vary from dominated by wall rock
clasts with little milling typically in marginal settings, to
those characterised by a mix of milled intrusion and/
or wall rock clasts. These breccias are distinguished
from the magmatic hydrothermal breccias by the lack
of large scale clast transport and often display lower
grade Au or Cu mineralisation, typically within open
space breccias and cross cutting veins, which is derived
from the magmatic source at depth. These less evolved
breccias also lack significant collapse.
4.4.4.3.1 The San Cristobal Au deposit in northern
Chile, which represents a complex wall rock hosted
intrusion breccia, began production in December 1990
with a heap leachable resource of 10.1 M T @ 1.34
g/t Au (Egert and Kasaneva, 1995). A set of felsic
dykes and breccias exploit a regional scale conjugate
fracture within the metavolcanic (Zanelli Formation)
wall rocks close to the intersection with the margin of
an outcropping granite porphyry, interpreted as related
to the source for mineralisation (figure 4.14). Wall
rocks are cut by early rhyolite which is in turn cut by
later quartz eye porphyry, to form breccias categorised
(Corbett, unpubl. report, 1990) as (figure 4.15):
• Zanelli breccia – brecciated metavolcanic wall
rocks with early regional chlorite alteration,
present at the margin of the complex.
• Transitional breccia – poorly brecciated chlorite
altered metavolcanic with minor large (10 cm)
angular felsic clasts with moderate silica-sericite-
pyrite alteration.
• Felsic breccia – well milled sub rounded typically
felsic and metavolcanic clasts to only a few cm in
size and with strong silica-sericite-pyrite (phyllic)
alteration, present at the centre of the system.
A B

quartz eye porphyry

Fortuna

? ?
Balaco ? ?
Pobre Diablo ?
San Cristobal
?

Balaco
Choca
N
Choca
Pobre
Diablo
Zanelli Complex
0 100m metamorphic
0 1km rocks
CORBETT ai~1562 CORBETT ai1564

C Veins , crackle and fluidised

breccias, and disseminated
Quartz eye porphyry

Rhyolite

Felsic breccia

Zanelli breccia

Transitional breccia

Zanelli complex basement

Altered Zanelli complex

1565

Figure 4.14 San Cristobal mine wall rock magmatic hydrothermal breccia.
A - Geology of the San Cristobal wall rock hosted porphyry, from Corbett, unpubl report, 1990.
B - Regional setting where a NW trending conjugate fracture transects the margin of a granite porphyry, from Corbett, unpubl report,
1990.
C - View looing south over the poorly exposed granite porphyry on which the leach pads lie towards outcropping ridges of Zanelli
Formation wall rocks with the open pit in the top left corner.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 15

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B
pre-mining surface

rootless
porphyry

F
C
marginal
fault disseminated
Tbx
pyrite
mineralisation

CORBETT ai1563

Figure 4.15 San Cristobal mine breccia rock types.

A - Conceptual model for formation of the breccia body, from
Corbett, unpubl report, 1990.
B - Transition breccia characterised by felsic dyke clasts in a
brecciated chlorite altered Zanelli wall rock.
C - Felsic breccia characterised by milled silicified felsic and wall E
rock clasts.
D - Quartz eye (granite) porphyry cut by oxidised mineralised
sheeted quartz-pyrite veins.
E - Weathered carbonate-base metal Au vein evidenced by MnO.

Mineralisation is of the low sulphidation quartz-
sulphide Au + Cu and carbonate-base metal Au style
(sections 7.1.1 & 7.1.1) which is heavily oxidised
and no doubt contains a component of near surface
supergene Au enrichment, as typical of quartz-
sulphide mineralisation (section 7.5.2). While larger
veins with strong MnO stain (typical of carbonate-
base metal Au deposits) have previously been
exploited, the San Cristobal mine was worked (by
Inca del Oro a subsidiary of Niugini Mining Ltd) as a
bulk low grade heap leach operation which extracted
ore comprising oxidised disseminated sulphides in
the breccias as well as stockwork veins and lodes,
best developed in the most competent quartz eye
porphyry, which is no doubt linked to the magmatic
source (figures 4.14 & 4.15). There are strong
similarities with Kidston as the breccia types, style
of mineralisation and the manner in which coarser
grained quartz eye porphyry cuts rhyolite, interpreted
to represent a progression in magma source from the
margin the more central region of the magma body
at depth. However, San Cristobal is a smaller, more
proximal to the interpreted intrusion source and less
16
Economic Geo. _ JH
evolved system than the Kidston breccia pipe (below).
San Cristobal is not a breccia pipe and so does not
feature collapse followed by mineralisation with a
well developed link to the more deeply buried magma
source.
4.4.4.3.2 Similar wall rock hosted mineralised breccia
at the East Breccia, Cananea porphyry Cu-Mo district,
comprises tongues of quartz monzonite dykes within
brecciated volcanic wall rock and a partly domed
contact with overlying volcanics along with a breccia
matrix of quartz, pyrite, chalcopyrite and molybdite
(Perry, 1961). While brecciation continues to depth,
sulphide mineralisation has accumulated at the top of
the pipe close to the contact with wall rocks (figure
4.22, section 4.4.4.4.2 below).
4.4.4.4 Magmatic hydrothermal breccia pipes
Magmatic hydrothermal breccias may occur within
distinct pipes developed as a result of hydrothermal
eruptions at porphyry and sub-volcanic crustal levels
without venting to the surface. Pipes commonly
Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual
display earliest magmatic injection followed by
collapse prior to the main event of mineralisation
which fills open space. Breccias therefore vary in
different portions of pipes from breccias dominated
by transport of milled intrusion clasts within the
injection phases, to tabular locally derived less
milled clasts in the collapse phases (figure 4.16).
Hydrothermal alteration is dominated by silica-
sericite-chlorite-pyrite and local clay as phyllic-argillic
alteration. Sheeted fractures locally promote collapse
and act as channel ways for later hydrothermal fluids
and so may host most mineralisation, and also act as
feeders for mineralisation within adjacent breccias.
Magmatic hydrothermal breccias are most commonly
associated with deeper epithermal (quartz-sulphide Au
+ Cu to carbonate-base metal Au) mineralisation at
Kidston, Australia or Golden Sunlight, Montana, USA,
varying to deeper level Cu breccias overlying porphyry
deposits such as in the Cananea District (Perry, 1961,
below).
4.4.4.4.1 The Kidston Au
deposit (>4 M oz Au production from an initial 2.7 M
oz Au @ 1.58 g/t Au resource; Baker and Tullemans,
1990) is localised where the intersection of regional
scale conjugate NE and NW factures tap the buried
Permo-carboniferous felsic magmatic source rocks
and cuts an intrusive contact between Precambrian
granodiorite and metamorphic host rocks (figure 3.6;
Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein). The
buried magmatic source is evidenced by the numerous
Permo-carboniferous dykes and hydrothermal
alteration within a gravity low arch (from Oversby
et al., 1980) which is coincident with outcropping
Precambrian metamorphic rocks between the Wirra
Wirra Caldera and Lochaber Ring Dyke Complex, and
includes the Au-anomalous Mt Borium breccia-dome
complex (figure 3.6).
The Kidston breccia pipe is elongate to the NE as
a 1200 x 800 m body emplaced at the same time
as sub-volcanic felsic dyke activity, as the pipe cuts
some rhyolite dykes while others cut the pipe margin
followed by coarser grained quartz feldspar porphyry
dykes (figure 4.16). While the spherulitic nature of
the earlier rhyolite dykes is consistent with a volatile-
rich source, a major coarse grained quartz-feldspar
porphyry dyke is constrained wholly within the pipe
and no doubt emplaced at a late stage after the pipe
has formed. The earlier rhyolites are interpreted to
have been derived from the margins of the magma
source and then the later quartz feldspar porphyry

Figure 4.16 Magmatic hydrothermal breccia. Geology of the Kidston breccia pipe, from mapping by Corbett, 1981. The initial open pit
exploited the sheeted quartz veins at the SW pipe margin, while the Eldridge Mineralisation was mined from below the block in the
eastern portion of the pit and no doubt accounts for high grade mineralisation identified near there during 1981 exploration.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 17

Economic Geo. _ JH
dykes from a more central portion of the intrusion
after it had been tapped by explosive eruption. The
presence of rucked-up clasts comprising porphyry
intrusion with quartz-Mo veins and others with UST
(unidirectional solidification textures) quartz vein
textures and local tourmaline fill breccias (figure 4.17),
all suggest a Mo porphyry-style intrusion was involved
in the breccia pipe formation. The UST textures are
typical of an intrusion carapace.
Breccias at Kidston were characterised (Corbett,
unpubl., 1981) as (figures 4.16 – 4.18):
• Intrusion breccia (termed ‘volcanic breccia’ in
1981) represents the centre of breccia activity and
features injected rock clasts such as milled quartz
feldspar porphyry along with the rucked-up rock
clasts described above with common sulphide
matrix emplaced into open space (figure 4.18).
• Polymictic breccia rims the intrusion breccia as a
mix of variably milled injected and locally derived
breccia clasts (figure 4.18). The harder intrusion
clasts which have travelled further from depth are
typically more milled and rounded than locally
A B
derived softer angular metamorphic clasts. This
breccia is interpreted to display an injection and
collapse character.
• Collapse style granodiorite and metamorphic
breccia bodies which extend from the polymictic
breccias to the breccia pipe margin (figure 4.16)
are matrix poor and clast supported, with clasts
which are not mixed or milled by significant
transport (figure 4.18). The breccias which
feature only rare intrusion clasts are dominated
by basement granodiorite or metamorphic clasts
which mirror the basement contact.
A mega block breccia discernible only on the open pit
wall close to the polymictic collapse breccia contact
comprises flat dipping elongate (shingle-like) blocks
to tens of metres long of rebrecciated earlier breccia
formed by collapse (figures 4.18 & 4.19). Open space
where NW fractures cut the NE pipe margin hosts
low grade Au with sulphides and carbonate. The
metamorphic foliation provides a marker to gauge the
decreased rotation of blocks, moving outwards at the
pipe margin.

D C

Figure 4.17 Magmatic hydrothermal injection breccias within the

E
Kidston breccia pipe shown as volcanic breccias in figure 4.16.
A - Rucked up clast of porphyry with quartz Mo veins.
B - Tourmaline matrix breccia.
C - Rucked up clast of unidirectional solidification textures (UST)
typical of the tops of magma chambers.
D - Flow banded spherulitic rhyolite dyke.
E - Injection breccia comprising quartz-feldspar porphyry clasts
and sulphide matrix.

18 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

C D

Figure 4.18 Kidston collapse breccias developed within the central portion of the breccia pipe (figure 4.16).
A - Polymictic breccia in outcrop from the centre of the pipe.
B - Polymictic breccia on the open pit wall at Wises Hill, viewed from outside the pipe, showing flat lying mega blocks of polyphasal
breccia (with mine truck for scale).
C - Collapse breccia dominated by granodiorite clasts with minor sulphides in the matrix.
D - Collapse breccia dominated by metamorphic clasts with minor sulphides in the matrix.

The Kidston breccia pipe is interpreted (Corbett and
Leach, 1998) to have developed by explosive eruption
of volatiles venting from the carapace of a speculated
buried magmatic source, of probably porphyry Mo-Au
style, as evidenced by clast types (above). Magmatic
activity began with the emplacement of volatile-
rich spherulitic rhyolite dykes. Brecciation followed
with the explosive injection of the intrusion breccia
dominated by felsic (quartz feldspar porphyry) clasts
emanating from the fractured magmatic source, and
originally provided with the ‘volcanic breccia’ field
term (figure 4.17). Hard clasts are well milled from
extensive (upward) transport within the polymictic
breccia. Collapse, which followed the venting of
volatiles from the underlying carapace and creation
of open space, is manifest as the collapse breccia
(above) with angular poorly milled soft metamorphic
and granodiorite clasts which underwent only modest
collapse transport, discernible from the reorientation
of the metamorphic foliation. The intervening
polymictic breccia developed in the region of breccia
mixing and limited milling between the strongly milled
injection breccia and essentially unmilled collapse
breccia (figure 4.16). Collapse was no doubt facilitated
by movement on the sheeted fractures which kink
around the pipe margin (figures 4.16 & 4.19) and
correspond to shear fractures discussed above.
source and so are best mineralised (figure 4.19). Some
mineralisation associated with faults within the pipe
was later found to have ponded under larger collapsed
wall rock blocks within the pipe. The low sulphidation
carbonate-base metal Au style, quartz-sulphide-
carbonate vein and breccia mineralogy (with high
temperature pyrrhotite and black Fe-rich sphalerite;
section 4.20), is consistent with a deeply eroded pipe
which Max Baker (Baker, 1987; Baker and Andrew,
1991) suggests did not vent to the surface.
Kidston illustrates the sequence of events
from injection to collapse brecciation and later
mineralisation within a breccia pipe related to sub-
volcanic intrusions and containing rucked up deeper
level porphyry clasts as an indication of an interpreted
magmatic source. The progression from rhyolite to
quartz eye porphyry dykes suggests initial eruption
was derived from the marginal carapace of the magma
source which became fractured to allow deeper level
magmas to vent into the pipe and adjacent wall rocks
(figures 4.11 & 4.12). Mineralisation, of the intrusion-
related low sulphidation epithermal styles, mostly
post-dates the initiation of brecciation and collapse.

Later mineralisation vented from a magmatic source

at depth into open space in the breccias and sheeted
veins. The injection breccias and sheeted veins
display the strongest connection to the magmatic

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 19

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

D E

Figure 4.19 Mineralisation at the Kidston breccia pipe.

A - Sheeted quartz veins in a 1980 surface exposure.
B - Open pit about 1994 looking east and showing the sheeted fracture/veins. The figure 4.18 B breccias are on the left wall.
C - Sheeted fractures on the pit wall at the breccia pipe margin.
D - Sheeted fractures with a typical quartz vein.
E - A specimen of a particularly thick quartz vein showing open space fill textures comprising centrally terminated quartz, dark Fe-rich
high temperature sphalerite, lesser galena-sulphide and the Fe sulphides, pyrite, chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite.

4.4.4.4.2 The La Colorada pipe at the Cananea
porphyry Cu-Mo district, Mexico (Perry, 1961)
provides an example of the mechanism for the
formation of mineralised sulphide breccias associated
with porphyry Cu-Mo emplacement (figure 4.20).
Perry (1961) describes an interpreted sequence of
events associated with the uppermost portion of
a vertically attenuated plug of polyphasal quartz
porphyry. A dome-like fracture pattern developed
within andesite wall rock overlying a void at the top
of an original spine-like intrusion stock, and some
andesite collapsed as renewed intrusion progressed to
higher levels. Perry (op cit) goes on to describe upward
propagating brecciation which was eventually cut by
quartz-sulphide followed by Cu-Mo mineralisation
such that some angular Cu sulphide clasts occur within
a comminuted breccia matrix (figure 4.20). This is
similar to the quartz-clast, sulphide-matrix breccias
at Goonumbla, Australia (figure 4.20 D). The Cu
breccia matrix therefore post-dates quartz and caps an
intrusive stock which hosts typical porphyry Cu-Mo
mineralisation. Rupture associated with a vertically
attenuated porphyry Cu has focused the development
of Cu sulphide breccias at the top of the intrusion.
The late sulphides were derived from the cooling
much larger magmatic source at depth.

20 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A
time

A B C D
surfa
renewed p resent c e
magmatism
upward
propagating copper 1800m
breccia mineralisation
domed
fractures
andesite
blocks 1600m
subsidence
dome
void 1400m

1200m
fractures
quartz
porphyry primary
1000m
porphyry
Cu - Mo

0 200m La Colorada, Cananea.

Corbett modified from Perry (1961)
CORBETT ai1519

B C

Figure 4.20 Sulphide breccias develop from fluids exsolved from

porphyry intrusions.
A - Illustration of the model for the La Colorada pipe, Cananea,
Mexico, grading from: A - intrusion, venting of volatiles
and subsidence of the carapace, B - renewed magmatism
and collapse, C - upward breccia propagation and, D – Cu
mineralisation, modified from Perry, 1961.
B - Sulphide matrix breccia, Ok Tedi, Papua New Guinea.
C - Sulphide matrix breccia, Cadia district, Australia.
D - Sulphide matrix breccia, Goonumbla, Australia.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 21

Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.4.4.3 At the Cargo porphyry Cu-Au prospect,
Australia, a magmatic hydrothermal breccia displays a
polyphasal activation in a setting in the upper region
of porphyry intrusions characterised by altered
wall rock and near-porphyry radial D veins (figure
3.52). The variety of clasts in the Cargo breccia
include andesite and dacite wall rock with pre-breccia
quartz veins, sericite altered dacite, potassic altered
monzonite and K-feldspar altered dacite, all set in a
dacite matrix with K-feldspar alteration extending into
the adjacent wall rocks (figure 4.21). The breccia hosts
porphyry quartz vein clasts with K-feldspar selvages
and contains later quartz-carbonate-pyrite-chalcopyrite
veins and breccia fill typical of deep epithermal wall
rock settings above porphyry intrusions as "out of
porphyry mineralisation". The potassic (magnetite
- K-feldspar) altered monzonite with chalcopyrite
on fractures, occurs as larger and less milled clasts,
that appear to have been incorporated in the breccia
late in the brecciation process and are cut by later
actinolite-quartz-carbonate veins. The same monzonite
is recognised as a dyke in the wall rocks with quartz-
Mo and sheeted quartz veins with K-feldspar selvages,
and may be derived from a buried monzonite source
for the extensive magnetite flooding of the wall rocks.
Local elongate shingle-like andesite wall rock clasts
suggest some collapse has taken place.

B C

D E

Figure 4.21. Magmatic hydrothermal breccias, Cargo, Australia. Drill hole 91CN1 Londonderry Drillcore Library, WB Clarke Geoscience
Centre, NSW Planning & Environment Resources & Energy.
A - Polyphasal magmatic hydrothermal breccia.
B - Quartz veined wall rock andesite clast in a breccia with sulphide-carbonate fill.
C - Monzonite porphyry breccia with sulphide-carbonate breccia fill.
D - Polyphasal breccia cut by quartz veins.
E - Polyphasal breccia cut by quartz veins.

22 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.4.5 Decompression breccias
Rapid depressurisation of a rock body may result
in the formation of onion-skin style breccias
characterised by a central ovoid core and curvilinear
sickle-shaped exfoliated clasts, termed (Baker et al.,
1986) decompression breccias. Clasts may undergo
pressure reduction by rapid transport to elevated
settings or rapid unroofing. One example from Borneo
cropped out adjacent to a fault where a body of host
rock was either up-faulted or the fault movement
rapidly relieved the confining pressure, resulting in the
rapid depressurisation of the rock body and formation
of the decompression breccia (figure 4.22 A & B).
Decompression breccias are common in association
with shingle breccias and tourmaline breccia pipes
discussed below where they are interpreted to have
formed by rapid decompression in association
with breccia pipe formation (below), and may then
have been in-fill by tourmaline matrix (figure 4.11).
Depressurisation results in the explosive expansion of
any body of rock to provide the onion skin breccia
character which be in-filled by tourmaline matrix, or
become dismembered by later breccia movement and
transport, especially if collapse follows brecciation
(figure 4.22).

A B

C D

Figure 4.22 Decompression breccias showing the characteristic onion form and sickle-shaped clasts.
A & B - Decompression breccias within a fault plane, Borneo.
C & D - Tourmaline matrix decompression breccias showing central core and sickle-shaped marginal clasts, Yabricoya, Chile.
E - Decompression breccia, Tooloom, Australia, with shingle-like clasts.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 23

Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.4.6 Collapse breccias
Collapse breccias in hydrothermal ore systems
commonly feature slab-like blocks with a sub-
horizontal orientation, locally comprising pre-existing
breccias and varying from metre to many tens of
metres in size (figures 4.12). The Kidston breccia pipe
is interpreted to display collapse on the ring fractures,
evidenced by flat-lying blocks of rebrecciated breccia
discernible on the pit walls and large blocks of wall
rock mapped inside the pipe (figures 4.16 - 4.18).
Similar slab-like breccias are recognised within larger
areas of pyrite flooded breccia in the Ladolam open
pit, Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea (figure 4.41
D). Slab breccias recognised at the Ardlethan Tin
Mine, Australia by Taylor (2009) were provided with
a collapse mechanism of formation by Clarke et al.
(1985) to account for the inward dipping slab breccia
form filled with quartz-tourmaline-sulphide matrix. At
Cornwall, England, Allman-Ward et al., (1982) cite the
presence of blocks of overlying wall rock as evidence
of collapse within breccias at the granite carapace
(cupola, upper margin or apophysis). These and other
quartz-tourmaline breccias (below) feature collapse
as a primary mechanism of formation (Corbett
and Leach, 1998). At the Donoso Breccia Complex
(section 4.4.4.8.1) wall rock clasts have collapsed
300 metres into the breccias. Perry (1961) noted the
presence of andesite wall rocks within the porphyry
cupola as evidence for collapse at La Colorada breccia
pipe, Cananea, Mexico (figure 4.20; section 4.4.4.4.2).
While a variety of mechanisms are proposed to
account for development of collapse breccias, the
escape of volatiles from the top of the magma
chamber and subsequent collapse is preferred (Corbett
and Leach, 1998). Similarly, collapse into a carapace
void created by volatile escape was provided by Clarke
et al., (1985) as the preferred mechanism at Ardlethan
Tin Mine, Australia, who also considered several other
possibilities as:
• Magma withdrawal (Perry, 1961).
• Withdrawal following escape of a volatile bubble
(Norton and Cathles, 1973).
• Dissolution by corrosive fluids (Sillitoe and
Sawkins, 1971).
• Late collapse in the upper portion of an intrusive
breccia.
• Mineralisation stoping and block caving (Locke,
1926).
Thus, collapse is a common feature in many breccia
pipes as discussed below.
24 Section 4
Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.4.7 Shingle breccias
Shingle breccias (also called ‘domino breccias’, Sillitoe,
1985; or ‘imbricate breccias’, Baker et al., 1986) occur
mostly as stacked angular elongate clasts similar to
roof shingles or books, generally a few cm thick and
up to a metre long (figure 4.2 A, 4.23 & 4.24). Shingle
breccias display some transitional relationships to
slab breccias although the former are smaller and
commonly display a silica-tourmaline matrix. As there
is little clast transport, shingle breccias are generally
monomictic, except where near intrusion contacts
and significant collapse is recognised. Most shingle
breccias display a fluidised matrix comprising of
rock flour and tourmaline-silica + sulphide which
provides a variable separation between clasts and also
contributes towards the alteration of clasts. Retrograde
shingle breccias with kaolin fill were recognised within
wall rock above a porphyry intrusion in a deeply
dissected terrain associated with low sulphidation
polymetallic Ag-Au epithermal mineralisation at
Tahuehueto, Mexico (figure 4.23 E). Tourmaline
matrix decompression breccias may be included within
the shingle breccia group as they commonly occur
together (figure 4.22 E).
Shingle breccias display remarkable similarity from
a variety of different locations. Some are recognised
in wall rocks above speculated porphyry intrusions
in terrains characterised by low sulphidation (deep)
epithermal mineralisation such as Tooloom and Mt
Terrible, Eastern Australia (figure 4.23), with local
onion skin style decompression breccias (figure 4.22
E). Many of the best examples of shingle breccias
occur within tourmaline breccia pipes described from
the Andes (Sillitoe and Sawkins, 1971; Corbett and
Leach, 1998) where they are prospected for Cu-Au
mineralisation, or Cornwall (Allman-Ward et al.,
1982), Eastern Australia (Clarke et al., 1985; Baker
et al., 1986), and Korea and elsewhere, where they
are prospected for Sn mineralisation. There must be
common themes in the mode of formation for similar
breccias to occur in different terrains. Shingle breccias
are therefore represent an important component of
tourmaline breccia pipes and indicative of collapse
(below).
Corbett Short Course Manual
 A C

Figure 4.23 Shingle breccias comprise stacked elongate angular clasts.

A - Tourmaline filled shingle breccia, Huaraz, Peru.
B - Disaggregated shingle breccia as the shingle clasts separate with increased tourmaline matrix fill, Mt Terrible, Australia.
C - Shingle breccia characterised by parallel elongate clasts with tourmaline in-fill, Mt Terrible, Australia.
D - Shingle breccia with quartz-sulphide mineralisation infill, Tooloom, Australia
E - Shingle breccia with kaolin matrix, Tahuehueto, Mexico.

4.4.4.8 Tourmaline breccia pipes
Tourmaline breccia pipes (references above) display
ovoid shapes in plan view and are commonly rimmed
by steep dipping sheeted fractures which may be
kinked as straight segments about the pipe margin and
contain quartz-sulphide veins. Both the ovoid shape
and sheeted veins may be accentuated to reflect local
stress conditions. Pipes, which are not considered to
have vented to the surface during formation, tend
to display vertically continuous cylindrical forms
with steep margins although some are flared in the
upper portions and others might taper significantly
in the lower portions. Tourmaline breccia pipes are
filled with wall rock clast shingle and decompression
breccias, characterised by little clast transport with
matrix dominated by silica-tourmaline + anhydrite-
specularite-sulphide and are locally mined for Sn,
Cu and minor Au in different terrains (figure 4.24).
Sericite alteration of clasts may grade inward from the
clast margins where the flat dipping tension fractures
and steep dipping collapse fractures provide the fluid
plumbing system.
The model proposed for the development of
tourmaline breccia pipes (above; Corbett and Leach,
1998) features eruption, collapse and mineralised
hydrothermal fluid injection into fractured wall
rocks above the upper portions (cupolas, carapace
or apophyses) of intrusions varying in size from
batholiths to plutons as cooling and degassing magma
source bodies. The source intrusions all contain
primary boron which migrates to apophysis during
cooling where the boron allows a hydrous melt to cool
to very low temperatures and hence at an elevated
crustal setting (Allman-Ward et al., 1982). Some
workers note zoned tourmaline wall rock alteration
parallel to the upper contact of tourmaline granites
(Charoy, 1979 in Allman-Ward et al., 1982).
Depressurisation of over pressurised fluids formerly
constrained at a failed intrusion carapace may result
in the sufficient fluid expansion described during
instantaneous retrograde boiling (above, Phillips,
1973; Burnham, 1997) to lift a body of wall rock
overlying the intrusion, typically utilising shear
fractures developed within the wall rock shoulders to
the underlying intrusion (Phillips, 1974, 1986). Flat-

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 25

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

sheeted fractures

decompression
breccia

burst breccia
sheeted fractures
sheeted fractures

collapse of sheeted
fractures shingle breccia
C

apophysis or
fluids exploit fractures carapace
to form shingle to intrusion
breccia

CORBETT ai1522

D E

Figure 4.24 Model for the formation of tourmaline breccia pipes characterised by eruption, collapse and matrix fill.
A - Graphic illustrates the vertical zonation from uppermost fractures which grade downwards to shingle breccias and then to less
elongate breccias.
B - Flat dipping tourmaline-filled fractured wall rocks in the vicinity of the upper portion of a tourmaline breccia pipe, Yabricoya,
Northern Chile.
C - Initial development of flat dipping shingle breccias with tourmaline matrix, Yabricoya, Northern Chile.
D - Shingle breccia with tourmaline-quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite fill in the central portion of breccia pipe geometry, Remolinos, Central
Chile.
E - Tourmaline breccia with less elongate clasts and increased matrix in the deeper levels of breccia pipe geometry, Remolinos, Central
Chile.
dipping fractures (figure 4.24) may form at this stage. shear fractures at the margins. Collapse promotes the
Steep-dipping burst breccias, formed in settings such opening of flat lying hydraulic tension fractures within
as proximal to the shear fractures, as well as onion skin the pipe, extending into the adjacent wall rocks (figure
decompression breccias are indicative of the rapid 4.24). Where there is greatest collapse inside the pipe
pressure reduction followed by the fill of open space the sheeted fractures disaggregate to form shingle
with a silica-tourmaline + sulphide matrix (figure 4.12 breccias by the fill of open space by the tourmaline
& 4.24). In the model described above, a void created matrix, locally with fluidised textures (Corbett and
at the top of the magma chamber by evacuation of Leach, 1998). Allman-Ward et al. (1982) document
volatiles and magma withdrawal (apparent on the data collapse evidenced by the mixing of overlying wall
of Perry, 1961), promotes collapse of the raised body rock clasts in a tourmaline breccia at Cornwall, U.K,
of wall rock within the pipe, aided by the pre-existing while Clarke et al. (1985) cite the slab-like tabular
26 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
breccia clasts as evidence for collapse at Ardlethan
Tin Mine, Australia. The shingle breccias pass with
increased depth to equidimensional angular clast
matrix supported breccias with little appreciable
transport or rounding (Remolinos breccia pipe, Chile;
figure 4.24).
Mineralisation includes Sn as cassiterite at Cornwall
and the Herberton district of northeast, and typical
near porphyry Cu ± Au (chalcopyrite-pyrite) in
Andean pipes, while deep low sulphidation quartz-
sulphide Au ± Cu mineralisation is associated with
other shingle breccias such as Tooloom and Mt
Terrible, Australia and Tahuehueto, Mexico shown in
figure 4.24. Current thinking is that brecciation occurs
after the initial porphyry emplacement and potassic-
propylitic alteration, but before drawdown and
imposition of major sericite alteration, as evidenced by
the alteration of tourmaline to dumortierite in some
porphyry systems (Caspiche, Chile), and pebble dykes
(Rio Blanco - Los Bronces, Chile; Warnaars et al.,
1985), allowing some breccias to be well placed for fill
by (deep low sulphidation epithermal) quartz-sulphide
Au mineralisation (Tooloom, Eastern Australia).
4.4.4.8.1 In Central Chile the Rio Blanco - Los
Bronces tourmaline breccias provide a good example
of breccias formed in the main porphyry Cu belt
(here Los Pelambres to El Teniente) and also present
in batholiths to the west at lower altitudes. The
DONOSO BRECCIA COMPLEX
Central Chile W Section J
Redrawn from Warnaars et al., 1985 3,800
Donoso breccia complex (figure 4.25), no doubt
comprising several pipes, at Los Bronces, displays a
surface extent of 500 x 700 m and has been traced to
a depth described by different workers as 800-1100
m (Warnaas et al., 1985; Skewes et al., 2003). Copper
grades mined underground exceed 1% Cu, although
early mining following the 1864 discovery produced
supergene ores in the order of 20% Cu, while
chalcocite coatings on sulphides provided high grades
at deeper levels in the 1980's (Warnaas, op cit). The
above workers describe generally angular tourmaline-
bearing matrix-supported monomictic breccias
developed by explosive eruption and collapse formed
after the main porphyry Cu mineralisation from 7.4
to 4.9 m.y. followed by dacite porphyry and breccia
emplacement. Wall rock andesite clasts have collapsed
300 m into the brecciated porphyry host. Considerable
erosion (Skewes et al., 2003) has exposed the central
portion of the pipe dominated by equidimensional
clasts. Mineralisation as pyrite-chalcopyrite and
minor bornite entered the matrix after brecciation
and deposited by rapid cooling (Skewes et al, 2003)
and the data of Warnaars et al (1985) illustrates high
grade Cu is best developed within the permeable pipe
margins and collapse zones (figure 4.25). Molybdenite
to 0.1% near the margin of the breccia body was
emplaced into the breccia matrix after pyrite-
chalcopyrite (Warnaars, op cit). Late pebble dykes
cut the tourmaline breccias. Skewes and co-workers
suggest brecciation was initiated late in the porphyry
event by rapid uplift
and erosion due to
the flattening of the
Donoso Breccia E subduction angle

(Skewes and Stern,

Cover
1994; Skewes et al.,
Section J
3,600 Quartz monzonite 2003).

Pommerantz
Section H level 3460m
3,400
0 200m

High grades in
collapse structures
i pe

ci ap
ec 0 200m
br
3,200
of
it
lim

W Section H E

3600

Donoso Breccia
3500
Pommerantz
level 3460m
3400 > 4.3% Cu
> 1.5% Cu
2.9-4.3% Cu
1-1.5% Cu 3300
2.1-2.9% Cu
0.4% Cu
< 2% Cu
Pommerantz 3200
< 0.4% Cu 0 100m
level
SC2012_1528

Figure 4.25 The Donoso breccia complex (pipe), Rio Blanco - Los Bronces, Chile, as a plan view at left and two cross sections at the right,
showing high grade Cu zones within collapse features and at the margins (modified from Warnaars et al., 1985).

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 27

Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.4.9 Conclusion - magmatic hydrothermal
breccias
These breccias dominate in the crustal region
immediately overlying source porphyry intrusions
extending to a higher crustal level to display an
association with sub-volcanic intrusions, although
breccia bodies are interpreted not to have vented to
the surface.
There is a typical sequence of events as:
• Pressure build up at the carapace
• Eruption, degassing of the underlying intrusion
and fracture formation
• Collapse and continued fracture development
• Mineralisation as liquid dominant fluids vent from
deeper magmatic source
The exploration implications of the successful
identification of the different styles of magmatic
hydrothermal breccias might be an understanding of
the relationship to mineralisation. Some such as pebble
dykes might vector towards porphyry systems, while
sulphide matrix breccias occur in the upper portions
of porphyry and tourmaline breccia pipes. Although
locally mined for porphyry and deep epithermal
ores, most pipes display more enigmatic relationships
to buried porphyry source rocks. Similarly, some
epithermal ores might be associated with breccia pipes,
commonly as breccia fill and vein ores.
4.4.5 Phreatomagmatic breccias
Phreatomagmatic breccias form by the interaction of
hydrothermal fluid and a hot magmatic component
as the term suggests, phreato for pressurised water
turning to steam and magmatic for the hot intrusion
driving force. Individual breccias are characterised
by clasts which are strongly milled during extensive
upward transport and mixing, set in a rock flour
matrix with associated hydrothermal alteration,
while the brecciation process features both upward
injection then collapse and later stage mineralisation,
as also recognised for other magmatic hydrothermal
breccias (figure 4.26). Diatreme breccia pipes vent to
the surface as vertically attenuated bodies, commonly
occurring in association with flow dome complexes
and are defined by a characteristic set of features
described below (figure 4.27). Where poorly eroded,
the surficial expression of a diatreme breccia pipe
is termed a maar volcano and may be filled with
lacustrine deposits, while ejecta forms tuff rings
outside the pipe overlying the adjacent wall rocks.
The scale of phreatomagmatic breccia bodies varies
from several mm scale phreatomagmatic breccia dykes
(which need not vent to the surface) to diatreme
28 Section 4
Economic Geo. _ JH
pipes with surface expression of up to > 5.5 x 2.5
km scale for the Cripple Creek diatreme, Colorado
(figure 4.39), and similar dimensions Nauti diatreme,
Morobe Goldfield, Papua New Guinea (figure
4.36). Phreatomagmatic breccias associated with
epithermal Au-Ag deposits tend to feature shallow
crustal level felsic intrusions such as dacite domes,
whereas diamond-bearing kimberlite breccia pipes
are associated with mafic source rocks derived from
considerable crustal depths. Endogenous domes may
vent to the surface forming marginal crumple breccias
(figure 4.6), and ‘juvenile intrusion clasts’ derived
from brecciation of the driving intrusion represent an
essential and characteristic component of diatreme
breccia pipes where they may display ragged shapes
indicative of emplacement while still molten (figures
4.26 & 4.29).
4.4.5.1 The term ‘diatreme breccia’
is avoided for individual breccias as there is
considerable variation in breccia style within any
breccia pipe and many aspects must be confirmed
before a breccia body might be considered a diatreme
breccia pipe. Indeed some possible diatreme breccia
pipes have remained uncertain for many years (Gold
Ridge, Solomon Islands; figure 4.40). Rather, the
preferred term for the majority of breccias formed by
phreatomagmatic processes is milled matrix breccia,
as a description of characteristic breccia composed of
rounded rock clasts which are generally supported by
a rock flour matrix formed by the comminution and
alteration (below) of rock material during brecciation
(figure 4.26). In some cases (Kelian, Indonesia, figure
4.35; Nauti breccia in the Morobe Goldfield, Papua
New Guinea, figure 4.38) locally derived softer wall
rock clasts will be less milled than harder intrusion
clasts which underwent much greater transport.
Although clasts are dominated by wall rocks or
juvenile intrusion (described below) rebrecciated
mineralised or other sulphide clasts are common,
along with local competent rebrecciated breccia
(figure 4.34 B). Milled matrix breccias locally display
a fluidised textures, especially where constrained as
phreatomagmatic dykes which exploit fractures (figure
4.29; Cinola, Canada; Chatree, Thailand; Woodlark
Is., Papua New Guinea). However, the term fluidised
breccia dykes is avoided here as fluidised breccias
are defined herein as characterised by substantial
matrix and typically only minor clast transport.
Phreatomagmatic breccia dykes typically predate
mineralisation, display polyphasal activity and locally
include geopetal structures such as graded bedding and
slump structures (figure 4.3 & 4.30). The term breccia
dykes is commonly used as the phreatomagmatic
nature might not be established for an individual dyke.
Corbett Short Course Manual
Elsewhere, fine grained milled breccias are termed may be evidenced as domes (locally endogenous with
tuffisites (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references crumple breccias), dismembered dykes within the
therein) which may be bedded or occur as cross- pipe or as juvenile intrusion clasts.Felsic (dacite to
cutting, locally polyphasal, breccia dykes (Mt Leyshon; rhyodacite) compositions dominate (figure 4.26).
Paull et al., 1990; Orr, 1995; Wormald, in press).
Diatreme breccia pipes display pronounced polyphasal
activity with later breccias cutting earlier with common
rebrecciated breccia clasts as a feature to help
distinguish hydrothermal from volcanic breccias. The
magma associated with the phreatomagmatic eruption

A B

C D

E F

Figure 4.26 Phreatomagmatic milled matrix breccias typical of diatreme breccia pipes.
A - Milled breccia with rounded clast, the Balatoc plug, Acupan, Baguio district, Philippines.
B - Milled breccia with ragged juvenile felsite clasts and accretionary lapilli, Nauti, Morobe district, Papua New Guinea.
C & D - Milled matrix breccias, Red Mountain, Philippines and Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
E - Chaotic breccia with coasts milled clast and sub-horizontal collapse structure, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
F - Chaotic coarse rounded clast polymictic breccia with milled clasts and matrix, Nauti, Morobe district, Papua New Guinea.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 29

Economic Geo. _ JH
 tuff ring with diatreme vent facies
base surge deposits
endogenous
dome
maar volcano

juvenile
intrusion dust
collapsed block

milled matrix
fluidised breccia
exploits structure

MINERALIZATION

Fissure veins major

structure
Breccia fill

Stockwork veins

Disseminated high level

felsic intrusion
Fracture/dissemination
CORBETT ai1733

Figure 4.27 Conceptual model for a typical diatreme breccia pipe and associated domes, modified from Corbett and Leach (1998).

Figure 4.28 The youthful diatreme breccia pipe at Wau, Morobe Goldfield, Papua New Guinea lies in the hanging wall of the
Escaprment Fault (fault plane marked by smoke) which dips towards the viewer. Endogenous domes crop out to the right and left of the
central pipe, while marginal crumple breccias are shown in figure 4. 6. Soft breccias have been eroded from the centre, which has also
been subject to alluvial Au mining of gold derived from high elevations. The allothonous Upper Ridges Mine block is apparent from the
grey Namie Breccia to the left of the photo centre is interpreted (Corbett and Leach, 1998) to have originially formed earlier at a deeper
crustal level and slid from the region of the Riboraster Mine on the skyline. The Edie Creek mining district is over the hill.

30 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

D
Figure 4.29 Breccia dykes, some of which have been attributed a
phreatomagmatic origin.
A - Sub-vertical phreatomagmatic breccia dyke dominated by a
milled breccia matrix and cut by later carbonate-base metal Au
mineralisation including a bedded geopetal structure, Woodlark
Is., Papua New Guinea.
B - Phreatomagmatic breccia dyke dominated by a milled breccia
matrix in the vicinity of dacite domes and cut by later carbonate-
base metal Au mineralisation, Woodlark Is., Papua New Guinea.
C - Polyphasal breccia dyke with angular clasts and pervasive
silicification, from Cinola, British Columbia, Canada.
D - Breccia dyke with angular clasts, pervasive wall rock
silicification and a geopetal structure, from Cinola, British
Columbia, Canada.

A B

C D

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 31

Economic Geo. _ JH
 Figure 4.30 Juvenile intrusion clasts within phreatomagmatic
E
breccias which feature a ragged character derived from
emplacement of molten magma.
A - The Namie milled matrix breccia which comprises milled
Kaindi phyllite and jagged Edie porphyry clasts interpreted to
have been molten at the time of emplacement (see circled clast),
from figure 4.28, Wau, Papua New Guinea.
B - Jagged felsite clast from a milled matrix breccia dyke, Mineral
Hill, Australia.
C - Jagged juvenile intrusion clasts within a milled matrix breccia
from a diatreme breccia pipe, Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New
Guinea.
D - Pale juvenile felsic intrusion clasts which are less milled than
shale/phyllite within a milled matrix breccia from a diatreme
breccia pipe, Red Mountain, Philippines.
E - Jagged Edie porphyry clasts within the Nauti diatreme
breccias, Wau, Papua New Guinea.

4.4.5.2 Collapse is an important aspect of diatreme
breccia systems. Clasts of high crustal level wall rocks
or wood (figure 4.31) are commonly recognised to
collapse several hundred metres to deeper levels within
breccia pipes (see Cripple Creek below). Similarly, the
walls of a diatreme breccia pipe may become unstable
and allow portions of the tuff ring and underlying
basement to collapse into the breccia pipe. Large
wall rock blocks are also common as a reflection
of collapse after initial explosion. By contrast
smaller scale collapse provides localised bedding
within otherwise chaotic breccias (figure 4.26 E).
Accretionary lapilli, interpreted to have formed above
any volcanic vent as steam condenses and falls as rain
accreting suspended mud, are traditionally regarded
as an indication of a surficial environment, although
accretionary fabrics are also recognised in faults
(figure 4.2 D). Accretionary lapilli are common within
milled matrix breccias and bedded accretionary lapilli
developed within tuff rings may collapse into the
body of a breccia pipe. Reverse grading is common in
these rocks as the coarser lapilli deposit after fine tuff
(figure 4.31 E).

A B C

D E

Figure 4.32 Surficial features and collapse within diatreme breccia pipes.
A - Collapsed block within the Nauti diatreme breccia pipe, Wau, Papua New Guinea.
B - Collapsed wood clast within breccias, Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
C - Milled matrix breccia with accretionary lapilli and juvenile intrusion clasts, one jagged at the bottom, Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New
Guinea.
D - Milled matrix breccia with accretionary lapilli and juvenile intrusion clasts, Kelian, Indonesia.
E - Bedded milled matrix breccia with reverse grading defined by coarser lapilli in the upper portions of each bed, Kelian, Indonesia.

32 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.5.3 Milled matrix breccias vary from massive A
diatreme breccia pipe fill, to tuff-like layers in the
upper portions of diatreme breccia pipes, and cross-
cutting breccia dykes which may be polyphasal (figure
4.29). Clastic material ejected from diatreme breccia
pipes collapses as base surge deposits to form tuff
ring deposits outside the diatreme breccia pipe (figure
4.32 C) characterised by low angle cross bedding.
Elsewhere tuff ring deposits may be well bedded and
commonly contain accretionary lapilli, especially as
layers, which are a characteristic feature in the upper
portions of diatreme breccia pipes (figure 4.32).
Layers of accretionary lapilli derived from polyphasal
eruptions and fine milled matrix breccia often display B
reverse grading (Kelian, Indonesia; figure 4.31).

Finely comminution of volcanic material, locally

termed tuffisite (above), is deposited in layers by
polyphasal eruptions, to display the appearance
of bedded volcanic rocks, although clay-chlorite-
pyrite pyrite alteration commonly provides some
linkage to the hydrothermal process. Similarly, many
phreatomagmatic breccias comprised of milled
clasts are similar to conglomerates and may be
bedded as in the case of Gold Ridge in the Solomon
Islands (figure 4.40) which remains to be classed as
C
a breccia pipe with certainty (section 4.4.5.10). The
soft hydrothermally altered breccias in the Bulolo
Graben, Guinea, are dissected by Webiak and Nauti
Creeks as well as the road to Hidden Valley Mine, to
expose a compete section through tuff ting deposits
at high elevations grading down to coarse boulder
conglomerates.

4.4.5.4 Hydrothermal alteration in phreatomagmatic

breccias associated with epithermal Au-Ag deposits is
derived from the interaction of the volatile-rich fluids
involved in phreatomagmatic brecciation (the ‘phreato’
part of the term) with brecciated rock, and divided
between alteration typical of high or low sulphidation
epithermal mineralisation. Phreatomagmatic breccias
associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au
deposits (Yanacocha, Pucamarca & La Virgin, Peru;
Veladero & Lama Argentina; Pascua, Chile; Lepanto,
Philippines) typically display silicification locally
grading outwards to silica-alunite and thence clay
alteration. The diatreme at Wafi, Papua New Guinea,
which is interpreted to pre-date high sulphidation
alteration and mineralisation, provided enhanced
permeability for fluid flow and so is strongly altered
(figure 4.42). The rapid rise and expansion of
depressurised fluids within phreatomagmatic eruptions
could provide the mechanism for formation of the
acidic fluids responsible for alteration associated
with high sulphidation epithermal deposits (section
Figure 4.32 Bedded phreatomagmatic breccias and tuff rings.
A - Bedded Namie breccias characterised by milled shale and
felsite clasts along with accretionary lapilli indicative of a
surficial deposit, Wau, Papua New Guinea.
B - Bedded layers of fine and coarse grained breccias, Pascua,
Chile.
C - Tuff ring overlies wall rocks at the margin of a breccia pipe,
Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
1.2.2.3). Phreatomagmatic breccias associated with
low sulphidation epithermal Au deposits display
zoned argillic alteration of the milled matrix breccias
provided by reaction with evolving near neutral
chloride fluids. Deeply eroded pipes (Mt Leyshon &
Mt Terrible, Australia; Carolina, Argentina; Cripple
Creek, Colorado) may be dominated by silica-sericite
alteration providing more competent breccias
which are more likely to host a mineralised matrix.
At higher crustal levels to less competent breccias
characterised by illite-pyrite alteration (Lihir, Wau,

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 33

Economic Geo. _ JH
Kerimenge, Nauti, Crater Mountain in Papua New A
Guinea; San Cristobal, Bolivia; Kelian, Indonesia;
Acupan, Philippines), and local smectite-kaolinite
alteration at highest crustal levels. As the illite altered
breccias in the upper portions of diatreme breccia
pipe tend to be incompetent, mineralisation may be
better developed in the more competent adjacent
wall rocks and pipe margin (Kelian, Indonesia, figure
3.24; Acupan, Philippines, figure 4.34; Kerimenge,
Papua New Guinea, figure 4.37). Indeed some
phreatomagmatic breccias at Kelian were originally
termed ‘muddy breccias’ because of the soft and
incompetent character derived from milled basement
shale (figure 4.35 A). Volatiles released from cooling B
fluids during the deposition of sulphide minerals
may rise and oxidise in the vadose zone to form low
pH groundwaters which react with the wall rocks
to form acid sulphate caps in the uppermost near
surficial portions of some diatreme breccia pipes (San
Cristobal, Bolivia, figure 4.43).

4.4.5.5 Gold mineralisation post-dates initial

phreatomagmatic brecciation within diatreme breccia
pipes and fluidised breccias as host rock competency
represents a prominent control to mineralisation.
Deeply eroded systems with more competent sericite C
alteration are more likely to contain mineralisation in
open space breccias (Mt Leyshon, Australia; figure
4.33 A), whereas the incompetent nature of higher
crustal level illite-smectite altered diatreme fill (above)
promotes the development of mineralisation within
marginal competent host rocks close to the margin
(Kelian, Indonesia, figure 4.35; Kerimenge, Papua
New Guinea figure 4.37; Acupan, Indonesia, figure
4.34). For high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits
phreatomagmatic eruptions provide the rapid venting
and depressurisation for the essential fluid evolution,
for mineral deposition within the matrix (Yanacocha,
Figure 4.33 Gold mineralisation deposited as matrix within
Peru, figure 4.33), or at the margins (Lepanto, phreatomagmatic breccias.
Philippines). Many low sulphidation quartz-sulphide A - Carbonate-base metal Au style characterised by galena-
Au - carbonate-base metal Au deposits are associated sphalerite-pyrite in which dark high temperature sphalerite is
with phreatomagmatic breccias commonly as diatreme consistent with a deep level of erosion, Mt Leyshon, Australia.
B - Quartz sulphide style Au characterised by Au within pyrite,
breccia pipes (Kelian, Indonesia; Acupan, Philippines; Carolina, Argentina.
Wau, Kerimenge & Lihir Is.; Papua New Guinea; C - Sulphide matrix high sulphidation epithermal Au
Cripple Creek, Montana Tunnels, USA; Carolina, mineralisation, Yanacocha, Peru.
Argentina), which tap the magmatic source at depth
and provide open space environments for mineral
deposition.

34 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B
N

0 200m

Diatreme breccia Open-space breccia

(Balatoc ‘Plug’)
Diorite G.W. Orebody

Andesitic volcanics Vein

Fault CORBETT ai1736

Figure 4.34 Gold mineralisation at the margin of a diatreme breccia pipe, as the GW breccia pipes marginal to the Balatoc plug
diatreme breccia pipe, Acupan gold mine, Philippines
A - Plan of the Balatoc plug showing location of the GW breccia pipes, from Damasco and Guzman (1977)
B - Milled matrix breccia within the Balatoc plug, Acupan, Philippines. Note the FeO stain derived from the weathering of pyrite clasts.
C - A GW breccia comprising an open space wall rock clast breccia filled with carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation, 15-30 g/t Au.

4.4.5.6 The verification of diatreme breccia pipes
as exploration tools which might vector towards
mineralisation should focus upon the presence of:
• Evidence of felsic magmatic activity, varying from
juvenile intrusion clasts within a milled matric
breccia, to domes, including endogenous domes,
and dykes which may be dismembered.
• An overall form of the breccia as a pipe or dyke-
like fluidised breccias localised within structures.
• Evidence that the breccia body has vented, such
as the presence of bedded tuff ring deposits,
collapsed carbonised wood and accretionary lapilli.
High and low sulphidation epithermal mineralisation
broadly occurs adjacent to shallow level breccia pipes
and within deeper ones.
Lastly, the intense hydrothermal alteration within
permeable breccias associated with high sulphidation
epithermal Au deposits may make verification of
the magmatic component difficult, and so some
breccias might initially be regarded as phreatic-
phreatomagmatic (below).
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.5.7 At the Kelian Au deposit carbonate-base metal
Au mineralisation is associated with a diatreme flow
dome complex localised within a dilatant structural
setting provided by a pull-apart basin (section
3.2.2.3.1) in Kalimantan, Indonesia (Corbett and
Leach, 1998; Baldwin, 2008). Epiclastic rocks of the
pull-apart basin are intruded by andesite laccoliths
and later diatreme breccia pipes with associated felsite
domes while dismembered dykes and juvenile clasts
are recognised within the breccia pipes (figure 3.24).
The Runcing diatreme appears to be less eroded in
the setting at the northern pull-apart basin margin
and so exhibit adjacent bedded deposits typical
of tuff ring settings dominated by reverse graded
accretionary lapilli and felsite clasts (figures 3.24 &
4.32). The milled matrix breccias which constitute
the breccia pipes display considerable variation
depending upon source material (figure 4.35). Breccias
dominated by soft basement shale are well milled and
were termed ‘muddy breccias’ during exploration as
a recognition of the incompetent character which
would not host fracture-vein mineralisation. Breccias
dominated by andesite or reworked epiclastic material,
especially where the latter is silicified, tend to be more
competent and host some open space breccia or vein
mineralisation. Nevertheless, most breccia and sheeted
Section 4 35
vein mineralisation occurs outside the diatreme breccia C
pipes within the silicified permeable epiclastic rocks
and andesite. Post-mining detailed descriptions are
provided by Davies et al. (2008a) and Davies et al.
(2008b).
A

Figure 4.35 Milled matrix breccias from within diatreme breccia pipes at the Kelian Au mine shown in figure 3.24.
A - Milled breccia muddy breccia dominated by finely comminuted shale to form an incompetent rock.
B - Milled matrix breccia in drill core with felsite clast to the left with only poor vein formation.
C - Oxidised polymictic milled matrix breccia wit abundant felsite clasts.
D - Fresh clast-rich milled breccia with andesite, shale and felsite clasts.

4.4.5.8 The Bulolo Graben which hosts the Morobe

Goldfield in Papua New Guinea, formed as an intra-
arc extensional graben by movement on NE trending
transfer structures (Corbett, 1994), partly occupied by
the mapped Snake River and Lakekamu faults (figures
3.4 & 4.36). Felsic magmatism within the Morobe
goldfield is apparent as the Edie Porphyry dacite and
rhyodacite as well as numerous phreatomagmatic
breccias exposed by varying degrees of erosion
(figure 4.36). While the age relationships between
individual breccia pipes remains unknown, regional
scale tilting may account for increased erosion in
the south where Cretaceous Morobe Granodiorite
and Kaindi Schist crop out, passing northwards to
Pliocene Bulolo Ignimbrite with associated domes and
breccias, overlain by Pleistocene Otabanda Formation
sediments further north (figure 4.36). Care is required
to distinguish between tuffs of the Bulolo Ignimbrite
and phreatomagmatic tuffisites.
displays normal displacement, separating the Wau
diatreme from more deeply eroded high temperature
mineralisation at Ribroaster (Corbett and Leach,
1998). Carbonate-base metal style Au mineralisation
mined from within the Namie Breccia at the Upper
Ridges open pit, is allothonous (Sillitoe et al., 1984)
and formed at quite high temperatures at considerable
depth (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Tuff ring deposits
and carbonate-base metal style Au mineralisation
occur at Edie Creek and so the Upper Ridges material
is interpreted as derived from that vicinity as a
down-faulted block by the Escarpment Fault. High
temperature mineralisation also occurs as Ribroaster
on the Escarpment Fault (Corbett and Leach, 1998).
Consequently, substantial extension and collapse is
apparent on the intra-graben Watut, Escarpment and
Wandumi Faults (figure 4.3.6).

The youthful diatreme breccia pipe at Wau displays

features typical of the upper portions of diatreme
breccia pipes (Sillitoe et al., 1984) such as the
endogenous domes discernible about the dome
margin (figure 4.28). It is localised in the hanging wall
to the regionally significant Escarpment Fault which

36 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
At Kerimenge, a diatreme breccia pipe is localised
by the intersection of a NS structure with a more
major NW fracture which hosts the nearby Lemenge
mineralisation and extends to the Nauti (figure 4.3.6).
While the barren diatreme was not prospected (figure
4.37), carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation is
localised by tension veins (Corbett, unpubl. report,
1985) developed by a component of sinistral strike slip
movement on the NS structure (Corbett and Leach,
1998). While fault movement provides the tension vein
460000E
Bulolo
setting for mineralisation, the diatreme is interpreted
to be linked to the source for mineralisation, and
eruption may have fractured the top of the magma
chamber as a trigger for mineralisation.
The Nauti Diatreme (figures 4.36 & 4.38), which
could be as much as 7 km long and is discernible over
several hundred metres elevation, displays changes in
B
470000E
Lemenge
Fault
9200000N
LEMENGE

Ribroaster 9190000N
Wa

? Nauti
ndum

Upper Ridges
Kerimenge
i Fa

Wau mineralized
ult

Edie
structures
Creek
KERIMENGE
Wa
tu

Fault
tF
aul
t

?
9180000N
Lemenge
Kerimenge
PRETAT
Hamata
k ER
ree
0 10 km

IO
T

uC
Bulldog
IN

N
b
Hidden Valley ? em
460000E 470000E Kw
Otibanda Formation Diatreme breccia

Bulolo Volcanics Morobe Granodiorite

Edie Porphyry Kaindi Phyllite

CORBETT ai1737

Figure 4.36 Bulolo graben, Papua New Guinea (location in figure WAURIKE
3.4) showing the diatreme breccias discussed herein, updated
open space
from Corbett (1994, 2005b) and Corbett and Leach (1998). 0 400m
breccia zones

Porphyry Diatreme
A
Phyllite Veins
CORBETT ai1739

Figure 4.37 The Kerimenge diatreme breccia pipe – tension vein

environment for mineralisation.
A - View of Kerimenge which covers about 300-400 m vertically
and shown in part B. The Kerimenge fault lies in the drainage
to the left and the lower region of secondary growth marks the
mineralised tension vein setting prospected several years before
the photo was taken, while virgin rainforest covers the diatreme
breccia pipe at the top of the hill.
B - Plan view of the region shown in A with interpretation of
mineralised tension vein formation.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 37

Economic Geo. _ JH
breccia type from east, near Edie Creek, to west, close porphyry, exposed in some road cuttings progressively
to the Upper Watut river. In the east between Edie contain larger porphyry boulders several metres across
and Webiak creeks well bedded breccias (figure 4.39 at lowest elevations to the west where breccias become
A) within a tuff ring sit on top of phyllite and obscure obscured by alluvium near the confluence of Nauti
mineralised carbonate-base metal Au veins at the creek and the Upper Watut river (figures 4.36 & 4.38).
Enterprise Mine. While some veins penetrate the tuff
ring they are only well developed in the underlying
competent phyllite. The road to the Hidden Valley
gold mine (figure 4.36) provides magnificent exposures
of deeper level diatreme breccias (figure 4.38) which
include massive and bedded milled matrix breccias
dominated by phyllite and Edie porphyry clasts set
in a milled phyllite matrix with local accretionary
lapilli and slump structures. Quartz-sulphide veins are
much better developed within the adjacent phyllite
than the milled breccias. Breccias dominated by
rounded cobbles of Morobe granodiorite and andesite

A B C

D E F

G H I

Figure 4.38 Milled matrix breccias exposed over a several hundred metre vertical range
J
from within the Nauti Diatreme.
A - Bedded breccia dominated by phyllite and Edie porphyry clasts, Webiak Creek.
B & C - Bedded milled matrix breccia dominated by phyllite and Edie porphyry material,
Hidden Valley mine road.
D & E - Massive milled matrix breccia of phyllite and Edie porphyry, Hidden Valley mine
road.
F - A layer of accretionary lapilli in milled matrix breccia, Hidden Valley mine road.
G - Cobble breccia dominated by milled Morobe granodiorite clasts, Hidden Valley mine
road.
H - Cobble breccia with Morobe granodiorite and porphyry clasts Hidden Valley mine road,
lower Nauti creek close to the Upper Watut River.
I - Pyrite vein within basement phyllite close to the diatreme margin, Hidden Valley mine road.
J - Green illite alteration in the milled matrix breccia.

38 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.5.9 Cripple Creek Au mineralisation is associated
with a 32 Ma (Kelly, 1996 in Harris et al., 2002;
Vardiman et al., 2006) diatreme breccia pipe up to 7
x 4 km in size, or more likely a series of diatremes
aligned along a NW structure (Harris et al., 2002),
which cut Precambrian granite and gneiss. Brecciation
appears to have been driven by alkaline intrusions
of dominantly phonolite composition and grades to
final radial lamprophyre dykes (Thompson, 1992).
Historic gold production since 1891, has extracted
approximately 23.5 M oz Au with a recent resource
estimate of 3.3 M oz Au (Vardiman, et al., 2006).
The presence of large blocks of basement (figure
4.39) without significant tuff ring deposits suggest
the diatreme pipe has undergone moderate erosion,
although significant collapse is apparent from the
presence within the diatreme of carbonised logs 300 m
below surface (Thompson et al., 1985) and lacustrine
sediments >600 m below surface (Thompson, 1992).
The diatreme breccia rocks comprise typical milled
matrix breccias with characteristic illite alteration
(figure 4.39). Gold mineralisation occurs as veins,
fractures and breccia fill (Thompson, 1992). Veins,
with a dominantly radial distribution, are best
developed in the competent basement rocks adjacent
to and below the flared diatreme rim, rather than the
incompetent milled matrix breccias. The Cresson
deposit (figure 4.39), described as a phreatic breccia
pipe (Harris et al., 2002), is dominated by lamprophyre
clasts, post-dates the main diatreme, and produced
>14 M oz Au @ 18.8 g/t Au in the 1904-1959
period, from the breccia matrix and marginal veins
(Thompson, 1992). Hydrothermal breccias described
(Thompson, 1992) are well developed near structural
intersections, as upward extensions of veins and with
vein clasts, contain kaolin as an indicator of possible
fluid mixing as a mechanism of Au deposition in
these settings, although the kaolin may be derived
from deep weathering. Fracture and breccia matrix
MnO recognised in the field (figure 4.39) along with
carbonate, galena and sphalerite within published
descriptions (Thompson, 1992 and references therein)
indicate Au mineralisation is of a carbonate-base metal
Au style as recognised in many other diatreme breccia
pipes (section 7.1.1.2).

A
A A

Vindicator
Bend in section
Cresson
Elkton

pipe

3,150 Tlph
Tlph Ts Tlph
Tsy Ts
Tph Tph
Tcb Ts
2,650 Ts
Tbr
Xgd Xgd
Xgd Tbr
Tbr

1,650 Xgd Xgd Xgd

Xgd
Tb CORBETT ai1643

B N C
granite

granodiorite
Cripple
Creek Globe
Hill

D
Cresson
Pipe
A’

0 1km

CORBETT ai1532

Breccia + + Precambrian Tertiary Precambrian

intrusions phonolite gneiss

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 39

Economic Geo. _ JH
 E

Figure 4.39 The Cripple Creek diatreme breccia.

A - Cross section from Thompson et al. (1985).
B - Geological map redrawn from Harris et al. (2002).
C - Illite altered milled matrix breccia.
D - MnO stain indicative of oxidised carbonate-base metal Au
mineralisation.
E - Cresson breccia pipe in outcrop.

Figure 4.40 Breccias at the Gold Ridge Au deposit, Solomon

Islands interpreted as of an phreatomagmatic origin.
A - Location of Gold Ridge at a splay on a major structure which
transects Guadalcanal.
B - View of the Valehaichichi open pit in which a low angle fault
extends from top left to lower right.
C - Milled matrix breccia with kaolin-carbonate-illite alteration
and mineralised disseminated pyrite.
D - Milled matrix breccia with kaolin-carbonate-illite alteration
and mineralised disseminated pyrite and a carbonate-base metal
Au vein.
F - Mineralised milled breccia with kaolin in the open space, 1-2
g/t Au.
G - Milled breccia with carbonate vein clast.

4.4.5.10 The Gold Ridge gold deposit, Solomon

Islands, lies within a 7 x 5 km oval body of clastic
rock, termed the Gold Ridge Volcanics, in Central
Guadalcanal, localised at the splay in a major trans-
island structure (figure 4.40). Gold reported to have
been panned in the region by the Spanish explorer
Mendana in the 16th century is likely to have been
derived from the deeply eroded Gold Ridge deposit.
While some mining took place from the 1930’s, main
production by Ross Mining yielded about 200,000 oz
Au from August 1998 to June 2000, when the mine
was closed by an insurgency. The bedded nature of
clastic rocks at the Valehaichichi open pit, and the
lack of any igneous component recognition to date,
has led many workers to promote a sedimentary
origin for the Gold Ridge Volcanics. However,

40 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
Hackman (1980) suggested an explosive origin might
account for the pervasive hydrothermal alteration and
rapid variation in rock types within the Gold Ridge
Volcanics. Coleman et al. (1988) described these rocks
as a “bewildering mixture of chaotic and polymictic
conglomerate”, which comprise carbonised logs
amongst hard resistant rounded clasts and deep sea
limestone clasts. Some milled breccias appear similar
to conglomerates and clastic rocks may develop within
a down-dropped block. Bedding plane shears and
low angle faults Valehaichichi open pit are indicative
of considerable collapse at Gold Ridge. Throughout
Gold Ridge, diamond drill core displays an appearance
of strongly altered polymictic milled matrix breccias,
many with Au anomalism associated with disseminated
cubic pyrite (figure 4.40 C-F) similar to many
phreatomagmatic breccias. The fill of open space
with kaolin and/or carbonate in a mineralised breccias
(figure 4.40 E) and presence of milled vein clasts
within the breccia (figure 4.40 F), suggest there is a
link between brecciation, alteration and mineralisation.
While more detailed work is required, there is strong
case that the carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation
at Gold Ridge is genetically related to a diatreme
breccia pipe. Zoned carbonate alteration (Corbett and
Leach, 1998) is similar to other carbonate-base metal
Au deposits (section 7.5.4.3).
4.4.5.11 The Ladolam gold deposit, Lihir Is. Papua
New Guinea hosts a tremendous variety of breccias
with different relationships to mineralisation that have
formed progressively over time. Permeable volcanic
breccias promoted hydrothermal fluid flow and have
become further brecciated by expanding depressurised
ore fluids (figure 4.41 A). Anhydrite matrix breccias,
which developed during porphyry emplacement and
early potassic alteration, appear to have acted as a base
A C
B
D E
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4
Economic Geo. _ JH
for slide planes developed as listric faults in order to
facilitate sector collapse (figure 4.41 B) and locally
display a polyphasal character (figure 4.41 C). Sub
-horizontally aligned breccias given the field term ‘slab
breccias’ (figure 4.41 D) are interpreted to result from
early collapse evidenced by wood clasts (figure 4.32
B). Mineralised breccias host sulphides within crackle,
fluidised and mosaic breccias in which Au grade is
proportional to sulphide content (figures 4.1 B & C).
Clay matrix breccias developed by the collapse of
argillic alteration upon the prograde alteration (figures
2.18 E; & 4.41 E - H). Eruption or phreatic breccias,
which develop by the explosion of depressurised
waters without magmatic influence, form at shallow
crustal levels with angular poorly milled clasts (figure
4.41 I).
Phreatomagmatic breccias developed in response to
the dramatic pressure reduction derived from sector
collapse and unroofing of the early porphyry and
high level dome emplacement, at the initiation of
mineralisation. Ladolam phreatomagmatic breccias
are similar to many others formed at a relatively
high crustal level and feature chaotic mixes of clasts
(figure 4.41 H) in which the permeable matrix may
display intense illite-pyrite alteration (figure 4.41 E
& F) varying to additional smectite and/or kaolin.
Milled matrix breccias vary from those dominated
by a muddy clay altered matrix (figure 4.26 E), to
others in which the matrix is pyrite flooded, and those
with evidence of venting to the surface provided by
accretionary lapilli (figure 4.31 C & 4.41 F), locally
with bedded forms (figure 4.41 K). The incompetent
clay alteration generally restricts the development of
sulphide mineralisation within the diatreme breccia
rocks.
F
41
 G H I

Figure 4.41 Breccias at the Ladolam Au mine Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
A - Volcanic breccia exploited by hydrothermal fluids which deposited silica-pyrite-K-feldspar hydrothermal fluid alteration.
B - Potassic altered porphyry cut by anhydrite filled mosaic breccia.
C - Anhydrite matrix breccia with rebrecciated breccia clasts.
D - Slab breccia with large angular horizontally aligned clasts interpreted to have formed by collapse.
E - Clay matrix breccia formed by argillic alteration overprint.
F - Milled matrix breccia in outcrop with marginal oxidation of the intense pyrite flooding.
G - Milled matrix breccia.
H - Sub-horizontal layering within a generally chaotic milled matrix breccia.
I - Eruption or phreatic breccia characterised by bleached angular clasts, Costal Zone 1984.

4.4.5.12 The Wafi-Golpu Project, Papua New Guinea, A

is localised by the Wafi transfer structure which
represents part of the suture between the western
and eastern orogens of Papua New Guinea (Corbett,
1994, 2005b). Layered metasedimentary host rocks
at Wafi are cut by a 800 x 440 m steep sided diatreme
breccia pipe filled with polyphasal milled matrix
breccias and dacite porphyry, best developed about
the margin and as breccia clasts (figure 4.42). The
diatreme breccias and fractured metasediments at the
pipe margin provide permeability for the east to west
lateral fluid flow of the hot acid fluids responsible for B
development of the zoned advanced argillic alteration
which cross-cuts the diatreme (figure 2.41; Corbett and
Leach, 1998; Leach, 1999). Consequently, alteration
increases in thickness within the more permeable
milled matrix breccias. The diatreme breccias contain
clasts of the earlier porphyry (Leach, 1999) dated at 14
Ma, while the younger 13 Ma (Tau-Loi and Andrews,
1998) advanced argillic alteration transects it, rather
than is directly related to the diatreme breccia pipe
(figure ***). As discussed later (sections 5 & 8) the
advanced argillic alteration is interpreted to have been C
derived from a deeper level intrusion source adjacent
to the Golpu porphyry and remobilised metals to
provide high Cu grades associated with covellite, as
it transected the top of the earlier Golpu porphyry
(figure ***). Although there is apparent paragenetic
sequence of: Golpu porphyry -> diatreme flow dome
complex -> Wafi high sulphidation Au event and Cu
enrichment of the Golpu cap, this sequence could
result from the rapid during uplift and erosion of a
single rather than multiple magma sources. A similar
diatreme breccia pipes cut the Dizon porphyry Cu,
Philippines (Malihan, 1987; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984), Figure 4.42 Wafi diatreme breccia pipe.
and El Teniente, Chile (Vry et al., 2010). A - Milled matrix breccia with abundant juvenile dacite porphyry
clasts.
B - Contact between two milled matrix breccias.
C - Fine grained milled matrix breccia with accretionary lapilli.

42 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.5.13 The San Cristobal, polymetallic Ag-Zn-Pb
mine in southern Bolivia lies within an oval shaped
diatreme breccia pipe about 1.5 x 1.9 km which is
rimmed by a series of weakly Zn-Ag anomalous dacite
domes, while some intrusions are also recognised
within the breccia pipe. The low temperature white
sphalerite within the domes is consistent with a
very high crustal (near surficial) level of dome
emplacement. The diatreme breccia has developed
by repeated phreatomagmatic eruption evidenced by
cross-cutting variable phreatomagmatic breccias and
common layered breccias in which disconformities
in road cuttings are indicative of collapse during
deposition. Breccias vary from matrix supported
cobble size to mostly finely layered tuffs with common
juvenile intrusion clasts in which ragged shapes are
indicative of breccia formation while the intrusion
clasts were molten (figure 4.43). Although some
fracture/vein mineralisation is recognised within
competent domes at the pipe margin, the dominant
sulphide breccia matrix ores are interpreted to have
formed as post-breccia replacement by sulphide fill
of open space matrix within bedded breccias (figure
4.43). This bedded form has led some workers to
prefer volcanogenic massive sulphide origin for this
deposit and some fine pyritic lacustrine-like sediments
may fit that model (figure 4.43 H). However, the red
moderate-high temperature is more consistent with
the deeper crustal level low sulphidation epithermal
polymetallic Ag-Au style preferred herein (figure
4.43 I). Higher temperature sphalerite within the
breccias formed from a deeper level fluid than the
cooler higher crustal domes (above). High Ag grades
associated with the mixing of collapsing acid sulphate
fluids with rising ore fluids is discussed in section 7.4
and also typical of epithermal settings.

A B C

D E F

G H I

Figure 4.43 The San Cristobal diatreme breccia pipe, Bolivia.

A - View of the San Cristobal diatreme breccia pipe at the start of mining showing the Jayula dome in the background and some acid
sulphate alteration to the left.
B - Milled breccia with volcanic and sulphide clasts and a muddy finely comminuted matrix.
C - Fine grained milled breccia with volcanic and sulphide clasts and a muddy finely comminuted matrix.
D - Bedded breccias with dacite material in the coarser layers.
E - Breccia with ragged juvenile dacite clasts.
F - Cobble size breccia clasts in an adit with celandonite altered clast.
G - Milled matrix rich breccia formed as a cross cutting dyke.
H - Bedded fine grained sulphide possibly formed as a lake bed sediment.
I - Red sphalerite matrix to a milled matrix breccia.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 43

Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.5.14 Phreatomagmatic breccias – conclusion
Phreatomagmatic breccias result from the explosive
depressurisation of volatiles associated with rising
high level generally dacitic domes and the interaction
with ground waters and therefore include magmatic
features such as juvenile intrusion clasts and are
associated with endogenous domes. Characteristic
milled matrix breccias of strongly comminuted clasts
fill breccia pipes which vent to the surface, although
intrusive breccia dykes are also noted. Post-eruption
collapse is common. In low sulphidation epithermal
Au deposits, steam derived from depressurised
water and volatiles provides clay alteration to render
the breccias within the upper cooler portions of
pipes incompetent and unable to host fracture
mineralisation. Consequently, here mineralisation is
more likely to occur in the adjacent competent wall
rocks, while at deeper levels sericite alteration will be
more competent and mineralisation may occur within
the breccia matrix. In high sulphidation epithermal
systems phreatomagmatic breccias might provide
permeability for hydrothermal fluid flow within
the pipe (Wafi) or at the pipe margin (Lepanto).
Furthermore the rapid rise of fluids during diatreme
breccia pipe formation may promote the development
of acid fluids responsible for the development of
zoned advanced argillic alteration.
The exploration implication of the successful
identification of phreatomagmatic breccias and
understanding of a diatreme breccia pipe geometry
might allow explorationists to better gauge the likely
setting and style of mineralisation. Phreatomagmatic
breccias are typically associated with low sulphidation
carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation, locally with
the quartz-sulphide Au precursor and evolving to
epithermal quartz Au. High sulphidation epithermal
Au deposits also use the permeability provided by
phreatomagmatic breccias to promote fluid flow
leading to alteration and mineralisation.
4.4.6 Phreatic or eruption breccias
Phreatic or eruption breccias develop by the violent
release of pressurised steam, locally constrained
below an impermeable silicified rocks which might
act as a barrier, typically at shallow crustal levels and
locally forming pipe-like bodies varying from a few
metres many tens of metres in diameter (figure 4.45;
Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein).
Pipes are localised by structures, which by continued
movement, trigger many eruptions. Breccia pipes
that range to only a few tens of metres in diameter
vent to the surface to form shallow eruption craters
which remain as hot pools in youthful terrains such
44
Economic Geo. _ JH
as the Taupo Volcanic Zone and White Island, New
Zealand (figures 4.46, 4.47 & 4.60; Simmons et al.,
1992, and references therein) or Japan, some of
which deposit metals (Beppu, figure 4.45, Corbett
and Leach, 1998). Early terms included hydrothermal
explosion breccias (Baker et al., 1986) and the pressure
release mechanism might be used to also include the
class of hydrothermal breccias such as crackle and
fluidised breccias (below) amongst phreatic breccias.
However, as these latter breccias may contain a
significant magmatic component (below) this term is
not preferred. In this definition for phreatic breccias,
steam is commonly provided by meteoric-dominant
geothermal sources, which may have been heated
by a proximal magmatic source, although phreatic
or eruption breccias are defined as containing
minimal direct magmatic input. Magmatic clasts
and dismembered dykes are recognised in the Twin
Hills eruption breccia described below. Eruption is
recognised at many scales in place and time. Regular
steam pressure build up and release provides a cyclical
display at geysers such as Old Faithful at Yellowstone
National Park, USA, or the former Waimangu Geyser,
New Zealand (below). Other triggers for the dynamic
phreatic or eruption include mostly the removal of
confining pressure by rapid unroofing, common in
earthquake-prone geothermal settings as well as local
changes in hydrology such as increased ground water
by elevated rainfall or a flood as well as any increase in
heat flow, such as rising magma at depth. In the Taupo
Volcanic Zone, the Waimangu Geyser, which erupted
frequently early in the 19th century was initiation by
the Tarawera Rift, and Champagne Pool is interpreted
(Corbett and Leach, 1998) to lie in a dilatant setting
in a rift structure. The constraining impermeable
barrier (above) is typically provided by silicified wall
rocks, especially in volcanic rock sequences where
originally permeable units may become silicified and
display repeated brecciation and silicification. Pressure
drop upon eruption promotes silica deposition and
enhances development of the brecciated impermeable
barrier through repeated eruption, brecciation and
silica deposition.
There is a gradation from silica flooding to clay
alteration of eruption breccias (described below),
dependent mainly upon whether the vent has acted as
an outflow for silica-rich hydrothermal fluids, in which
case silica sinter deposits commonly form, locally
varying to carbonate-dominant travertine or mixed
deposits (Wau, Papua New Guinea; El Peñón district,
Chile; Cerro Negro district, Argentina).
Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual
 anomalous metal
proximal to upflow
barren distal
sinter terraces
plant fragments
sinter blocks
pervasive silicification of silica-pyrite
fine grained volcanics matrix
NOT sinter
floating clast
breccia
Competent host rock
(e.g., basement sediment, silicified volcanic)
Incompetent host rock
(e.g., pyroclastic, argillic altered volcanic)
Pervasive silicification, locally brecciated
Figure 4.44 Conceptual model for the formation of phreatic or eruption breccia pipes.
4.4.6.1 Phreatic eruption pipes typically occur
as youthful, commonly poorly eroded features
recognised in many geothermally active districts
such as the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, or
Japan (figure 4.45). Breccias include tuff ring facies
and ejecta preserved in youthful terrains or vent
breccias recognised inside pipes, which may include
silica or clay altered breccias described below. Tuff
ring breccias to eruption breccia pipes typically occur
as chaotic mixes of sub-angular clasts in a rock
flour matrix blasted out from the pipe and might be
expected to grade away from any pipe with variations
according to topography, wind direction and the clast
type. Common exotic clasts include mineralised vein
material within the ejecta adjacent to eruption breccia
pipes at Ozorozan, Japan (figure 4.48). Vent breccias
developed within breccia pipes (described below) are
typically dominated by sub-angular wall rock clasts
within a rock flour matrix with either clay or silica
alteration. Exotic clasts, including of mineralised veins,
are also noted in the clay-silica altered breccias at
Broken Hills, New Zealand (figure 4.55).
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4
Economic Geo. _ JH
exotic fragments
banded vein
late fill of lacustrine
sediments
log
sheeted veins penetrate
eruption breccia
fissure vein
in competent
host rock
structure
CORBETT ai1734
4.4.6.1.1 The Waimangu (black water) eruption
breccia began as a geyser in late 1900 within the
structure developed by the 1886 violent basalt driven
Tarawera eruption, and continued to 1904. A 129 x 74
m and 14 m deep crater erupted periodically to eject
black mud and rocks up to 150 m high and dispersed
up to 460 m from the vent (figure 4.46; Lloyd and
Keam, 1975; Houghton and Scott, 2002). There is no
record of significant outflow (Simmons et a., 1993).
Without warning in late 1917 violent eruption to the
SW along the same fissure resulted in development
of Frying Pan Lake, which continues to be active as
a steaming lake along with the adjacent steaming acid
sulphate altered Cathedral Rocks (figure 4.46). As
discussed in (section 7.3) metal deposition results from
the mixing of pregnant fluids rising along the same
fissure with the low pH waters venting from frying
pan lake (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references
therein).
45
 A A

B B

C C

Figure 4.45 Small scale eruption breccia craters.

A - A small crater with boiling waters at Upper Atiamuri, Taupo D
district, New Zealand.
B - Margin of a crater at Beppu, Kyushu, Japan, now used as a
tourist attraction.
C - Sampling a Beppu pipe red precipitate which is rich in As, Sb
& Hg

Figure 4.46 The Waimangu eruption breccia and Cathedral rocks.

A - Eruption of the Waimangu Geyser in early 1904, showing remarkably
close viewing sites. This colour image from a postcard, see Houghton and
Scott (2002) for details.
B - Looking north across steaming Frying Pan Lake towards Cathedral Rocks
C - Looking west towards Cathedral Rocks at low water level showing
acid sulphate alteration, steam, and precipitates deposited by the mixing
of pregnant waters rising up the structure with low pH waters flowing
downstream.
D - View looking along the Tarawera rift with Frying Pan Lake in the
foreground towards the Waimangu crater, centre.

46 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.6.1.2 Champagne Pool at Waiotapu, in the Taupo D
Volcanic Zone, New Zealand represents one of the
best examples of an eruption breccia pipe (figure
4.47), which Corbett and Leach (1998) suggested is
localised within a dilatant flexure in a Taupo Volcanic
Zone graben structure. Champagne pool is about 60
m in diameter and lies within a 17 squ km thermal
area of acid sulphate alteration. Current activity
includes degassing CO2 which provides the name,
and a hot water fluid out-flow with associated silica
sinter deposition (figure 4.47). It is estimated to have
formed about 600-700 years ago which is younger
than the adjacent 150,000 y.o. Maungaonaonga and
E

B F

C G

Figure 4.47 Champagne Pool, Waiotapu, New Zealand.

A - View of Champagne Pool showing the colours of Artists Palette and CO2 venting from the lake waters.
B - Red precipitate rich in Sb, S, Au, Ag, Hg, Tl and As, at the margin of Champagne Pool.
C - Chaotic eruption breccia immediately adjacent to Champagne Pool.
D - Eruption breccia further from Champagne Pool.
E - Accretionary lapilli within the eruption breccia further from Champagne Pool.
F - Acid sulphate alteration with sulphur deposited from a vapour vent.
G - Silica sinter in the Champagne Pool fluid outflow.
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 47
Economic Geo. _ JH
Maunakakaramea dacite domes (Houghton and Scott, with the ‘silica cap’ grading out to Pb, Zn, Cu and
2001). The youthful age has facilitated preservation Cd. Of interest to explorationists is that the eruption
of chaotic eruption breccias which as permeable breccia pipes have ejected clasts, which include banded
rocks have readily undergone acid sulphate alteration quartz veins with free Au and coarse crystalline
to display variable resistant silicification or much stibnite with chalcedony, derived from a potential
softer clay (kaolin) alteration (figure 4.47). The Artists vein system at depth (figure 4.48 D & F). Fluids
Palette hosts brilliant colours such as orange from Sb C
including realgar, yellow from sulphur and green from
ferrous iron (Houghton and Scott, 2002) while the
red precipitate at the lake margin contains Sb, S, Au,
Ag, Hg, Tl and As, deposited in 1957-8 (Weissberg,
1969). Elevated Au (to 543 ppm Au, Pope, 2005) is
interpreted to result from the mixing of the rising
pregnant neutral chloride waters with the low pH acid
sulphate waters responsible for development of the
acid sulphate blanket (section 7.4).

4.4.6.1.3 The Osorezan, Japan steaming ground,

within the youthful Usori caldera in northern Honshu,
has long been a sacred site and hosts an ancient D
temple after which the site is named (figure 4.48 A).
Dacite domes (dated as 0.17 m.y.; Aoki, 1990) rimed
by permeable breccia/tuff deposits are overprinted
by acid sulphate alteration which also contains sinter
deposits and eruption breccia pipes (figure 4.48 B).
Hot spring precipitates associated with eruption
breccia craters contain anomalous sulphur and metals
as: Au (to 6,510 ppm), As, Sb, Hg Te, Se, Tl, Cu, Pb,
Zn and Cd (Aoki and Thompson, 1990) (figure 4.48 C
& E). Aoki (1993) further suggests there is a zonation
from a core of Au, Hg, Sb, As Se and Tl associated
E F
A

Figure 4.48 Osorezan Japan eruption breccia clasts.

B A - View across Lake Usori towards the steaming ground, from
Aoki (1989).
B - Acid sulphate alteration crops out in an area of domes with
adjacent tuff ring deposits and eruption breccia pipes. The path
the gateway to the temple are visible.
C - Sulphur deposited from drilling in 1987.
D - Banded quartz with free gold identified as an eruption
breccia clast.
E - Orange and yellow metal anomalous precipitates from a
recent drill hole sampled by the Austpac Gold- Nissho Iwai joint
venture in 1987 and also reported by Aoki (1989) as highly
anomalous in As, Sb and Hg.
F - Coarse bladed stibnite clast, from Aoki (1989).

48 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
emanating from recent drill tests continue to deposit an overall region of intense silicification. Interlayering
metal-anomalous precipitates (figure 4.48 C & E) of breccias and sinter (figure 4.49) are indicative of a
and in 1989, hot springs were depositing precipitates recurring (crack-seal) sequence of events comprising:
with Au to 47 ppm in pools near the eruption breccia gas pressure build up -> rupture by movement on a
pipes (Aoki, 1989; Aoki and Thompson, 1990) and structure or when the gas pressure exceeds the tensile
so appear to be linked to a potential vein source.
A
Thus, it is possible the eruption (phreatic) breccias
have evolved within the same structure which hosts
epithermal vein mineralisation at depth, and the
vein clasts rucked up from depth and ejected at the
surface by the breccia pipes, can be used elsewhere
as exploration tools to vector to the buried veins,
especially as As, Sb and Hg anomalous precipitates are
deposited at the surface from recent drill holes.

4.4.6.2 Silicified eruption breccias are generally

recognised within phreatic or eruption breccia
pipes associated with significant silica out-flows and
development of sinter deposits and may cap low B
sulphidation chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag epithermal
veins. These are also termed hot spring Au deposits.
Breccias typically comprise sub-angular polymictic
wall rock, sinter and vein clasts in a silica-pyrite altered
rock flour matrix. Wood and other plant material or
lacustrine sediments may be present. Mixed silica-
travertine deposits are recognised in association with
carbonate-base metal Au deposits (Wau, Papua New
Guinea; Cerro Negro, Patagonia). Eruption breccia
vents commonly act as the fluid out-flows for sinter
deposits which might be proximal or flow considerable
distances (>100 m) from the vent as laterally extensive C
sheets to several metres thick (section 8). Breccias
have become silicified as silica is rapidly deposited
from depressurised waters upon eruption or cooling
followed by fluid out-flow from the vent. Silicification
may seal the fluid out-flow and polyphasal eruption
and sealing can result in the development of crack-seal
breccias (McLaughlin, below). While eruption breccias
are typically barren, or contain only very low grade Au
mineralisation, dilatant sheeted veins may penetrate
the base of the breccia pipe (below, Mclauchlin, USA
and Twin Hills, Australia) or silicified competent
breccias may provide good hosts for later stockwork
vein mineralisation.

4.4.6.2.1 McLaughlin, California, USA, is well

described as an eruption breccia-sinter system which
grades downwards from lower Au grade polyphasal
stockwork vein hosted mineralisation within the
breccia-sinter, into the deeper level higher gold
grade sheeted low sulphidation epithermal Au vein
mineralisation within competent metamorphic
basement host rocks (figures 4.49 & 4.50; Lehrman,
1986; Tosdal, et al., 1993; Sherlock, 1993; Sherlock et
al., 1995). Eruption breccias are dominated by angular
sinter and/or wall rock clasts in a silica matrix within
Figure 4.49 Eruption breccia, McLaughlin Au mine, California,
USA.
A - Eruption breccia dominated by silicified angular wall rock
clasts.
B - Eruption breccia dominated by angular sinter clasts within a
silica matrix.
C - Crack-seal developed as an eruption breccia is silicified and
capped by sinter in the process described herein.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 49

Economic Geo. _ JH
strength of the silicified wall rock and load pressure C
(although very low in this near surficial setting) ->
eruption breccia pipe formation + silica deposition
due to the pressure drop –> sinter out-flow and
continued silicification of the underlying permeable
breccias -> sealing by silica deposition -> pressure
build up -> eruption, and so on. The orientation of
the sheeted veins is consistent with development as
tension veins in response to strike-slip movement on
the local structural grain parallel to the San Andreas
Fault and of the same dextral sense of movement. An
exploration model evolved from the McLaughlin mine,
that epithermal vein mineralisation might lie below
sinter sheets (figure 4.50), was used throughout the D

Pacific rim from the early 1980’s. However, exploration

models must now take studies of additional examples
into account which suggest silica-rich fluids might flow
some distance from the eruption breccia pipe to more
distal sites of silica sinter formation. Models should
also include the setting of dilatant structural sites of
fluid up-flows.
A
650m

Figure 4.50 McLaughlin mine mineralisation.

A - Graphic of the field relationships showing sheeted vein
mineralisation capped by breccia and sinter, redrawn from
Sherlock et al. (1995)
600m B - Low temperature silica including white chalcedony and blue
opal.
C - Stockwork veins cut the low temperature chalcedony breccia.
D - Sheeted quartz veins within the basement metamorphic
rocks, sledge hammer for scale in the lower right centre (photo
D. Heberlein).
4.4.6.2.2 At Toka Tindung, Indonesia, a Miocene
500m
to Pliocene volcaniclastic and andesite sequence
is capped by a breccia which “contains angular to
0 100m sub-rounded fragments of altered Maen Volcanics,
CORBETT ai1744
carbonised wood, vein and sinter supported by
Clay alteration Basaltic andesite
multiple generations of hydrothermally altered
Sinter and eruption
breccia
Tholeitic basalt lithic sand, silt and mud matrix.” (Wake et al., 1996)
Sediment-dominant
interpreted (Corbett, unpubl report, 1996; Corbett
Veins polymictic melange and Leach, 1998) as eruption breccia (figure 4.51).
Sheeted vein
complex
Serpentinite-dominant
polymictic melange
A polyphasal character, rebrecciated clasts and the
fluidisation textures, help to distinguish the intensely
B silicified eruption breccias from the volcaniclastic host
rocks. There is a strong association between sinter
blocks and the flat-dipping base of the breccia body
below which veins have been traced supporting the
flared eruption breccia pipe interpretation (Corbett,
unpubl. report, 1996). A young andesite and recent
tephra also locally cover the veins (Wake et al.,
1996). Drilling designed to test enhanced fluid up-
flow near the intersection of the veins with breccia
pipe identified good Au grades (Corbett and Leach,
1998), although the interaction of structure and host

50 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
rock competency became an important control to B
mineralisation as the project evolved. Consequently, at
Toka Tindung, an eruption breccia pipe localises better
Au grades within the associated epithermal vein, and
is also interpreted as a fluid up-flow for the now partly
eroded sinter apparent only as blocks.

Figure 4.51 Eruption breccia, vein and sinter, Toka Tindung,

Indonesia.
A - Graphic showing the relationships of the eruption breccia to
vein and sinter, from Wake, et al. (1996).
B - Eruption breccia with clasts of sinter and wood in a silica-rock
flour matrix with polyphasal activation.
C - Banded chalcedony vein with a fluidised breccia band.
D - Block of sinter showing layering and algal mats shown in
detail in figure 8.**.
4.4.6.2.3 At Twin Hills, in the Late Devonian-
Early Carboniferous Drummond Basin of North
Queensland, Australia, eruption breccias host sheeted
low sulphidation epithermal Au veins with nearby
sinter deposits (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Early
workers noted epithermal vein and sulphide clasts as
well as “evidence for the upward expulsion of fluids”
in rocks described as conglomerates (Alston et al.,
1991). However, these characteristics and the presence
of rebrecciated clasts (figure 4.52 E & G) and other
locally irregular clasts of bleached fine grained
possibly felsic material with pyrite pseudomorphs
(figure 4.52 C), led Corbett (unpubl. report, 1996) to
suggest an eruption breccia origin for these intensely
silicified rocks. Later exposures of dismembered
dykes provided by a decline underground access
verified the eruption breccia rather than conglomerate
interpretation (Corbett, unpubl. report, 2006). The
Twin Hills eruption breccias are intensely silicified
with angular to rounded wall rock clasts which are
variably supported by the silicified rock flour matrix
and are no doubt genetically linked to the source of
epithermal veins and sinter deposits (figure 4.52). Key
exploration aspects would have been the recognition
of the exposure by erosion of only a near surficial
palaeo surface, characterised by sinter and eruption
breccias in association with soil geochemical anomalies
which might be used as vectors to buried sheeted vein
mineralisation. Although juvenile intrusion clasts and
dismembered dykes are recognised, the presence of
sinter deposits and chalcedony-ginguro veins places
Twin Hills in the eruption (phreatic) breccia and not
phreatomagmatic-phreatic breccia class.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 51

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B C

D E F

G H

Figure 4.52 An eruption breccias which did not fit a conglomerate interpretation, Twin Hills, Australia.
A - Eruption breccia with milled clasts although the pale felsite is angular.
B - Underground exposure of the eruption breccia.
C & D - Eruption breccias with ragged felsite clasts which include pseudomorphs after pyrite.
E, F & G - Eruption breccias with rebrecciated breccia clasts in a silica-rock flour matrix.
H - Dismembered dyke in an underground exposure.

4.4.6.2.4 Puhipuhi, Northland, New Zealand contains
extensive sinter sheets which have been locally mined
for mercury and so was extensively explored the 1980’s
using a McLaughlin model (above) that epithermal Au
veins might lie below the sinter deposits, but without
great success (White, 1986). Later, Grieve et al. (1997)
provided a similar dextral sense of movement to
the NS structural grain at Puhipuhi, interpreted for
the derivation of Coromandel Peninsula Au-Ag vein
deposits (Corbett, unpubl. data) and including the
Thames district (figure 3.20), to suggest NE trending
dilatant structures control development of a pull-
apart basin and later fluid up-flow zones at Puhipuhi.
The Purua Beds, which fill and extend outside
the speculated pull-apart basin to overlie adjacent
basement greywacke, contain quartz vein clasts
and are also locally silicified, and so may constitute
essentially syn-mineral epiclastic rocks (figure 4.53).
Younger basalts overlie the Purua Beds and felsic
domes crop out within the NS structural corridor to
the south (Grieve et al., 1997). The Mt Mitchell sinter,
which covers a 24 ha area and is up to 23 m thick
and represents the largest of several sinter sheets,
(although some are transitional to silicified Purua
Beds). It lies about 500 m along strike within a dilatant
structure from the Plumb Duff and more distal Bush’s
Hill interpreted eruption breccias (figure 4.53; Grieve
et al., 1997). Plumb Duff, which is the most significant
of several eruption breccias, contains blocks of sinter
cut by fluidised grits as well as geyserite (White, 1986)
along with stibnite and botryoidal sinter (Grieve et
al., 1997), which contrast with bedded sinter of Mt
Mitchell and are typical of a proximal setting to an
up-flow vent (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Grieve and
co-workers therefore suggested eruption breccias
such as at Plumb Duff, might represent the fluid
up-flow zones for sinter deposits (which may have
originally been more extensive, and so warrant further
exploration for vein mineralisation (figure 4.53).

52 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A B

Williams
sinter

Boundary
“breccia”

C
Harrisons

Grocott’s
“breccia”

Bush Hill
INTERPRETATION
x
Plum Duff
breccia

G
Mt Mitchell D
PD sinter
MM

0 500m

CORBETT ai1745

Basalt Purua beds

Silicification and sinter Greywacke basement

Figure 4.53 Eruption breccias and sinter deposits, Puhipuhi, New Zealand.
E
A - Puhipuhi showing the structural relationships and locations of sinter and
breccias, from Grieve et al. (1997).
B - The Plumb Duff eruption breccia in drill core characterised by sub-angular
clasts Purua Beds in a silicified matrix at depth in drill core.
C - Plumb Duff sinter cut by fine grained eruption breccia
D & E - The Plumb Duff eruption breccia characterised by brecciated sinter
clasts.

4.4.6.3 Clay matrix eruption breccias represent a

class of breccias associated with eruption breccia
pipes formed by depressurised gas eruptions as above,
but without the pronounced flow of silica saturated
meteoric-dominant waters to provide silicification
and silica sinter deposits. However, many individual
pipes vary from clay to silica-rich portions or stages
of development. Pipes examined in the exploration
environment are typically small from a few to tens of
metres in diameter and are interpreted to have vented.
Many of the eruption craters recognised in youthful
poorly eroded systems may represent the upper
levels of clay matrix eruption breccias examined in
exploration settings. Some contain mineralised clasts
and so display some post-mineral activity.
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.6.3.1 The Favona epithermal veins lie about 1.5
km east of the Waihi vein system, New Zealand, and
like Waihi occur as hanging wall veins associated with
down-drop on the eastern side of a normal fault
(figure 3.31). As different to Waihi which displays
an estimated (Brathwaite and Faure, 2002) 160 m
of erosion, Favona is almost intact as the veins are
overlain by hydrothermal eruption breccias which are
in turn partly obscured by post-mineral ignimbrite
and dacite (figure 4.54; McKay et al., 2004; Torkler
et al., 2006). These workers describe the breccias as
comprising a mix of sub-angular to rounded andesite,
vein, sinter and wood clasts with hydrothermal
alteration which varies from intense clay to silica
Section 4 53
within a body 800 m long by 300 m wide and 100 structures (figure 4.3) are well developed within the
m deep. The drill core containing low temperature veins and interlayered with banded chalcedony, and
smectite altered breccias quickly disaggregated. Favona this material tends to be weakly mineralised. These
therefore contains both clay and silica altered breccias. structures are indicative of open space veins and so
The veins did not rise to the palaeo surface and so rapid dilation may have helped to promote eruption
the Favona veins represented blind exploration target breccia formation. The strongly flared eruption
below the eruption breccias and younger cover. As breccias occur in the same NNE trending structural
the eruption breccias contain vein fragments they corridor as mineralisation, but do not directly pass
display weak toxic and precious metal anomalism. down into veins, and display a post-vein component
Fluidised breccias, locally with subsurface sedimentary of activation.
A B C

D Old Favona E

1100 1100

post-mineral
ignibrites
line
sec
tion of
120
0N
1000m RL 1000m RL

line
sec of
tion
950 andesite
N
Silve

900
Western Vein 900
rton

21.9m @ 9.6 g/t Au

shears
2.5m @ 83 g/t Au
ne

contact shear
sto

800 800
ad
Gl

postmineral Section 950N Favona Vein

dacite south shoot
0 100m

Modified from Torckler et al., 2006

CORBETT ai1561
700

hydrothermal
breccia

0 250m

Modified from Torckler et al., 2006 CORBETT ai1559

Figure 4.54 Eruption breccias at the Favona vein system, Waihi District, New Zealand.
A - Silicified eruption breccia, Favona, Waihi, New Zealand.
B - Silicified eruption breccia, Favona, Waihi, New Zealand.
C - Silicified eruption breccia with sinter clast, Favona, Waihi, New Zealand.
D - Plan of the Favona eruption breccia, post mineral cover and veins projected to the surface, modified from Torkler et al., (2006).
E - Cross section through the Favona vein system at line 950N, modified from Torkler et al., (2006).

54 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
Best Au grades are reported from ‘oatmeal breccias’
(figure 4.58; Torkler et al., 2006) which contain clasts
of finely banded chalcedony with abundant ginguro-
like material set in a chalcedony-opal matrix. The clasts
are assumed to contain high Au grades deposited
by rapid cooling in low temperature conditions.
As discussed in detail in section 7.4, interaction
of low pH waters evidenced by the presence of
kaolin and rising ore fluids has contributed towards
the development of elevated Au grades at Favona,
well developed in hanging wall veins. Permeability
associated with the eruption breccias may have aided
the collapse of acid sulphate waters to promote and
high grade Au deposition.
4.4.6.3.2 At Broken Hills, New Zealand, chalcedony-
ginguro style Au-Ag vein mineralisation is best
developed within steep pitching ore shoots controlled
by a combination of several factors (as per section
7) defined from an analysis of the data (G. Corbett,
pers. insp., 2000, Moore, 1979; Rabone 2006; Crocker
et al., 2013) as: lithological control as the competent
underlying flow banded rhyolite which fractures
well for vein formation rather than the overlying
A B
incompetent pyroclastic rocks, flexures formed by
dextral movement on NS structural control (the
same direction as Golden Cross, Waihi, and Thames
district), and the mixing of collapsing oxidised
near surficial waters evidenced by kaolin with rising
pregnant waters. Best Au grades occur close to
hydrothermal breccia pipes (figure 4.55; Moore, 1979)
which allowed access of near surficial acid sulphate
waters to the vein system. Breccias comprise sub-
angular wall rock and some vein clasts with mostly
clay and also some silica alteration. Rabone (2006)
stressed the breccias do not pass downward to veins
but exploit the same structures and so the breccias
are herein regarded as syn- and post-mineral eruption
(phreatic) breccias. High Au grades within banded vein
clasts recognised within the breccia pipes (figure 4.55)
may result from mixing of near surficial acidic waters
with ore fluids. Rabone (2006) also describes a several
hundred metre wide "possible hydrothermal explosion
crater" at the southern end of Broken Hills which is
cut by one vein. Boulders of pervasive silica on flat
ground adjacent to the mine are typical of eroded
segments from a shallow crustal level silica ledge
(section 9).
C

D E F

Figure 4.55 Eruption breccia pipes with mineralised vein clasts.

A - Clay altered eruption breccia with angular wall rock clasts.
B - Clay-silica altered eruption breccia with angular wall rock clasts.
C - Eruption breccia with mineralised vein clasts and strong silicification.
D & E - Mineralised clasts extracted from the eruption breccia by S. Rabone during small scale mining.
F - Sketch of the veins in the upper level mine workings and eruption breccia pipes, from Moore (1979).
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 55
Economic Geo. _ JH
4.4.6.3.3 Neavesville, New Zealand, lies towards the B 2750000 E
western side of the Coromandel Peninsular where a
stronger magmatic character is discernible in other
systems such as Thames (Ohio Creek porphyry Ajax Vein
Cu-Au, Lookout rocks barren shoulder of advanced
argillic alteration and Thames quartz-sulphide Au
and epithermal quartz bonanza Au) and Karangahake
(with a transitional carbonate-base metal Au –
Birds
chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag character). Mineralisation Graces
F
at Neavesville is not of the chalcedony-ginguro style
typical of the eastern Coromandel Peninsular, but
Au-Ag occurs as free electrum with comb quartz
and adularia within competent silicified siltstones F
F

and also as electrum hosted within pyrite-marcasite,

Trig Bluff
A line of
section N
ve
ins

6443000 N Southern
NZmG Bluffs

Champion Debris flow

Breccia
Silicification
F
Mixed pyroclastic
and siltstone
Andesite
Veins / mine
workings
0 500m
CORBETT ai1557 Modified from Torckler, 1997
C
W E

drill holes

Debris flow
30m @ 1.7 g/t Au
Breccia
24m @ 4.3 g/t Au
Silicification
F
15m @ 3.4 g/t
Pyroclastic

Siltstone
0 100m

Andesite
Modified from Torckler, 1997 CORBETT ai1558

Figure 4.56 Small scale clay matrix breccia pipes at Neavesville, New Zealand.
A - Typical clay matrix phreatic breccia with angular clasts formed by the polyphasal injection clay altered rock flour into a brecciated
rock.
B - Plan view showing the proximal relationship of gold workings to breccia pipes, modified from Barker et al. (2006).
C - Cross section which shows Au mineralisation best developed within or close to the competent siltstone and as this section is located
at the northern margin of a pipe, it appears to be rootless, modified from Barker et al. (2006).

56 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
associated with anomalous Mo. This mineralisation is
typical of intrusion-related low sulphidation quartz-
sulphide Au±Cu and epithermal quartz Au styles.
Clay matrix breccias within several pipes vary from
polymictic milled injection style breccias, to mosaic
styles with angular wall rock clasts moved apart
and filled with clay altered rock flour matrix (figure
4.56). Although the clay matrix breccias are mostly
impermeable, the eruption process may have fractured
the silicified wall rocks to provide permeability for
mineralised fluid flow and so mineralisation is well
developed at the pipe margins (figure 4.56; Barker et
al., 2006). Furthermore there is a strong lithological
control to mineralisation which is hosted by the more
competent siltstone rather than the less competent
pyroclastic rocks, although these are locally silicified
to display some competency in order to host veins
at pipe margins (figure 4.56). The depressurised fluid
responsible for breccia formation and mineralisation is
interpreted to have used the same structural plumbing
system. The lack of significant milling and intrusion
material favours the classification of the Neavesville
breccias as of a phreatic rather than phreatomagmatic
style. The initiation of breccia pipe formation must, to
some extent, have pre-dated mineralisation, in order to
provide the wall rock permeability for mineralisation.
The exploration implication of the successful
identification of phreatic or eruption breccias is that
low sulphidation epithermal veins might exploit the
same structure and remain buried close to the base
of the breccia pipe, and locally within it. Rucked
up mineralised clasts which provide weak metal
anomalism to these breccias suggest which breccias
are prospective. They also locally occur within high
sulphidation epithermal deposits as explosive events
close to mineralisation. Phreatic or eruption breccias
vary from silica to clay alteration, as shallow small
bodies, commonly with limited clast milling and
generally without any magmatic influence.
4.4.6.3 Conclusion - hydrothermal magmatic-
phreatic breccias
There is a continuous progression from monomictic
breccias developed at intrusion margins with little
hydrothermal fluid introduction and cast milling or
transport, to polymictic breccias with a mix of clasts
which were extensively milled during transport and
underwent substantial syn-eruption hydrothermal
alteration. The change in breccia types is partly
coincident with crustal level. Breccia pipes are
commonly driven by volatile fluid pressure release,
although possibly triggered by structural processes,
and play an important role in the mineralisation
process by tapping the apophysis of magma
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
source rocks at depth and also by the provision of
permeability either within the breccia body or adjacent
wall rocks. Thus, many breccias are pre-mineral but
represent an important part of the mineralisation
process. However, some eruption breccias which are
associated with polyphasal banded epithermal quartz
vein mineralisation have continued to be active after
mineralisation.
4.4.7 Tectonic-hydrothermal breccias
The interaction of tectonic and hydrothermal
processes may produce tectonic-hydrothermal breccias
previously described using terms such as dilational or
magmatic hydrothermal injection breccias (Corbett
and Leach, 1998). These two terms could be regarded
as end members of a continuum for the formation of
hydrothermal injection breccia dominated by either
extensional structural processes or forceful injection
of hydrothermal fluids from an over pressured source
(Phillips, 1972), whereas both processes are generally
involved. Hydrothermal injection breccias represent
important mechanisms of ore fluid introduction with
common clear relationships between the quantity
of introduced sulphide and Au-Ag grades and have
therefore been classified (Corbett and Leach, 1998;
figure 4.57) with increasing breccia matrix quantity
(and approximately towards the magma source) as:
4.4.7.1 Crackle breccias comprise fractured rocks
with orthogonal to random stockwork or parallel
sheeted fractures filled by hydrothermal minerals
which occupy considerably less volume than the host
rock (figure 4.1 & 4.7). Crackle breccias occur in
many epithermal and porphyry deposits and represent
mediums for hydrothermal fluid introduction and
so host mineralisation while hydrothermal alteration
commonly grades from fracture feeders into the wall
rock clasts (figure 2.14 B). Individual fractures of
only mm thickness might form networks extending
for many metres, typically with only low grade
mineralisation, because of the low matrix to wall rock
ratio. The term ‘hydrothermal breccias’ used by some
workers to describe crackle breccias is too generalised
and so not preferred.
4.4.7.2 Fluidised breccias (dykes) are characterised
by the transport of hydrothermal fluid within a
fracture but without significant clast movement or
milling (figure 4.1 E & F). Some rock flour is likely to
be combined with introduced hydrothermal matrix.
These breccias are distinguished as matrix supported
with locally derived monomictic sub-angular clasts,
whereas pebble dykes contain transported, milled,
rounded, polymictic clasts, typically within larger scale
structures. Furthermore, fluidised breccias may be well
Section 4 57
mineralised, due to the mineralised matrix, whereas
pebble dykes might only contain the occasional
mineralised clast. Fluidised breccias may be identified
sheeted crackle breccia
as feeders for crackle breccias in many hydrothermal
systems (figure 4.7).
crackle breccia
4.4.7.3 Fluidised crackle breccias therefore represent
the transition from fluidised to crackle breccias and
so display intermediate precious grade mineralisation
(figure 4.7 & 4.57). fluidised crackle breccia

4.4.7.4 Jigsaw or mosaic breccias are those in which

the clasts can be more or less joined back together by
the removal of the matrix, as descriptive terms for fluidised breccia
breccias also categorised as extensional or dilatant in
process-related terminology (figures 4.2 A & B). Clasts
are therefore angular and the breccias monomictic.
mosaic breccia
Shingle breccias are related to these. Therefore little
transport is envisaged of the angular locally derived
hydrothermal
wall rock clasts varying from shingle shapes (figures fluid
4.24 & 4.25) to equidimensional, although the matrix rotational
flow
may display local fluid transport (introduction) breccia
textures. Clearly, by the addition of sufficient matrix
as hydrothermal fluid, a crackle breccia might progress
to a jigsaw or mosaic breccia, locally with increasing
metal grade related with the increased sulphide matrix
content.
link to major
4.4.7.5 Rotational breccias are defined (Corbett and magmatic source
Leach, 1998) as breccias in which the jigsaw or mosaic
CORBETT ai1742
texture has been disrupted by rotation of breccia clasts
Figure 4.57 Hydrothermal injection breccias.
as a result of the introduction of additional matrix,
which is typically mineralised and so these breccias
ginguro bands, in-filled by chalcedony which was
display higher Au grades than the jigsaw or mosaic
probably deposited by meteoric-dominant waters and
breccias (figures 4.8 A, 4. 9 B, 4.20 B, 4.24 D). The
so is expected to be essentially barren. As the clasts
matrix may be fluidised and some clasts may have been
cannot be joined back to together this is not a mosaic
weakly milled during rotation. Rotational breccias may
breccia. The breccia in figure 4.58 B similarly contains
occur as significant hydrothermal fluid feeders.
erupted clasts, no doubt ripped from the immediate
wall rock, while new vein is deposited on the other
vein margin. The breccia illustrated in figure 4.59 C
4.4.7.6 Vein-breccias are characterised as veins
is from the Talang Santo vein, Indonesia, and like the
dominated by breccia textures, rather than banded
‘Oatmeal breccia’ above features clasts of mineralised
or massive forms. They may develop by repeated
ginguro material which account for the high Au grade
brecciation of existing veins and in-fill of open space
and have been repeatedly brecciated with infill of new
by new hydrothermal mineral matrix (figure 4.58 A), as
chalcedony.
a dilatant fracture continues to open, locally combined
with a component of eruption and clast transport
within the existing structure. Consequently, open space
fill breccias are most common within veins boundedby
discrete fractures and might contain fluidised, mosaic
or floating clast breccias, discussed above. Breccia
clast and matrix commonly differ. The bonanza Au
grade ‘Oatmeal Breccias’ from the Favona, Waihi
district, New Zealand, shown in figure 4.58 A, feature
transported of well mineralised clasts with Au-bearing

58 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
 A
B
C represents a common soluble material dissolution
Figure 4.58 Vein-breccias.
A - ‘Oatmeal breccia’ which comprise clasts of finely banded
black Au-bearing ginguro material in a chalcedony matrix,
and host very high Au grades in the upper part of the main
mineralised fluid up-flow.
B - A vein-breccia may contain clasts derived from the wall
on the right, where geopetal banding may be present, and is
overprinted by the banded vein on the left.
C - Breccia formed by the repeated brecciation and in-fill within
a vein and includes ginguro-bearing mineralised clasts within a
chalcedony matrix, Talang Santo mine, Way Linggo, Sumatra,
Indonesia, 658 g/t Au.
4.4.7.7 Clay matrix hydrothermal breccias occur
in the upper portions of the porphyry environment.
The staged model for the development of porphyry
Cu alteration and mineralisation features the collapse,
by drawdown, of hot low pH fluids upon the upper
portion of the porphyry environment which may
Corbett Short Course Manual
Economic Geo. _ JH
display earlier retrograde as well as prograde potassic-
propylitic alteration (section 2.2.3.1). The resulting
breccia is characterised by a matrix of typically clay
alteration derived from reaction of the collapsing
hydrothermal fluids with the existing wall rock,
commonly grading into the wall rock from crackle
breccia fluid plumbing systems to leave clasts of relict
rock (figures 2.16 & 2.17). The term pseudobreccia
is used by some workers to describe these breccias as
there may not be a clear separation between the clast
and matrix and the clasts display no transport. Matrix
alteration may include kaolin-illite-smectite-pyrite as
argillic alteration associated with low sulphidation
epithermal Au deposits (Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea)
or the collapse of phyllic-argillic alteration or advanced
argillic collapse (Lookout Rocks, New Zealand) in
the upper portions of margins of porphyry systems.
These breccias tend not to be mineralised.
4.4.8 Dissolution breccias
Dissolution breccias develop by the removal of a
soluble material, mostly carbonate, with the resulting
contraction of the remaining rock or the formation of
open space locally leading to collapse. As carbonate
breccias are regularly recognised in sediment hosted
replacement (Carlin-style) deposits where weakly
acidic oxygenated meteoric waters dissolve carbonate
from the marl host rocks (figure 4.59). Fluid flow
paths are commonly discernible as stylolites of relict
insoluble carbonaceous material of a typical dark
colour (figure 4.59 C). Stylolites may also contain
sulphides deposited by the hydrothermal fluid and
feature adjacent clay alteration by reaction of those
acidic fluids with wall rocks. Increased dissolution
may result in collapse and the formation of chaotic
polymictic collapse breccias with increased clast
mixing (figure 4.59 B). Angular clasts may become
slightly rounded during collapse and sedimentary
structures are common while the matrix may vary
from carbonate to insoluble material such as sand
or carbonaceous residue (figure 4.59 A). Dissolution
breccias may be pronounced in settings where acid
sulphate caps have provided low pH ground waters
for the removal of substantial quantities of carbonate
and the promotion of considerable collapse. These
dissolution breccias might then be well mineralised by
the reaction of those low pH waters with ore fluids in
order to destabilise the bisulphide complexes which
transport Au (section 7.4).
Section 4 59
 A B
4.4.9 Composite breccia systems

4.4.9.1 Phreatomagmatic-phreatic breccias

Phreatomagmatic and phreatic breccias occur in

the same terrain at many ore deposits (Ladolam
deposit Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea) and
magmatic bodies at depth may represent the
ultimate heat sources for both breccia types. The
presence or absence of juvenile intrusion clasts or
larger features (domes or dykes) derived from the
magmatic source which might drive any breccia
eruption are currently regarded as one of the main
characteristics to distinguish between the two
breccia groups. However, hydrothermal alteration
C may obscure clast types, particularly advanced argillic
alteration associated with high sulphidation epithermal
Au deposits, and so a phreatomagmatic-phreatic class
is attributed to the breccia pipe at Pucamarca, Peru,
and smaller outcropping breccia bodies at Pascua,
Chile.

4.4.9.1.1 White Island (Whakaari), New Zealand

White Island lies about 48 km offshore in the Bay of

Plenty north New Zealand, rising 600-700 m from the
D
sea floor as the summit of a submarine volcano, 17 km
diameter at the base (figure 4.60; Nairn et al., 1996)
and which has been dissected by sector collapse. This
shape has retained meteoric and magmatic water to
provide the wet character which Houghton and Nairn
(1991 and references therein) describe as free of sea
water. White Island has been more active since 1976
than the previous few hundred years of its 16,000 year
apparent hydrothermal history (Nairn et al., 1996).
Breccia eruptions are associated with the advancement
and withdrawal of a buried magma source in a wet
environment in which clay alteration restricts rock
Figure 4.59 Dissolution breccias. strength and fluid permeability. Relatively small
A - Dissolution breccia showing a sedimentary structure filling (to tens of metres) phreatic, phreatomagmatic and
open space, Carlin Trend, USA. magmatic (strombolian) eruptions display processes
B - Collapse breccia comprising marl clasts and a carbonate of explosion followed by collapse with extension to
matrix, Goldstrike, USA.
C - Stylolites and clasts within dissolution breccia, Mesel,
depth (Houghton and Nairn, 1991; Letham-Brake,
Indonesia. 2013 and references therein) as multiple vents coalesce
D - Collapse breccia in marl from the Carlin Trend, Nevada. to form larger craters.

Prior to 1912-3 the crater floor was covered by a

steaming lake with a marginal geyser and steam vents
(figure 4.60 C), which was drained prior to sulphur
mining in 1914. However, in September 1914 an
avalanche resulting from the failure of the SW crater
wall buried that operation killing 11 miners, leaving
the hammock-like character to the lahar on the crater
floor. From 1914 a series of mainly phreatic explosive

60 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
ash eruptions resulted in the development of steam
vents which became significantly larger in the 1960’s.
From 1976 the rise of the buried magma heat source
drove initial wet phreatomagmatic eruptions which
evolved to strombolian forms as craters progressed
downwards and erupting magma provided volcanic
bombs (Houghton and Nairn, 1991). Coalesced vents
formed the “1978 Crater Complex” and heating of
the water saturated crater floor provided continued
steam explosions (phreatic eruptions) as part of the
hydrothermal activity (Nairn et a., 1996; figure 4.60).

This author visited White Island in 20 July 2000 at a

time when the MH vein was actively venting steam
prior to the eruption of 27 July and associated failure
within the crater apparent in a later visit of February
2015 (figure 4.60).
A B

100

200

rim
Mt
Gisborne
MH
321
1913
geyser Noisey
crater Nellie

1914
landslip
N 10 lahar
0
old
200 factory
rim
10
0

0 500m

Original 1912 crater lake

Some vents
CORBETT ai1743

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4 61

Economic Geo. _ JH
 D

F G

Figure 4.60 White Island (Whakaari) New Zealand composite breccias.

A - View in July 2000 of White Island looking along the crater floor towards the eruption from the MH vent.
B - Mud pool on the crater floor east of C in 2015.
C - Composite map showing some relations at White Island.
D - View in July 2000 over the 1978-1990 crater complex towards the MH vent showing the narrow wall which retains the elevated lake
on the right.
E - View from about the same position in February 2015 showing an evacuated and collapsed crater.
F & G - Volcanic bombs.

62 Section 4 Corbett Short Course Manual

Economic Geo. _ JH
4.5 CONCLUSIONS AND EXPLORATION
IMPLORATIONS
Explorationists need to understand breccias
sufficiently to incorporate different types in
any geological map or model, and to be able to
communicate with their peers in the description of
exploration projects. However, breccias represent
just one tool used in the primary task to find ore,
and so breccias should not become the entire focus
of interest. In the field, individual breccia exposures
are best understood in context and so explorationists
should avoid getting bogged down in one difficult
exposure, but keep moving, so as to compare many
breccia bodies. Rapid evaluation may be important and
might be aided by the use of digital photography.
Breccia nomenclature can be a significant challenge.
The approach here has been to build up an
understanding of a breccia from an initial description
which might allow the observer to compare it
to another breccia in their repertoire of breccia
types. Colloquial terms often allow easy and quick
descriptions and comparisons with breccias described
by other workers. Genetic geological models account
for the mode of formation of any breccia, and by
comparisons with other better known systems provide
an understanding of the exploration implications of
a breccia system. As with all geological mapping it is
important to preserve factual data which can always
be returned to as ideas change or new data comes to
hand, rather than engage in interpretations too early in
a mapping programme.
Breccias of interest in epithermal-porphyry
exploration form by the interaction of structural,
magmatic and hydrothermal processes at varying
crustal levels. Common themes discernible in many
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 4
Economic Geo. _ JH
breccias include; volatile pressure build up, explosive
activity, collapse and then later liquid phase fluid
flow and mineralisation. Thus, many breccias are
pre-mineral and provide ground preparation for later
ore fluids and also tap the buried magma source as
a link to the higher crustal level setting of mineral
deposition. Some epithermal stage breccias might
overprint porphyry ores (Bradden Formation at El
Teniente, Chile). An understanding of breccias might
vector towards ore and many breccias contain stand
outs which readily aid their placement in a genetic
context with exploration implications.
Exploration implications of an understanding of
breccias include:
• Pebble dykes transect wall rocks above the upper
margins of intrusion source rocks and so provide
evidence of porphyry environments and may
vector towards porphyry targets.
• Phreatomagmatic breccia pipes host ore in
different settings governed by several factors
such as crustal level. At shallow levels clay
alteration provides incompetent breccias and so
mineralisation is likely to occur within brecciated
wall rocks. However, breccias at deeper levels
within pipes are commonly more competent
at depth and so host ore within breccia matrix.
Juvenile intrusion clasts represent a stand out
feature for the identification of phreatomagmatic
breccia pipes.
• Phreatic (eruption) breccias, which vary from
silicified to clay altered, often represent fluid
outflows for sinter formation and may pass
downwards to mineralised veins possibly hosted
by the same structure.
• Many breccia bodies may contain “rucked
up” clasts of mineralisation or alteration as an
indication of exploration targets which might lie
at depth.
63
5 PORPHYRY Cu + Au + Mo DEPOSITS

5.1 Introduction

A origin of the term porphyry Cu + Au + Mo is briefly outlined in section 1.3.1.2, while a

definition provided in section 1.3.2.6 characterises the essential features of these deposits, in
order to examine some of the tools explorationists use. Consequently these tools are
considered for porphyry deposits as: section 2, hydrothermal alteration; section 3, structural
controls to localisation and development, section 4, associated breccias and contribute to a
suggestion of the controls to porphyry mineralisation (section 5.1.8). Many other workers
(Clark, 1993; Cooke et al., 2005; Sillitoe, 2000; Seedorff et al., 2005) have analysed the size
and metal grade of porphyry systems and considered factors which may lead to the formation
of large and high metal grade porphyry systems. This study focuses upon the staged model
for porphyry intrusions first presented by Corbett and Leach in short course presentations
from 1992 and later updated here as a field guide to the exploration for, and evaluation of
porphyry Cu + Au + Mo deposits (Corbett and Leach, 1998).

Figure 5.1 Model for the staged development of zoned alteration and mineralisation
associated with porphyry Cu deposits (updated from Corbett and Leach, 1998).

The term porphyry herein applies to a porphyry Cu + Au + Mo, unless suggested otherwise
although variants wallrock porphyry, which are typically Au-rich, as wall as Au and Mo
porphyry deposits are discussed herein (section **).

5.1.1 Wallrock porphyry

Wallrock porphyry Cu-Au mineralisation is hosted wholly within wall rocks, in settings
where the magmatic source for mineralisation may not have been identified, as distinct from
many porphyry deposits where some mineralisation continues from the intrusion into the host

Economic Geo. _ JH
rocks into the adjacent wall rocks (figure 5.2). These deposits are characterised by sheeted
quartz-sulphide veins formed in a dilatant structural setting which are capable of bleeding ore
fluids some considerable distance from buried magmatic source rocks into higher crustal
level wall rocks. Many wallrock porphyry deposits are Au-rich as they the mineralisation is
analogous to low sulphidation (deep) epithermal quartz-sulphide Au + Au mineralisation
(section7.1.1.1) and so are Au dominated over Cu, characterised by quartz with pyrite-
chalcopyrite with local bornite or molybdenite and local carbonate (figure 5.1).

Figure 5.2 Wallrock porphyry sheeted quartz-sulphide veins form labelled projects.

5.1.2 Setting

The presence of similar porphyry deposits over a wide geographic range, in different host
rocks and developed through a protracted history of geological time, suggests there must be
common themes in their formation. Porphyry Cu deposits form within volcanoplutonic arcs
(magmatic arcs of continental or island type, section 1.2) emplaced into the overlying plate at
subducting (convergent) collisional tectonic plate boundaries (figures 1.2, 1.3 & 5.3) Here the
down-going, typically oceanic, plate and a veneer of wet sediments undergo progressive
partial melting upon entering the asthenosphere. Much of the melting takes place within the
interface between subducting plate and overlying plate under the influence of volatile rich
fluids released by the dehydration of the commonly hydrothermally altered down-going
oceanic slab (Canela and Piccoli, 2005) and wet sediments.

I-type magmas generated by the subduction process display intermediate igneous

compositions (diorite) derived from the slab and wedge participation in melt formation,
whereas increased inclusion of melted lower crust and differentiation provide a shift to felsic
magmatism, while deeper melting of the down-going slab is responsible more alkaline
compositions (Richards, 2003), commonly developed in back arc settings (Porgera, Papua
New Guinea; Bajo de la Alumbrera, Argentina). Porphyry deposits associated with alkaline
intrusions are typically Au-rich (Goonumbla and Cadia District, Australia; Bajo de la
Alumbrera, Argentina) and are interpreted to be overlain by low sulphidation epithermal Au,
rather than Cu, deposits (Lihir and Porgera, Papua New Guinea). The diorite composition

Economic Geo. _ JH
which dominates in porphyry deposits reflects the setting within andesitic magmatic arcs,
while Mo mineralisation is commonly associated with granitic compositions, and may be
formed at deeper crustal levels. IOCG (Iron oxide copper gold) deposits display some
similarities to porphyry deposits, although with interpreted emplacement at depths in the
order of 10 km.

Figure 5.3 Setting of porphyry Cu deposits within collision-subduction related

volcanoplutonic belts.

5.1.3 Process

Just as the staged porphyry model for porphyry development (Corbett and Leach, 1998)
features a buried magmatic source, many workers (see Richards, 2005) suggest a large
quantity of buried magma source rocks are required for the formation of economic porphyry
Cu deposits within relatively small intrusions, and so mechanisms are required to transport
and concentrate metals. Chlorine, water and sulphur, necessary for the formation of
complexing agents to transport Cu and Au, are added to the melting environment from the
down-going sea floor altered oceanic slab and skin of wet (from seawater) sediments
(Candela and Piccoli, 2005; Richards, 2009). Favourable conditions for porphyry formation
include oxidised magmas (Sillitoe, 1997) in which chalcophile metals are transported by SO2
(Cooke et al., 2014) developed within the mantle wedge as a result of aqueous fluid
metasomatism (Richards, 2005). This is especially the case for Au-rich alkaline porphyry
intrusions such as at Porgera and Lihir in Papua New Guinea, where the remelting of oceanic
crust has been invoked (Solomon 1990; Richards, 2009).

Zoned prograde hydrothermal alteration follows initial porphyry emplacement and the early
venting of volatiles to form barren shoulders of advanced argillic alteration (below). Many
geological models (Candela and Piccoli, 2005; Richards, 2005) feature migration of magma
melts to shallow crustal levels where volatile exsolution and crystallization initiate the
process of porphyry rock formation (Candela and Blevin, 1995). A volatile and brine
enriched magma will be highly fluidised and buoyant aiding the ascent, as metals partition
into the volatile-rich magma and decompression of a crystallising rising magma promotes

Economic Geo. _ JH
development of porphyritic textures within the upper portion of the chamber (Candela and
Piccoli, 2005). As the pluton cools volatiles (vapour and brine) with dissolved metals
concentrate towards the top of this magma chamber, especially if a cupola (carapace or
apophysis) is present, and so the volatiles become overpressured as additional material
exsolved from the magma source at depth rises to the overlying stock (figure 3.38 & 3.39).
Hornfelsed wall rock and a cooled rim at the upper margin of the pluton initially constrain the
overpressured fluids. In a model presented by Phillips (1973) and others (sections 3.4.2 &
4.4.4.1), the carapace eventually fails and the pressure drop promotes porphyry quartz vein
formation. However, much of the sulphide is interpreted to have been deposited later (Corbett
and Leach, 1998) derived from the much larger cooling magma source at depth and so
plumbing systems such as dilatant sheeted veins are important to transport ore fluids from the
magma source at depth to the site of deposition in the apophysis. As the porphyry evolves the
heat source drives outward moving circulating hydrothermal cells which, during cooling of
the intrusion apophysis, reverse as the drawdown process, causing low pH fluids to collapse
upon the earlier prograde alteration with the resultant retrograde mineral overprint on the
prograde mineral assemblages (described in the staged porphyry model below).

Polyphasal porphyry emplacement provides potential for higher metal grades derived from
repeated mineralisation as recognised in many of the better quality porphyry systems,
although late stage barren intrusions may stope out ore. As intrusions may display similar
composition and texture, often obscured by hydrothermal alteration, some features which aid
in the identification of multiple intrusions are provided below. This change from early
mineralised, to later barren intrusions, may represent the progression in the source from
magmas derived from the margins to the core of the larger magma chamber at depth.

5.1.4 Form

As mentioned above, porphyry deposits are interpreted to overlie much larger magmatic
source rocks for the metals which could not have been derived from the quantity of intrusion
which hosts the mineralisation (Steinberger et al., 2013). The dilatant structural settings
which localise porphyry deposits also provide the second order structures such as sheeted
vein arrays which bleed metals from the magmatic source at depth to a higher crustal setting
where mineral deposition occurs, typically in the upper portion of a porphyry stock (section
3.4.2). Dilatant sheeted veins transport as well as host mineralisation. While many porphyry
Cu-Au intrusions display vertically attenuated spine-like forms (Goonumbla and Ridgeway,
Australia; Grasberg, Indonesia; Didipio, Philippines; Golpu, Papua New Guinea) typically
with the younger intrusions progressively emplaced into the centre of the body of the stock,
other porphyry Cu + Mo + Au deposits occur as scale dyke-like arrays (Yandera, Papua New
Guinea) or larger stocks (Bingham Canyon, USA).

Consequently, there is a vertical zonation in the overall porphyry environment (figure 5.4),
typically from batholitic magmatic source rocks at depth, where sub-economic sulphide
mineralisation might be disseminated in miarolitic cavities, to overlying larger stocks or
spine-like intrusions with economic stockwork and sheeted vein mineralisation, rising to
higher metal grades in the presence of polyphasal intrusions. In dilatant structural settings
sheeted rather than stockwork veins extend well beyond the porphyry intrusions to form
wallrock porphyry ore systems, and at highest crustal levels D veins (described below) may
vector towards buried mineralisation. Metal zonation is discussed in section 9. Dilatant
settings contribute towards the emplacement of polyphasal porphyry intrusions, formation of
sheeted veins which transport ore fluids from the batholith at depth, and reactivation of

Economic Geo. _ JH
earlier veins, and so single event wallrock porphyries typically display lower metal grades.
Vein kinematics are indicative of the structural controls to porphyry localisation including the
triggers for emplacement (section 2.4.2). Porphyry deposits commonly display ‘barren cores’
derived from a number of factors including the focus of competent veins and later
mineralisation about the intrusion margin where more effective cooling occurs (discussed
below) and also the effect of late stage barren intrusions which are commonly emplaced into
the centre of the porphyry environment.

Figure 5.4 Levels in a typical porphyry system from a batholith at depth with sub-economic
sulphide mineralisation hosted within miarolitic cavities (bottom), rising to well mineralised
stockwork veins associated with polyphasal intrusions, overlain by a less well mineralised
wallrock porphyry and higher crustal level D veins (top) or breccia pipes (section 4.4.4).

5.1.5 Localisation

Porphyry Cu deposits have long been considered (Titley, 1993 and references therein;
Sillitoe, 1972) to develop in the root zones of stratovolcanoes in compressional
volcanoplutonic arcs which might favour the retention of magmatic volatiles (Sillitoe, 1998),
although failure of the magma source to vent as volcanic rocks might be more important for
volatile retention. However, many of the world’s most significant porphyry Cu deposits were
localised by major structures and emplaced into the basement rocks (Grasberg, Indonesia;
Bingham Canyon, USA), or off arc volcanoclastic sediments (Cadia district, Australia).
Major structures may also focus the metal-bearing magmatic hydrothermal fluid in the cupola
at the top of the magma chamber and provide an escape path for individual magma pulses
which form stocks and dykes. Important styles of crustal scale structures which localise
porphyry intrusions (figure 3.1; section; 3.1; Corbett, 1994; Corbett and Leach, 1998)
include:
 Arc-parallel structures, commonly developed as linear sutures between terrains in
compressional settings, may be exhumed from deeper levels and eroded to host
mineralisation (Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea), or localise intrusions in response to

Economic Geo. _ JH
 changes from overall reverse fault senses of movement (Falla Oeste-Domeyko Fault,
Chile; Gilmore Suture, Australia), within dilatant sites.
 Arc-normal transfer structures segment arcs and accommodate along arc changes in
the nature (dip and speed) of subduction to locally tap deep melts from the underlying
plate (Porgera, Papua New Guinea), and focus overprinting intrusion emplacement
(Wafi-Golpu, Papua New Guinea; Cadia district, Australia).
 Conjugate structures, formed at moderate angles to the grain of arcs characterised by
orthogonal compression (Northern Chile-Argentina, figure 3.2; North Sulawesi,
Indonesia; North Queensland, Australia), localise porphyry and intrusion-related
epithermal deposits (El Guanaco, Chile; El Quevar, Argentina; Kidston, Australia), at
intersections with arc-parallel structures (La Escondida, Chile) or other conjugates
(Kidston). Conjugate fractures play an important role in the formation of dilatant link
structures or cross overs which localise porphyry emplacement (figure 3.36).
 Many porphyry systems are localised within dilatant second order fractures adjacent
to major structures. The most common dilatant structural setting develops where
strike-slip movement changes between elements of a structural corridor at ‘step overs’
or fault jogs, formed as splay faults (Far South East, Philippines; Frieda, Papua New
Guinea; Chuquicamata, Chile) in deeper porphyry level portions of negative flower
structures (figure 3.14). Higher crustal level wallrock porphyry deposits may display
elements of pull-apart basins (Cadia Valley, Australia), as near-surface manifestations
of negative flower structures.

The presence of porphyry intrusions within dilatant structural settings is critical to resolution
(below) of the ‘space problem’ associated with the emplacement of porphyry intrusions
within compressional magmatic arcs.

5.1.6 Structure in porphyry deposits

As described earlier, the dramatic drop in pressure upon failure of the overpressured porphyry
cupolas, supposedly (Phillips, 1973) when fluid pressure exceeds the low pressure plus
tensile strength of the rock prompts deposition of quartz veins (sections 3.4.3 & 4.4.4.1).
Random stockwork quartz veins form in conditions of no preferred stress. However,
earthquake-related movement on the structure which has localised the porphyry may also
crack the carapace and in those instances the fault kinematics influence quartz orientation and
repeated movement will provide banded or laminated quartz veins and reopen competent
quartz veins as receptacles for later sulphide mineralisation. Structures associated with
porphyry intrusions therefore vary with the level in the system and kinematic environment as
described in detail in section 3.4.3.

Porphyry geologists have traditionally used the term stockwork to describe randomly oriented
porphyry quartz-sulphide veins which host most mineralisation. The random orientation may
result from lack of preferred stress regime during vein formation and also multiple episodes
of vein development (figure 5.4), possibly under different stress regimes. Sheeted quartz-
sulphide veins form as parallel sets of simple veins and may also be banded or laminated with
variable inclusions of wall rock. The distinction between stockwork and sheeted veins is
important as the latter transport as well as host mineralisation (above). The partings of M-
style quartz-magnetite veins are reactivated as hosts for later lower temperature sulphide
mineralisation following initial vein formation (figure 5.5) and barren porphyry cores of M
veins lack the later mineralising event (figure 5.15). Although many explorationists include
sheeted amongst stockwork veins with no distinction, the recognition of sheeted veins should

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influence drilling direction as well as grade determination methods and are related to the
controls to mineralisation and porphyry emplacement which are used to derive models for
further exploration in any district.

5.1.7 Triggers for porphyry emplacement

Analyses of vein arrays within, and marginal to, porphyry intrusions provide the kinematic
conditions under which intrusion emplacement and mineralisation took place (section 3.4).
While in many cases the kinematic conditions of porphyry emplacement agree with the
regional geology, in many others the apparent tectonic conditions associated with porphyry
emplacement are strongly opposed to the anticipated regional tectonics. It was proposed
(Corbett and Leach, 1998) that transient changes in the nature of convergence provide
triggers for forceful porphyry emplacement of mineralised melts constrained at depth under
compressional conditions. The development of porphyry systems within dilatant structural
settings, not formerly active during compression, thereby solves the space problem in
compressional arcs. Short lived transient events are not discernible in the geological record
characterised by overall compression, apart from within the porphyry system, and so the
rapid forceful emplacement is consistent with development of porphyritic textures and spine-
like form of many porphyry intrusions. Furthermore, many ore systems in one district, locally
with similar contradictory trends to the region, display similar ages to represent
mineralisation epochs (in the Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia, 439 m.y. age of the Cadia district
[Wilson et al., 2007] and others).

Triggers (section 3.5) include:

 Transient changes from orthogonal to oblique convergence such as those speculated
(Corbett and Leach, 1998) to account for the character of many Lachlan Orogen of
Eastern Australia ore systems formed in conditions of sinistral strike-slip movement
on the NS structural grain, in a probable orthogonal magmatic arc (section 3.5.1.4).
Regular activation of such a mechanism might account for clusters of deposits at
specific times such as 439 m.y. age for some Lachlan Orogen porphyry deposits.
Some important deposits in Chile are associated with dextral movement on the NS
structural grain (Chuquicamata & La Escondida).
 Relaxation of compression described in detail in section 3.5.1.5.
 Rapid unroofing by uplift and erosion to account for the exposure at the surface of
youthful porphyry intrusions at Ok Tedi, Papua New Guinea (section 3.5.1.3) and
might also account for the outcrop exposure if the Grasberg porphyry, West Papua,
dated as 3.5-2.6 m.y. (Leys et al., 2012) porphyry deposits.
 Catastrophic unroofing such as sector collapse of a volcanic edifice which triggered
the change from porphyry to epithermal at Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea
(section 3.5.1.1), and also in Papua New Guinea, thrust erosion (section 3.5.1.2)
prompted the change from deep to shallow bonanza grade epithermal mineralisation
at Porgera.

5.1.8 Control to quality porphyry systems

Explorationists seek to understand the controls to mineralisation to aid in the development of

geological models used to explore for more mineralisation of that style in any particular
district. The controls to mineralisation are considered here rather than in the conclusion to
this section so the reader might keep in mind during the study of this section, the need to pay
attention to these factors in any area of interest. Factors which might aid in the development

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of better quality (giant) porphyry systems and will be discussed herein might include (figure
5.5):

Figure 5.5 Model to illustrate some factors which contribute towards good quality porphyry
deposits with photos from Australian porphyry deposits (top to bottom) as: mineralised
sheeted A veins (Goonumbla); laminated M vein with sulphides in the reactivated parting
(Copper Hill) (15.2 g/t Au, 0.3% Cu), and C vein cuts A, which cuts M vein (Ridgeway).

 A favourable setting might be characterised by collision-related subduction which

might produce a fertile melt (Cooke at al., 2005), while low angle subduction
contributes towards a thick crustal pile and large shallow source magma chambers
(Hollings et al., 2005, Sillitoe, 1998) and a lack of extrusive volcanism helps to
constrain the volatiles and metals within the porphyry melt.
 Favourable intrusion composition is dominated by generally I type oxidised (Ishihara
magnetite series) melts (Sillitoe, 1993) although many deposits, particularly Au-rich
variants, occur with more alkaline porphyries (Muller and Groves, 2000) and so
monzonite compositions rather than only diorite are important.
 Triggers promote the rapid and forceful emplacement of spine-like intrusions, which
were formerly constrained at depth in the compressional setting, and then cool rapidly
at a high crustal level to provide higher grade mineralisation, especially by polyphasal
activation. Many triggers are provided by transient changes in the nature of tectonism.
 Dilatant structural settings, commonly as splay faults associated with major structures
provide space for intrusion emplacement and result in the formation of sheeted vein
arrays which will bleed ore fluids from the magmatic source rocks at depth to the
higher crustal level of mineral deposition.
 Competent wall rocks are required to fracture well and so host intrusions or marginal
veins.
 Polyphasal intrusion emplacement, typically within dilatant structural settings, may
provide many episodes of mineralisation and hence higher metal grades, locally with
mineralised sulphides emplaced along partings within banded quartz-magnetite veins.

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  Limitation of post-mineral barren intrusions which locally provide barren cores or
stope out ore, to seriously affect the economics of any porphyry deposit.
 Preservation and exposure are locally important as the Ordovician Cadia system of
eastern Australia has been preserved below Silurian cover, possibly aided elsewhere
(Cowal, Australia) by collapse within pull-apart basin ore settings, while on the other
hand rapid uplift and erosion favour porphyry development and exposure in youthful
terrains. Similarly, excessive compression-related uplift could prompt erosional
destruction of a porphyry.

5.2 Staged model for porphyry Cu-Au evolution

The focus of this porphyry discussion is to consider the model for staged porphyry
development as a means understand the complex overprinting events which contribute
towards the formation of economic porphyry mineralisation.

While many conceptual models describe the essential features of porphyry Cu + Au systems
(Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984), and some include time in progressive
porphyry development (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), studies by Terry Leach on porphyry-
driven active Philippine geothermal systems (Mitchell and Leach, 1991) emphasised the
importance of time in a staged model for porphyry Cu-Au development (Corbett and Leach,
1998) updated in Corbett (2008 & 2009). This model, further updated herein (figure 1.18),
therefore facilitates an understanding of the overprinting nature of hydrothermal alteration
and mineralisation. An exploration significance of this staged model for porphyry formation
includes the identification of potentially well mineralised polyphasal systems from
disruptions to the normal sequence of vein and alteration events and the recognition of
possible vectors towards unseen intrusions from analyses of features such as alteration,
breccias or vein styles.

5.2.1 Emplacement

While many variations are possible, a typical porphyry system considered herein (figure 1.18
and above) occurs as a polyphasal spine-like vertically attenuated stock which caps a
significant magmatic source at depth (Goonumbla and Ridgeway, Australia; Heithersay et al.,
1990). Importantly in this model, the majority of metals are derived from a much larger
unseen body of magma at depth rather than the spine-like intrusion, typically emplaced into a
dilatant structural setting as an aid to the migration of ore fluids to the higher crustal level.

Following initial emplacement porphyry intrusions display a protracted evolution

characterised by initial conductive followed by convective heat transfer by the development
of circulating hydrothermal cells of magmatic-meteoric waters. Prograde potassic grading
outwards to propylitic alteration develops during the outward cell migration, and then during
cooling of the heat source, the hydrothermal cells above the intrusion reverse, resulting in
drawdown of evolved acidic fluids and a retrograde phyllic overprint upon the earlier
minerals described below (figure 1.18; Corbett and Leach, 1998, and references therein).

5.2.2 Prograde alteration

Prograde hydrothermal alteration develops in response to the cooling intrusion and may affect
the adjacent wall rocks as it grades outwards from potassic to propylitic alteration (section
2.2.1).

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5.2.2.1 Potassic alteration (figure 2.2) is characterised primarily by the presence secondary K-
feldspar and/or biotite as replacement, fracture/veins and selvages to quartz veins, in
conjunction with silica and sulphides such as pyrite, chalcopyrite and bornite. Secondary
biotite typically displays a fine felt-like character as it replaces primary mafic minerals such
as biotite, hornblende or pyroxene, commonly with secondary magnetite, and may also occur
as a brown wash through the matrix (figure 2.5). Primary matrix feldspars may undergo
pervasive replacement by secondary K-feldspar (orthoclase) to provide a pink colour to the
rock (figure 2.4). Anhydrite is also common within prograde potassic alteration, locally as a
late stage breccia fill or veins, as an indication of the high SO2 content, and eventually
hydrolyses to gypsum (figure 2.5). There are some variations in mineralogy with primary
rock composition, as mafic melts might be dominated by biotite and magnetite, whereas
silica, K-feldspar and anhydrite dominate over those minerals in felsic compositions (Cooke
et al., 2014 and references therein).

Outer potassic alteration is defined by some workers as actinolite-dominated, and indeed

Terry Leach placed actinolite within potassic alteration (figure 2.1), whereas this scheme
utilises actinolite as the indicator mineral for the higher temperature portion of inner
propylitic alteration. In both schemes actinolite might rim higher metal grade mineralisation
within potassic alteration and so the recognition of actinolite outside the potassic alteration
represents an important prospecting tool. The discovery drill hole for the Ridgeway porphyry
(DDH NC498) bored through actinolite before the intersection of K-feldspar-magnetite
alteration and Cu-Au mineralisation (figure 5.6). At Wafi, Papua New Guinea, actinolite and
chalcopyrite are first recognised at the same position, moving from outside towards the
porphyry intrusion (Menzies et al., 2012).

Figure 5.6 Actinolite as a vector to porphyry mineralisation. Cross section on the left from
Wilson et al. (2007) shows Ridgeway discovery drill hole NC498.

Magnetite may occur as an important component of early potassic alteration developed prior
to the introduction of most mineralisation, as matrix flooding, veinlets, replacement of
primary mafic minerals, or disseminations which may be cut by additional quartz-magnetite-

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sulphide veins. The resultant magnetic character provides a valuable prospecting tool (section
9.**). High magnetite contents are associated with oxidised magmas and high Au contents
(Clarke and Arancibia, 1995), although the Au typically occurs with bornite in these
intrusions (below).

Hornfels alteration, recognised within the wall rocks immediately adjacent to porphyry
intrusions, typically comprises fine grained, massive, dark, biotite, magnetite and K-feldspar
and may include high temperature contact metamorphic minerals such as andalusite. Much of
the magnetic character of many intrusions lies within the hornfelsed wall rocks. A competent
cap formed by this alteration may constrain fluids within the underlying porphyry intrusion
and in some cases much of the magnetic anomaly associated with the porphyry intrusions lies
within the altered hornfels (Goonumbla, Australia).

5.2.2.2 Propylitic alteration is commonly divided into inner and outer propylitic alteration
moving away from the source intrusion (section 2.2.1), essentially as a decline in the
temperature of formation of the characteristic minerals.

Inner propylitic alteration is defined by the presence of easily recognisable epidote along with
quartz, chlorite, carbonate (typically calcite) and commonly pyrite. Actinolite is placed at the
higher temperature end of inner propylitic alteration, transitional to potassic alteration and
locally termed outer potassic (above). Adularia may represent the lower temperature form of
secondary K-feldspar developed at the expense of orthoclase recognised in potassic alteration
formed marginal to epithermal veins (figures 2.11 & 2.17). Similarly, in Na-rich rocks albite
develops at the expense of secondary K-feldspar and so actinolite-albite is a common
propylitic assemblage (figure 2.6). Magnetite introduction is locally recognised within
propylitic alteration commonly as a wall rock magnetite-actinolite alteration (Clarke and
Arancibia, 1995).

Outer propylitic alteration is dominated by the presence chlorite-carbonate (typically calcite)

alteration along with local adularia/albite, pyrite, haematite, illite and zeolites as it locally
grades to argillic alteration (figure 2.7). Some outer propylitic alteration displays a retrograde
character as chlorite replaces primary mafic minerals. Haematite may form in the presence of
oxygen, possibly derived from ground waters. It can be difficult to distinguish outer
propylitic alteration from low grade metamorphism and alteration to basalts on the sea floor.

Wall rock permeability provides some control upon prograde alteration which extends further
from the intrusion source within permeable and reactive wall rocks such as volcanic breccias
or volcaniclastic sediments.

5.2.3 Early advanced argillic alteration

Bodies of advanced argillic alteration recognised on the margins of eroded SW Pacific rim
porphyry intrusions were termed barren shoulders in short course presentations (1992-1997)
and Corbett and Leach (1998) and are described in detail in section 2.2.4. A model is
proposed there, that hot magmatic volatiles venting early from a cooling intrusion rise as a
plume and acidify upon cooling at higher crustal levels, and are then progressively cooled
and neutralised by wall rock reaction, to produce hydrothermal alteration which is
characteristically zoned outwards from mineral assemblages dominated by silica, then
alunite, pyrophyllite-diaspore, dickite-kaolinite and sericite and (near neutral minerals) illite-
chlorite, with some minerals dependent upon crustal level (temperature) of formation.

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Permeability for alteration zones is provided by structures at deep levels, and at high crustal
levels, permeable rocks in the host volcanic sequences. Deep level advanced argillic
alteration may contain high temperature andalusite and corundum and volatile-rich minerals
such as zunyite and topaz are common throughout (figure 2.18). Weathering of the softer
outer alteration minerals (pyrophyllite-dickite) exposes the central silica as ledges varying
from steep (structurally controlled) to flat (lithologically controlled). As these alteration
zones are derived from a volatile rich fluid exsolved early in the cooling history of an
evolving porphyry, this alteration is essentially barren of Cu-Au, although rich in pyrite.
Minor enargite-pyrite is recognised in some feeder zones (Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea;
Halilaga, Turkey). Later epithermal mineralisation may cut the competent silica (Wild Dog,
Papua New Guinea; Vuda, Fiji; Corbett and Leach, 1998). Explorationists should be mindful
that these barren silica zones, which are commonly preserved as topographic highs, are not
actual exploration targets, but contribute towards the understanding of a larger hydrothermal
system (figures 2.23-2.30).

5.2.4 Early mineralisation

The majority of Cu-Au mineralisation is hosted by quartz-sulphide veins formed early in the
porphyry cooling history which cut the competent potassic alteration, although a significant
proportion of the sulphide content is interpreted to have entered some veins after initial quartz
formation. The quartz veins are derived from the fractured carapace whereas the cooling
magma source at depth progressively exsolves sulphide mineralisation. Quartz-sulphide veins
which host mineralisation and display consistent paragenetic sequences within the porphyry
model, are herein described using names coined by several workers over many years.
However, not all veins easily fit into this classification and some transitional relationships are
recognised.

Figure 5.7 Porphyry style A veins as the early barren ptygmatic A veins described by
Gustafson and Hunt (1975) on the left, and later mineralised linear A veins on the right.

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5.2.4.1 A veins are formed early and derived from a solely magmatic fluid and so provide
very saline fluid inclusions. Two distinct styles are apparent (figure 5.7): ptygmatic A veins
which by definition should only occur within source intrusions, and linear A veins which may
extend into the wall rocks, especially where sheeted.

Ptygmatic A veins were categorised by Gustafson and Hunt (1975) at El Salvador, Chile, as
granular quartz with perthitic feldspar and anhydrite, and variable pyrite, chalcopyrite and
bornite with common irregular margins, varying to ptygmatic forms, derived from the
development of these within an intrusion which has not yet completely solidified. Alteration
selvages are locally recognised (figure 5.7). As these veins were formed early while the
intrusion was cooling, the ptygmatic forms may be dismembered. Although Gustafson and
Hunt (1975) note the presence of chalcopyrite and bornite, the high temperature early
ptygmatic A veins are only weakly mineralised in most settings. While some workers
describe a relationship between ptygmatic A veins and mottled or ovoid quartz textures in
collapsing advanced argillic alteration (section 2.2.5), paragenetic relationships of the staged
porphyry model described herein place these veins as formed much earlier than the collapsing
advanced argillic alteration, consistent with the interpretation by Noble et al. (2010) that
these features are not related.

Figure 5.8 Porphyry A veins with bornite as stockwork and sheeted forms associated with K-
feldspar-biotite-magnetite (potassic) alteration from Goonumbla, Australia. Much of the
bornite occurs on fractures and in the bottom left photo actinolite occurs with bornite
consistent with the suggestion of later sulphide introduction under lower temperatures.

Linear A veins, as described by explorationists, cut brittle intrusions as straight, linear veins
with sharp margins, and typically comprise quartz and highly variable coeval disseminated
chalcopyrite-bornite and local molybdenite. Selvages of K-feldspar or biotite are common as
wall rock alteration (figure 5.7). Quartz is typically recognised as granular with abundant
disseminated sulphides (Caspiche, Chile in figure 5.7) or massive milky buck quartz (figures
5.9 & 5.11) with only minor original sulphides and rarely crystalline forms. Linear A veins
may occur as single (figures 5.7 & 5.8) or multiple event stockwork (figure 5.10) veins,
within source porphyry intrusions or as sheeted packages which may extend some distance
from the source intrusion to form wallrock porphyry deposits, possibly up to 1000m into the

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wall rocks at Cadia East, Australia (figure 5.9). While disseminated sulphides may have been
deposited coeval with quartz, in particular granular quartz (Caspiche, Chile in figure 5.7),
there is a common pattern discussed later that much of the fracture-controlled sulphide
content post-dates initial quartz vein formation, including within disseminated sulphide
bearing granular quartz veins. While laminations (figure 5.10), orthogonal fractures (figure
5.8) and vein margins (figure 5.11) host sulphides which may extend into the wall rocks
(figure 5.10), much of the later sulphides are introduced as C veins which are discussed later.

Figure 5.9 Sheeted A veins including wallrock porphyry characterised by massive quartz with
local K-feldspar selvages and Au-Mo mineralisation.

Figure 5.10 Polyphasal stockwork and sheeted A veins with bornite from Goonumbla,
Australia. Note the manner in which bornite extends from the sheeted veins (bottom left) into
the wall rocks.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 5.11 Porphyry style A veins with milky to buck quartz and molybdenite and lesser
chalcopyrite mineralisation from the Anthony Porphyry, Australia.

5.2.4.2 M veins were defined by Clark and Arancibia (1995) as “A veins rich in magnetite”
and so transitional relationships are locally recognised between linear A with massive buck,
rather than granular, quartz and what are commonly regarded as M veins (figures 5.12 &
5.14). In many field examples, particularly in the SW Pacific rim, M veins occur as laminated
quartz and magnetite locally with pyrite-chalcopyrite-bornite, typically localised in the
partings between quartz-magnetite laminations (figure 5.16). As porphyry intrusions
dominated by M veins are oxidised, bornite typically represents the dominant Cu sulphide,
and so M vein intrusions are likely to be Au-rich (figure 5.16; Ridgeway and Copper Hill,
Australia; Maricunga Belt, Chile). The laminated texture is indicative of quartz and magnetite
deposition in a repetitive, dilatant structural environment, while much of the sulphide
component is interpreted to post-date initial vein formation, and has been deposited in the
reopened laminated partings under the influence of this same dilatant structural setting. The
common sheeted form of M vein packages is characteristic of formation in association with a
dilatant structural setting and consistent with the well mineralised nature as ore fluids bled
from a magmatic source at depth (figure 5.13 & 5.14). Stockwork sets of M veins may result
from the coincidence of more than one sheeted vein set, especially by the exploitation of
conjugate or orthogonal fractures (figure 5.14). Throughout, much of the sulphide
mineralisation formed after the quartz-magnetite, which is consistent with the model of early
sulphur suppression during magnetite deposition, and also consistent with sulphide evolution
from the deeper magmatic source proposed herein.

In this description M veins appear to develop by the repeated deposition of A vein style buck
quartz and magnetite with the later addition of sulphides deposited as a continued dilatant
process on the lamination partings or cutting quartz. Some porphyry intrusions contain
significant bodies of barren quartz-magnetite veins (figure 5.15), typically as cores, which did
not receive the late sulphides deposited in cooler intrusion margins. Sulphides which are
introduced after quartz-magnetite formation may not fill some early veins as ore fluids

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exploit existing brittle quartz veins to pond and cool about the outer portions of the intrusive
stock.

Figure 5.12 M veins comprising quartz-magnetite-sulphide (pyrite-bornite-chalcopyrite)

including laminated and sheeted forms.

Figure 5.13 Generally sheeted quartz-magnetite veins from the Maricunga Belt, Chile. Marte
mine on the left and the Refugio or Maricunga mine on the right. Note the quartz magnetite
vein cuts fine sheeted veins in the top right photo.

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Figure 5.14 Laminated M veins, locally sheeted and overprinted by a B vein and including an
orthogonal set. Left photos are Namosi, Fiji and right Golpu, Papua New Guinea.

Figure 5.15 Transitional relationships between magnetite-bearing A veins and M veins. The
bottom right photo from Wonogiri, Indonesia shows a ‘barren quartz-magnetite core’, while
the other samples from Ridgeway, Australia illustrate the transition from A to M veins and
later sulphides.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 5.16 Sulphides exploit the partings within quartz-magnetite M veins locally with
elevated Au grades contained within the magnetite.

5.2.4.3 E veins recognised at Buckleys Hill at the Copper Hill project Australia (Hayward et
al., 2015) comprise a variable mix of quartz, magnetite, haematite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and
bornite, with common chlorite selvages within andesite wall rock which displays alteration
varying from chlorite-carbonate to chlorite-sericite (figure 5.17). Haematite appears to rim
magnetite and may develop at the expense of magnetite until all the wall rock oxygen has
been used. These veins, which have been traced wholly within wall rock to a depth greater
than 500 m, host significant low Cu-Au grade mineralisation and display a sheeted character
developed in a strongly dilatant structural setting, which would have facilitated the transport
of fluids from a speculated buried intrusion source (Hayward et al., 2015; section 9.**).
These veins are distinct from biotite, K-feldspar or magnetite veins typically formed as part
of the initial prograde alteration in many porphyry systems, although there are some
transitional relationships with magnetite-epidote-K-feldspar alteration at Buckleys Hill, and
so the E veins are interpreted as early. The prograde magnetite distinguishes these E veins
from the D veins described below which form much later in the porphyry paragenetic
sequence with retrograde silica-sericite alteration. Sericite, which appears to overprint the
wall rock at Buckleys Hill, may be derived from a later intrusion event in a strongly
polyphasal system. Chlorite selvages to the Buckleys Hill E veins are reminiscent of early
dark micaceous (EDM) alteration selvages recognised adjacent to veins in some other
porphyry deposits such as from Butte, Montana (figure 4 in Rusk et al., 2008) and also
recognised at Goonumbla (figure 5.18). Thus, while different early veins host similar
selvages, EDM veins from Butte and Goonumbla developed as alteration selvages and
display similarities to A veins (figure 5.18). Hayward et al. (2015) suggests block faulting
places a less eroded higher portion in the hydrothermal system at Buckleys Hill, opposite the
more deeply eroded main portion of Copper Hill, where porphyry Cu-Au mineralisation
crops out well. The Buckleys Hill E veins are also distinct from those described from the
Collahusi district , Chile by Masterman et al. (2005), Rio Blanco-Los Bronces, Chile by
Deckart et al., (2013) or Altar, Argentina by Maydagán et al., (2013), which are closer to the
definition of D veins, below.

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It is concluded the Buckleys Hill E veins are related to M (quartz-magnetite-bornite) veins
which in a strongly dilatant structural setting have been bled from the magmatic source at
depth into the overlying wall rocks. Oxygenated water within the wall rocks promoted some
oxidation of magnetite to haematite. Some EDM veins also appear to form early.

Figure 5.17 E veins characterised by quartz-magnetite-haematite-pyrite-chalcopyrite-bornite

from Copper Hill, Australia. The samples from DDH GCR314 (two top left) display well
developed EDM selvages.

Figure 5.18 Early dark micaceous veins (EDM) developed at Goonumbla, Australia, here
locally as selvages to A-type quartz-anhydrite veins (bottom right) or with central sulphides
(top right).

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5.2.5 Continued mineralisation

Following initial emplacement, the porphyry stock continues to progressively cool as fluids
with metals as well as volatiles migrate from the large magma source at depth into the
overlying stock. Features formed during the initial cooling such as quartz veins may become
fractured and overprinted by later sulphides derived from the magma source at depth.

5.2.5.1 B veins, which overprint A and M veins in the staged porphyry model paragenetic
sequence, were categorised by Gustafson and Hunt (1975) at El Salvador, Chile, as
characterised by central sulphide-bearing bands within granular or saccharoidal quartz (figure
5.19). Those workers suggest that in the ideal case, sulphides fill the open space between
centrally terminated comb crystalline quartz, but this is relatively rare. The outer vein walls
are straight and regular, while sheeted vein packages are common, and many wallrock
porphyry deposits are of a B vein style. Sulphides are dominated by pyrite and chalcopyrite
with local molybdenite and lesser bornite, although this varies depending upon the setting in
the overall porphyry anatomy. B veins always cut A and M veins and are therefore later. B
veins develop at the change from prograde to retrograde hydrothermal alteration and may
display alteration selvages varying from prograde biotite-K-feldspar-magnetite to retrograde
silica-sericite-pyrite, although the latter is more common. Some B veins commonly develop
by formation of a central sulphide-filled fracture within what appears to be earlier A veins
(figure 5.20) and where this process is incomplete these veins may be termed AB veins. It is
important to note the sulphide fill within B or AB veins has clearly been emplaced into the
veins after the quartz formed, and typically exhibits a higher temperature of formation than
the sulphides.

Figure 5.19 Some porphyry B veins showing the central sulphide fill locally with inward
terminated quartz. The left hand examples are from Copper Hill, Australia, top right La
Arena, Peru and bottom right Central Thailand. All are associated with retrograde wall rock
alteration.

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Figure 5.20 Some B veins formed by the opening or pre-existing A veins and introduction of
sulphides.

Figure 5.21 Grasberg, Indonesia, where C veins provided a head grade of 4 g/t Au and 4% Cu
at the time of the Corbett and Leach visit in 1994.

5.2.5.2 C veins are categorised as sulphide veins dominated by mixtures of pyrite-

chalcopyrite + bornite, and therefore represent a means to transport the sulphides which fill
the centre of B veins and also within many M and locally A veins (figures 5.21 & 22). They
therefore overprint A, M and B veins. While sulphide is clearly best deposited in brittle
quartz veins, C veins may also be developed within the wall rocks. Many cases of sulphide-
bearing fractures within the wall rocks might therefore represent C veins. Consequently, in

Economic Geo. _ JH
dilational structural settings the partings of laminated M veins or sheeted A and B veins may
separate and become filled with sulphides to provide elevated metal values. Consequently, as
discussed below, bornite-bearing M veins, introduced as C vein sulphide, might therefore
display elevated Au grades (figure 5.16). Like B veins, C veins straddle the prograde-
retrograde transition.

Figure 5.22 C veins from Cadia-Ridgeway, Australia.

5.2.6 Retrograde alteration

Retrograde alteration occurs as prograde minerals are replaced late in the porphyry history by
a variety of other, commonly hydrous minerals, which also locally feature more acidic
conditions of formation.

5.2.6.1 Phyllic alteration comprising silica-sericite-carbonate-chlorite-pyrite-anhydrite

(section 2.2.2) was originally described as a shell-like form (Lowell and Guilbert, 1970),
subsequently became recognised as a later overprinting event (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975),
which therefore replaces prograde mineral assemblages with retrograde minerals. Sericite
commonly replaces feldspars, chlorite and then sericite replace mafic minerals as the
alteration becomes more intense and martite replaces magnetite which is destroyed.
Anhydrite may become hydrated to form gypsum at shallow levels during uplift and erosion,
with an associated expansion in the host fracture. Studies of Philippine geothermal systems
(Mitchell and Leach, 1991) demonstrated the fluids responsible for phyllic alteration collapse
upon the porphyry environment as part of a process called drawdown, described below. From
the identification at the Frieda River Porphyry of more sericite in higher levels derived from
the reaction with wall rocks of more acidic fluids, passing to chlorite at deeper levels, Terry
Leach demonstrated, there has been a collapse and progressive neutralisation of acidic fluids
(Corbett and Leach, 1998). While early isotope studies (Sheppard et al., 1971; Forde and
Green, 1977; Eastoe, 1978) suggest the fluids responsible for phyllic alteration are derived
from meteoric waters, the preference for magmatic fluids by other workers (Wolfe, 1994), is
consistent with the meteoric-magmatic fluid proposed by Corbett and Leach (1998).
Consequently, there is a spatial and temporal progression of minerals associated with phyllic

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alteration related to the cooling and neutralisation of hot acidic waters in particular parts of
the porphyry environment as apparent from the zonation in illite group minerals discernible
on the pH vs temperature figure (figures 2.1 & 2.9-2.11). At high levels in the porphyry
environment sericite passes to illite-chlorite on the margin of the system as the fluid is cooled
and neutralised. A collapsing fluid becomes heated in the porphyry environment and so
sericite may pass to coarser grained white mica at deep levels and high temperature
andalusite may also be present (section 2.2.2). Strongly acidic conditions result in the
formation of pyrophyllite in addition to sericite (figure 2.11) or collapsing advanced argillic
alteration, described below.

Of interest to explorationists, the retrograde alteration process destroys prograde secondary

magnetite developed during prograde potassic-propylitic alteration as well as primary
magnetite in the wall rock or fresh intrusion to produce a subdued magnetic signature typical
of magnetite destruction. These magnetic signatures must be distinguished from well-
developed magnetic lows, which might result from reverse polarisation (Dentith and Mudge,
2015), but occur as subdued magnetic responses, commonly with patchy highs which
increase at deeper levels of incomplete magnetite destruction (section**).

5.2.6.2 Argillic may overprint phyllic alteration as the collapsing hot acidic fluids are cooled
and neutralised by wall rock reaction and the entry of substantial cool neutral meteoric waters
(section 2.2.3.1). Clay-chlorite-pyrite alteration assemblages result, especially if the
responsible fluids extend beyond the earlier phyllic alteration into the wall rocks. Clays vary
in acidic conditions from low temperature kaolin to higher temperature dickite, and in near
neutral conditions to illite and more marginal illite-smectite. This combination of two
alteration events is termed sericite-clay-chlorite (SCC) by some workers (Sillitoe and Gappe,
1984). The strongly pyritic nature of phyllic-argillic alteration will be considered as the
source of supergene acidic waters involved in supergene Cu-Au-Ag enrichment (section **).

Collapse of the argillic alteration causes the formation of clay matrix breccias (section 4.4.8)
characterised by destruction of prograde minerals replaced by clay, adjacent to fracture-
related fluid pathways, and preservation of the original prograde or fresh mineral assemblage
as ‘clasts’ between the clay. There is essentially no clast movement, only clast erosion by
alteration. These breccias are locally termed pseudobreccias, as alteration represents the
dominant process of breccia formation rather than the more typical fracture and clast
movement.

5.2.6.3 A model for the retrograde alteration process suggests, following initial emplacement,
the cooling porphyry exsolves extensive SO2 and other volatiles which oxidise to form acid
fluids and are in turn neutralised (and locally cooled) by reaction with the adjacent wall rocks
to form silica-sericite-pyrite-chlorite selvages adjacent to many veins, commonly
overprinting propylitic alteration (figure 2.10; Thailand specimen in figure 5.19). Also
following initial porphyry emplacement, there is a change from conductive to convective heat
transfer as the porphyry heat source drives circulating hydrothermal cells which transport
volatile-rich magmatic fluids away from the intrusion. Meteoric waters enter at depth and
combine with a magmatic component to produce circulating magmatic-meteoric
hydrothermal cells driven by the intrusion heat source (figure 2.8; Corbett and Leach, 1998).
Volatiles rise to the top of the porphyry environment and oxidise to form a sink of hot acid
fluids in the upper portion of the porphyry environment. In the process of drawdown, the
cooling porphyry stock no longer provides a heat source to drive the outward movement of
the circulating hydrothermal cells which stall and then collapse upon the porphyry. Note the

Economic Geo. _ JH
magma source at depth cools more slowly than the uppermost stock. Thus late in the
porphyry history, the sink of hot acidic waters which gathered in the upper porphyry
environment are drawn down upon the porphyry stock and are neutralised by reaction with
the stock including prograde minerals formed earlier, to create retrograde phyllic alteration
(figures 2.8-2.10). Characteristic patterns of zoned alteration therefore result as the hot acidic
fluids are cooled and neutralised and vary according to crustal level and fluid acidity as well
as intrusion and wall rock permeability. Fluids may cool laterally or become heated by
collapse deeper into the intrusion environment (section 2.2.2).

5.2.7 Phyllic alteration and mineralisation

As described above, drawdown causes hot low pH waters developed high in the porphyry
environment to collapse upon the porphyry stock and initiate phyllic alteration. However, the
underlying magma source is still cooling and evolving metals into the porphyry stock. The
intersection of rising ore fluids with collapsing low pH fluids promotes Cu-Au deposition
locally recognised as elevated metal grades within phyllic alteration (Corbett and Leach,
1998), most commonly within B veins.

5.2.8 Collapsing advanced argillic alteration

Some, typically the very large, porphyry systems feature later stage collapsing advanced
argillic alteration (section 2.2.5) which is distinct from the earlier barren shoulders, and
formed in response to extreme acidity of the waters responsible for phyllic alteration. With
some variation, this advanced argillic alteration displays the same overall outward alteration
zonation as the barren shoulders, derived from the fluid cooling and neutralisation by reaction
with the wall rocks. The deep structure and shallow lithological controls to fluid flow in
barren shoulder formation are not present in the collapsing alteration which is less likely to
form similar silica ledges. Rather, some examples of collapsing alteration display a
characteristic speckled texture (moteada in Spanish) in which ovoid clots of pyrophyllite-
diaspore with local pyrite-enargite to tens of mm lie within a silica matrix (figure 2.35)
described by Miranda et al., (2014) from Tantahuatay, Peru; Crane and Kavalieris (2012)
from Oyu Tolgoi, Mongolia and Noble et al. (2010) more generally. The local enargite
probably results from the reaction of acid fluids responsible for this alteration with earlier
prograde Cu mineralisation.

5.2.9 Overprinting intrusion-related events

Polyphasal porphyry emplacement characterises the development of quality porphyry Cu-Au

deposits as repeated mineralisation may be associated with multiple phases of intrusions.
Indeed the main reason for the downgrade of many porphyry exploration projects is the
simple nature of the porphyry system without overprinting events. However, it is also
common for early well mineralised intrusions to be overprinted by later less well mineralised
or barren intrusions. Late barren intrusions may stope out ore or dilute the metal grade
sufficiently to seriously affect the economics of an exploration project. It is speculated the
early well mineralised intrusions might have been derived from the carapace of the magmatic
source, to which ore fluids had migrated and so were well mineralised. That event of
intrusion emplacement could have ruptured the top of the magma chamber causing later
intrusions to be derived from a much deeper level, below the level where metals ponded, and
so these later intrusions are less well mineralised or barren. While the term intra-mineral is
used by many workers for intrusions emplaced during the porphyry process, many barren

Economic Geo. _ JH
intrusions might be described as post-mineral as they could have been emplaced much later
than the ore forming event, and stope out ore. This dilution of the ore system provides
another reason why explorationists should seek to understand the nature of the individual
intrusions which constitute a porphyry system. In some instances the various intrusions might
display different metallurgical responses.

Porphyry systems are commonly emplaced in dynamic conditions of dramatic uplift and
erosion, including by thrust erosion or sector collapse of volcanoes, which locally provide the
trigger for porphyry emplacement (section 3.5). Consequently, overprinting porphyry
emplacement may occur well after the development of the original porphyry. Indeed, it is
common for epithermal ore systems to overprint porphyry manifestations formed at much
deeper crustal levels, after uplift and erosion.

It is therefore important to recognise the presence of multiple events of mineralisation early

in any exploration program, possibly in case the better mineralised intrusions are not being
sufficiently explored.

Figure 5.23 Some features associated with multiple porphyry intrusions anticlockwise down
from the top left as: a contact between two intrusions, an altered xenolith in a fresh intrusion,
a contact between two types of alteration, magnetic dyke cuts sericite, a brecciated intrusion
contact, residual A vein clasts not assimilated by a later intrusion, and later prograde
magnetite cuts sericite.

Field evidence of polyphasal events are provided by (figure 5.23):

 Abundant xenoliths of earlier intrusions within later intrusions.
 Contacts between multiple intrusions evidenced by sharp changes in intrusion
composition, locally with clear cross-cutting relationships in which the later intrusion
may display chilled margins, while those being cut will remain equigranular near the
contact, or there may be changes in crystal alignment or size between intrusions.
 Sharp changes in alteration styles indicative of cross-cutting relationships.

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  Changes in geochemical patterns at a contact in the absence of apparent rock type
change, especially if both intrusions are overprinted by later alteration.
 Residual A vein clasts not assimilated by the later intrusion, may provide evidence of
contacts between similar intrusions, possibly overprinted by intense alteration,
otherwise only discernible by varying geochemical patterns (La Arena).
 Many contacts may be faulted, either as major offsets or simply some lesser
adjustment at a competency contrast represented by the pre-existing contact.
 Reversals in the normal (A->B->C) sequence of vein overprinting could be indicative
of additional intrusions such that A veins might cut B veins etc.
 Prograde alteration overprinting retrograde alteration such as vein magnetite within
sericite provides an indication that the magnetite must be derived from a later
intrusion event as the fluids which deposit sericite would be expected to destroy
magnetite, and the normal sequence of events features sericite overprints upon
magnetite which is replaced by martite (section 5.2.6.1).
 Cross-cutting breccias (below) associated with a later buried unseen intrusion.

5.2.10 Overprinting advanced argillic alteration

Some porphyry deposits display relationships with overlying advanced argillic alteration
described as lithocaps in the literature. However, in many instances this alteration post-dates
the porphyry and so is related to a later more deeply buried intrusion event. Continued uplift
and erosion commonly promotes renewed magmatism so that younger high crustal level
epithermal mineralisation and alteration overprint deeper crustal level porphyry features,
commonly with only very small age differences.

5.2.10.1 At the Golpu-Wafi system in Papua New Guinea (Menzies et al., 2013; Hayward et
al., 2011; Leach, 1999; Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references within these papers)
advanced argillic alteration associated with the Wafi high sulphidation epithermal Au
mineralisation, best developed within the pre-existing diatreme breccia pipe, has been derived
from reaction with the wall rocks of hot acidic fluids sourced from a deep unseen intrusion
(section 2.2.7; figure 2.38). These fluids cut the margin of the earlier Golpu porphyry and
locally remobilised Cu to provide high mineral grades associated with covellite. Thus, the
sequence of events is: Golpu and Nambonga porphyry emplacement -> uplift and erosion ->
emplacement of the diatreme flow dome complex formation associated with dacite
magmatism -> Wafi high sulphidation epithermal system and overprinting of the Golpu
porphyry. The discovery of the blind Golpu Porphyry resulted from a recommendation
(Corbett, unpubl. report, 1990) to test the fluid up-flow for the Wafi high sulphidation
epithermal mineralisation, yielding 263m @ 1.86% Cu & 0.27ppm Au in the discovery drill
hole DDH WR95 (Hayward et al., 2011). Continued exploration by Newcrest and joint
venture partner Harmony has extended the Golpu porphyry to a depth of 1700m and
contained metal of 12.4 M oz Au, 5.4M T Cu and 18.9M oz Ag (Newcrest website).
Therefore, the advanced argillic alteration is not specifically related to the Golpu porphyry
but a later intrusion event. As discussed later (section **), the hot acidic fluids associated
with the high sulphidation epithermal event have remobilised Cu-Au deposited in the upper
porphyry as an overprinting covellite assemblage.

5.2.10.2 The Caspiche porphyry Cu-Au in central Chile (Sillitoe et al., 2013) is similarly
capped by high sulphidation epithermal vein mineralisation and associated advanced argillic
alteration, interpreted from overprinting relationships (Corbett, unpubl. report, 2008) to be
younger than the porphyry, and emplaced following substantial uplift and erosion. The ledges

Economic Geo. _ JH
of epithermal mineralisation which were the original exploration target crop out throughout
the prospect, not just above the blind spine-like porphyry. The Caspiche porphyry is dated as
25.38 + 0.09 Ma (Sillitoe et al., 2013) whereas the sericite and alunite from the adjacent, and
slightly higher elevation, high sulphidation epithermal system at Santa Cecilia yielded
younger dates of 24.3 + 0.07 and 24.1 + 0.08 Ma (Sillitoe et al., 1991). The roughly 1 million
years difference is sufficient to account for uplift erosion and overprinting of a porphyry by
an epithermal system, whether or not they are related to the same magmatic source at depth.
The advanced argillic alteration described as a lithocap is not necessarily related to the known
Caspiche porphyry.

5.2.11 Breccias

5.2.11.1 Tourmaline breccias and breccia pipes recognised in the upper levels of many
porphyry Cu deposits are interpreted to have developed early in the porphyry paragenetic
sequence (figure 1.18), possibly associated with inception of mineralisation as described in
section 4.4.4.8.

5.2.11.2 Phreatomagmatic breccias including diatreme breccia pipes, are described in section
4.4.4.9 as comprising wall rock and juvenile intrusion clasts set in a rock flour matrix. These
breccias are common in porphyry settings characterised by uplift, erosion and polyphasal
porphyry emplacement as renewed intrusion emplacement at depth may drive breccia pipes
which cut pre-existing porphyry mineralisation. The most spectacular example is provided by
the 500 m wide Bradden Formation breccia which cuts the earlier giant El Teniente porphyry
deposit, Chile (Vry et al., 2010 and references therein). Others examples include the post
mine diatremes at Dizon, Philippines (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984) and Caspiche, Chile (Sillitoe
et al., 2013), while the diatreme breccia with hosts high sulphidation epithermal Au
mineralisation at Wafi-Golpu post-dates the porphyry (above and section 2.2.7).

5.2.11.3 Pebble dykes occur as fault-controlled lenticular breccia bodies, which exploit pre-
existing structures, and are dominated by polymictic milled transported clasts with little
matrix (section 4.4.4.2), noted in association with many porphyry intrusions. The setting late
in the paragenetic sequence for the pebble dykes at El Salvador, Chile (Gustafson and Hunt,
1975) seems consistent with other examples examined by this author. The same structures are
locally utilised by later D veins. Pebble dykes are driven by depressurised volatiles escaping
up structures, may contain clasts of earlier porphyry mineralisation and are used as
exploration vectors towards blind porphyry deposits (sections 4.4.4.2 & *.***).

5.2.12 Transition to (deep) epithermal

Many porphyry systems evolve to be responsible for the development of late stage deep
epithermal features in the overlying rocks, most profound if the intrusion has undergone syn-
mineral uplift and erosion.

D veins (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) form late stage and may extend some distance outside
the porphyry into the overlying host rocks and so are commonly used in exploration as
vectors to blind porphyry intrusions (section 9.***). These workers describe veins dominated
by pyrite with lesser amounts of chalcopyrite, bornite, enargite, tennantite, sphalerite and
galena while quartz, anhydrite and carbonate may also be present along with prominent wall
rock sericite-chlorite alteration. D veins are placed late in the model for staged porphyry
development after the initiation of phyllic alteration. The silica-sericite-pyrite (phyllic) wall

Economic Geo. _ JH
rock alteration vein selvages are a characteristic feature of D veins (figure 5.24). D veins,
which overprint A, M, B and C veins, are herein divided into high and low sulphation sub-
types.

Figure 5.24 Some D veins mined as lodes, no doubt with a component of near surface
supergene enrichment, showing sericite selvages and some drill intercepts. From the top left
down in columns: two workings and one specimen from Bilimoia, PNG; drill intercept
Nakru, PNG; Goonumbla Australia with yellow sphalerite; Stavely, Australia with
enlargement and a small mine in Serbia showing sericite selvage to D vein.

5.2.12.1 The most common low sulphidation style D veins are characterised by quartz, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, bornite, anhydrite, carbonate and local sphalerite and galena with lesser
tennantite-tetrahedrite group minerals (figures 5.20 & 5.21). Chalcopyrite-bornite dominate at
depth and sphalerite-galena at higher crustal levels, and later in the paragenetic sequence
(figure ***). Sphalerite colour related to the Fe:Zn ratio is zoned from deep level black-
brown the shallower level yellow (section 7.1.1.2). Quartz-pyrite veins which may be coarse
grained and Au-bearing are transitional to low sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au + Cu
mineralisation which commonly displays supergene Au enrichment and are worked in the
oxide zone by artisan miners (section 7.1.1.1). Many larger D veins are fault controlled and
all, by definition, display sericite alteration halos. D veins might penetrate earlier advanced
argillic alteration if it is sufficiently competent. The retrograde wall rock alteration selvages
therefore distinguish D veins from earlier prograde E veins, described above (section 5.2.4.3).

Some porphyry deposits (Copper Hill & Goonumbla, Australia) are cut by D veins
characterised by quartz, carbonate (including rhodochrosite), pyrite, galena with low
temperature yellow, and very low temperature white sphalerite, which are essentially low
sulphidation carbonate-base metal epithermal Au veins (figure 5.20). These veins are
interpreted to have been derived from the same magmatic source as the porphyry as an
indication of active uplift at the same time as mineralisation. At Copper Hill these veins cut
earlier deeper level anhydrite-Mo D veins (figure 5.21).

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 5.25 D veins comprising quartz, anhydrite, carbonate, pyrite, galena, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite and molybdenite. From top left as columns: 3 veins from SE Queensland; 2 form
Copper Hill, Australia including 610 ppm Mo (top); 2 from Taguibo, Philippines and 2 from
Constantina, Peru.

5.2.12.2 D veins were important in the discovery of the Panguna porphyry Cu-Au deposit in
1964 (Corbett, 2005b). In the early 1960’s the development of porphyry Cu deposits in the
Philippines, Arizona and elsewhere, prompted CRA (the Australian arm of Rio Tinto) to send
Ken Phillips to the Philippines to study these ore systems. Upon his return to Papua New
Guinea, Phillips first visited the Porgera Au prospect and alluvial Au workings, which did not
fit the porphyry model, and so the Government geologist, Jack Thompson, suggested he
investigate the Kupei mine near Arawa, the provincial capital of Bougainville Island.
Descriptions of the lode, worked there prior to the Japanese occupation of Bougainville in
World War II, are consistent with a marginal D vein as a chalcopyrite-bornite lode with
minor sphalerite, pyrite, quartz, and molybdenite as well as gold and secondary Cu minerals
(Blake and Miezitis, 1967). Ken Phillips (pers. commun, 2014) modestly described the
discovery process as a short uphill walk from the lode to outcropping potassic alteration at
the top of the rise. Early exploration in a region of deep tropical weathering proceeded as soil
sampling, hampered by extensive post-mineral Pliocene volcanic ash which covered much of
the mineralised outcrop.

5.2.12.3 High sulphidation style D veins formed marginal to some porphyry intrusions
(Poposa, Argentina) are characterised by the presence of enargite, pyrite and alunite with
local barite as also recognised in the deeper levels of high sulphidation epithermal Au
deposits (figure 5.26). Some veins display evolution in mineralogy moving away from the
porphyry source to host sphalerite and tennantite and so conform to intermediate sulphidation
epithermal Au deposits (as the term is used herein, Section 1.3.2.5). Sericite alteration halos
are likely to exhibit alunite, pyrophyllite and dickite passing to lower temperature kaolin.
Similar enargite-alunite-kaolinite veins have also been recognised within the structures which
link barren shoulders to deeper porphyry intrusions (Halilaga, Turkey; Headwaters prospect,
Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea).

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 5.26 Enargite-bearing D veins at the Poposa Porphyry, Argentina (top), below the La
Coipa high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit in the Maricunga Belt, Chile, and the
Headwaters Prospect at Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea.

5.3 Mineralisation zonation

Porphyry deposits under consideration here contain mixes of Cu, Au and Mo which vary in
metal grade and distribution according to many factors including; the mineral species, setting
within the porphyry environment, intrusion composition as well as temperature, Eh and pH of
formation

5.3.1 Copper

A variety of hypogene and supergene Cu minerals behave differently in the porphyry

environment with varying relationships the Au mineralisation. The copper species which host
higher proportions of Cu with reasonable metallurgical characteristics represent more
attractive mining propositions. In table 5.1 it is apparent chalcocite with a high Cu content is
a popular ore, especially where mined within supergene enriched blankets, while bornite is
more popular hypogene ore than the typical chalcopyrite which hosts a much lower Cu
content, while covellite is locally recognised. Furthermore bornite is commonly Au-rich
(below).

Composition Cu% Fe% S% As%

pyrite FeS2 0 46.6 53.4 0
chalcopyrite CuFeS2 34.5 30.5 35 0
bornite Cu5FeS4 63.3 11.1 25.6 0
covellite CuS 66.4 0 33.6 0
chalcocite Cu2S 79.8 0 20.2 0
digenite Cu9S5 78.1
malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 63.8 0 0 0

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tennantite 3Cu2.As2S2 -
(CuFe)12As4S13
enargite 3Cu2S.As2S5 48.3 0 32.6 19.1 + Sb
Table 5.1 Relative Cu contents of different Cu sulphide species. All compositions are taken
from Dana (1932) except for digenite from www.webmineral.com and the second tennantite
composition which is from Read (1970) as an indication of compositional differences within
the solid solution series.

5.3.1 Copper

A variety of hypogene and supergene Cu minerals behave differently in the porphyry

environment with varying relationships the Au mineralisation. The copper species which host
higher proportions of Cu with reasonable metallurgical characteristics represent more
attractive mining propositions. In table 5.1 it is apparent chalcocite with a high Cu content is
a popular ore, especially where mined within supergene enriched blankets, while bornite is
more popular hypogene ore than the typical chalcopyrite which hosts a much lower Cu
content, while covellite is locally recognised. Furthermore bornite is commonly Au-rich
(below).

Figure 5.27 Cu species and Au contents in porphyry deposits. High Au occurs with bornite at
the core of Bingham Canyon passing to marginal chalcopyrite with less Au (left), while
minor bornite also occurs in the margins of the Cadia Hill wallrock porphyry which is
transitional to deep epithermal (right). Specimens from each deposit include sheeted quartz-
pyrite-chalcopyrite veins. Bingham Canyon graphic modified from Landtwig et al. (2010)
and Gruen et al. (2010) and the Cadia Hill graphic from Newcrest Mining Staff (1996).

5.3.1.1 Bornite is common in oxidised magnetite-bearing potassic alteration (Ridgeway &

Goonumbla, Australia; Golpu, Papua New Guinea), typically forming at higher temperatures,
and so may be more abundant in the central portions of porphyry deposits and the earlier vein
sequences. As noted above, M veins are likely to contain bornite (figure 5.16) passing to later
chalcopyrite-dominant C and B veins (figure 5.12 & 21), even in the one deposit, although B

Economic Geo. _ JH
veins developed by an opening of A veins might be bornite-dominant (figure 5.20). Bornite
theoretically passes to chalcopyrite at about 557o C (Vaughan and Craig, 1997; Barton,
1973). Consequently, many porphyry systems, particularly those rich in magnetite, pass from
a core of bornite to marginal chalcopyrite (Ridgeway, Australia; Golpu, Papua New Guinea
and Bingham Canyon, USA described below), just as distal systems such as wallrock
porphyry deposits such as Cadia Hill and Cadia East are dominated by chalcopyrite as the Cu
species. While chalcopyrite dominates in porphyry deposits marginal to the high temperature
bornite, with declining pH at low temperature bornite may occur again with chalcopyrite, as
apparent in the phase diagram in figure 5.28 (Karadjov, 2003). The Cadia Hill wallrock
porphyry varies mostly from chalcopyrite to bornite-chalcopyrite in the upper section (figure
5.27).

Figure 5.28 Phase diagram (modified from Karoajov, 2003) showing the transition from
bornite to chalcopyrite and minor marginal bornite in low pH conditions as well as an
illustration of the higher Au content of bornite, especially at high temperatures (from Simon
et al., 2000) as well as an M vein with Au in bornite from Copper Hill, Australia.

5.3.1.2 The Golpu porphyry, Wafi, Papua New Guinea displays the typical variation from
bornite in the core of the vertically attenuated spine-like porphyry grading to marginal
chalcopyrite although there is a distinct cap to the porphyry of elevated Cu in covellite, which
extends to into the wall rocks to the west (figure 5.29 Menzies et al., 2013). The Golpu
porphyry is older than the Wafi high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit which occurs
immediately to the west, hosted mostly within a highly permeable earlier diatreme breccia
(Corbett and Leach, 1998). The current interpretation (Leach, 1999) suggests the low pH
fluids responsible for the Wafi high sulphidation system were derived from a deeper level
magmatic source and deposited remobilised Cu within covellite at the top of the Golpu
porphyry, extending into the wall rock along the fluid flow path of the acidic fluids illustrated
in figure 5.24. Fluid evolution along this path has deposited sulphide species as: chalcopyrite
-> covellite -> enargite-pyrite -> luzonite, an illustration of a fluid which has progressively
evolved to become more acidic and then cooled by rock reaction. As described in section
5.2.11.1, the discovery of the blind Golpu porphyry (then called the Rafferties porphyry)

Economic Geo. _ JH
came from a conceptual model (Corbett, unpubl report, 1990) to test the fluid up-flow of the
high sulphidation epithermal alteration and refractory gold mineralisation.

Figure 5.29 The Golpu porphyry, Wafi, Papua New Guinea, showing the association of high
Au with bornite and the development of the high Cu covellite zone (see also section**).
Constructed from: Menzies et al., 2013; Leach, 1999; Corbett, 2005 and Newcrest Limited
Press Releases.

Enargite, and the low temperature equivalent luzonite, which are more typical of high
sulphidation epithermal rather than porphyry environments, contains only modest Cu and
significant As and so are not preferred as a Cu ore unless hosting significant Au-Ag, in which
case the ores require costly smelting (Lepanto, Philippines; El Indio, Chile). However, as
discussed in section **, deeper level covellite is locally an attractive Cu target (Cukaru Peki,
Bor district, Serbia).

5.3.2 Gold

Some porphyry deposits are Au-rich and locally termed Au-porphyries (Fort Knox, above).

5.3.2.1 Host rock composition has long been described as an explanation for elevated Au in
some porphyry deposits as potassic igneous rocks (Muller and Groves, 1993, 2000) including
lamprophyries (Rock et al., 1989), just as the subduction-related process for porphyry
formation will contribute towards the formation of more fertile melts as alkali magmatism
(Richards 2009, Cooke et al., 2014). In the SW Pacific rim the remelting of oceanic crust in
response to arc reversal (Solomon, 1990; Richards, 2007) provides a mechanism of the
development of Au-rich intrusive source rocks (Porgera and Lihir in Papua New Guinea;
Corbett 2009c; Emperor, Fiji) while the Ordovician Macquarie Arc of Eastern Australia also
contains many alkali Au-Cu porphyries (Cooke et al., 2002; 2009) where the tectonic setting
remains less clear.

5.3.2.2 Copper species influence Au contents where Au typically occurs with sulphides such
as bornite, chalcopyrite and locally pyrite. Bornite may host significantly more Au than

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chalcopyrite, varying to several orders of magnitude more at elevated temperatures (Simon et
al., 2000; Kesler et al., 2002; figure 5.28). At the giant Bingham Canyon porphyry deposit,
Au correlates with bornite in the core of the system and declines moving to the marginal
chalcopyrite (Gruen et al., 2010; figure 5.28). The same is recognised at Golpu (above, figure
5.29) as a Au core is derived from the Au-bornite association. Au also occurs with bornite at
Ridgeway and Copper Hill in Eastern Australia (figure 5.16 & 5.28), and in each of these
deposits Au occurs within M veins comprising laminated quartz-magnetite-bornite (figures
5.14,5.16, 5.12 and 5.24). However, this association becomes less pronounced, with less Au
in the bornite zone than with chalcopyrite, in the lower temperature B veins of the Cadia Hill
wallrock porphyry, which lies in the distal portion of any porphyry anatomy (figure 5.27).
The Au dominant over Cu nature of the Cadia Hill wallrock porphyry (0.7 g/t Au & 0.16%
Cu; Newcrest Mining Limited, presentation, 2004) is attributed (Corbett and Leach, 1998) to
the transitional nature of the quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite sheeted B veins from porphyry to
deep epithermal quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation.

Thus, Cu and Au display two typical trends:

 High Cu within mainly bornite grading out to lower Cu within chalcopyrite, best
developed about the upper margin of the stock, while some bornite may occur in the
outer portion of the system within wall rocks (Cadia Hill, Australia).
 High Au associated with bornite in the centre of the stock grading outwards to lower
Au commonly with chalcopyrite, although some high Au is recognised in the outer
portion of the system within wallrock porphyry and deep epithermal deposits.

Overprinting relationships which alter these trends include:

 Supergene Cu, Au and Ag modification in the weathering environment.
 Cu mobilisation and deposition as mainly covellite by later strongly acidic fluids
associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits.
 Deposition of later high or low sulphidation Cu and Au outside and locally telescoped
upon the porphyry environment.

5.3.2.3 Gold Porphyry deposits of two groups include those which display many features
typical of porphyry Cu-Au deposits with only Au as the economic component, although Cu
and Mo may be anomalous, and porphyry intrusions overprinted by possible later Au
mineralisation and transitional to wallrock porphyry deposits (section 1.3.2.6). In Maricunga
Belt, Chile several deposits (Lobo, Marte, Refugio [aka Maricunga]; Vila and Sillitoe, 1991,
Muntean and Einaudi, 2000) feature typical porphyry prograde and retrograde alteration cut
by sheeted and laminated quartz-magnetite veins (figure 5.13). The common sheeted vein
character (figure 5.2) at many deposits and other prospects (Corbett, unpubl. data) in the
Maricunga Belt is indicative of fluid transport in dilatant conditions and therefore consistent
with the model (Muntean and Einaudi, 2001) in which ore fluids have repeatedly been drawn
from considerable depth. The Kisladag gold porphyry, Turkey, displays alteration and
geometry similar to many SW Pacific rim porphyry Cu-Au systems characterised by
vertically attenuated overprinting intrusions, which both young and decline towards the
centre in Au grade as 20-50 micron Au within quartz-pyrite veins, and also late silicification
(Bichford, 2007). The Au with quartz-pyrite association is similar to the mineralogy of (deep)
epithermal low sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation recognised in wallrock
porphyry deposits formed above the magmatic source. As many SW Pacific porphyry Cu-Au
deposits are clearly attenuated (Grasberg, Indonesia; Golpu, Papua New Guinea; Didipio,
Philippines; Ridgeway, Australia) the gold porphyry deposits might therefore feature an
extension of that process in their formation.

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The Fort Knox porphyry gold deposit in Alaska (figure 5.30) is categorised as a gold
porphyry, in which mineralisation is best developed at the upper contact of a polyphasal
porphyry intrusion stock with the metamorphic host rocks (Bakke et al., 1998). Those
workers describe several settings for sulphide-poor high fineness Au mineralisation with the
greatest control exercised by shallow dipping shears (figure 5.30) with granular quartz and
phyllic-argillic alteration. Quartz veins which host Au mineralisation are parallel to, and more
numerous near the shears, while Au-bearing fracture coatings contain zeolite, calcite, clay
and chalcedony. Gold is strongly associated with Bi and Te which is recognised as a late
stage overprint on other porphyry systems (T. Leach, pers. commun) and other epigenetic Au
deposits in the region of Alaska (Pogo, Roberts et al., 2001 and Donlin Creek, Pease, 2003)
display the same association, although arsenopyrite is not described from Fort Knox.
Consequently, although For Knox displays typical porphyry alteration as potassic (biotite-K-
feldspar) and phyllic (silica-sericite), the shears must have been active at the time of quartz
vein development and contain argillic alteration. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the
shears acted as conduits for late stage low temperature epigenetic mineralisation introduced
from the shears to competent vein margins and fractures from a later separate source than the
host granite. In that case mineralisation would be of an intrusion-related low sulphidation
epithermal quartz Au style as described in section 7.1.1.3.

Figure 5.30 The Fort Knox gold mine showing the top of the intrusion in the pit long with the
granite intrusions and gold geometry dictated by the shears and mineralised quartz veins with
early K-feldspar and later clay alteration. The figure is modified from Bakke et al. (1998).

5.3.3 Molybdenum

In many porphyry deposits the patterns of Cu and Mo distribution display a disconnect,

although Cu minerals (mainly chalcopyrite) and Mo minerals (molybdenite) are commonly
recognised in the field in the same porphyry quartz veins. Like Au, some porphyry Cu
deposits are Mo rich and locally vary to more granitic composition (White et al., 1981;
Corbett et al., 2009) while Cooke et al. (2014) cite tectonic constraints for the formation of
high-K calc-alkaline Mo-rich porphyry intrusions. Some Mo deposits are associated with

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felsic intrusions which contain disseminate molybdenite and breccia fill in pegmatite or
greisen-like rocks (figure 5.32; Whitewash in Corbett et al., 2009).

Empirically, Doug Menzies noted (unpubl. short course notes) the common presence of a Mo
halo around many porphyry copper deposits, consistent with a separate deposition of Mo to
Cu (see Bajo de la Alunbrera in Sillitoe, 1995 and Baju Hijau in Meldrum et al., 1994). At
Bingham Canyon Mo occurs in a set of quartz veins which overprint the Cu-Au veins and the
Mo and Cu ores are offset from Cu-Au (Gruen et al., 2010), while Seo et al. (2012) suggest
Mo has left the source melt for the Bingham porphyry after Cu. Certainly, the Mo rich nature
of many stage D veins (figure 5.25) is consistent with the late stage deposition of Mo. Two
Mo projects in NE Australia show similar relationships of late stage molybdenite (Corbett, et
al., 1996). At the Anthony Mo-Cu porphyry, Mo veins cut earlier A veins molybdenite is well
developed in late stage breccias (figure 5.31), while at Rawbelle, although molybdenite is
clearly associated with some granitic intrusions and pegmatites at Whitewash, much of the
Mo mineralisation occurs in laminated veins and vein margins (figure 5.33). Here and
elsewhere, Mo which is common at vein margins may have been emplaced much later than
the vein.

Figure 5.31 Mo mineralisation at the Anthony porphyry (from the top left down in columns)
as: fracture-controlled Mo in the wall rocks distal to the intrusion; Mo quartz vein cuts early
A vein with K-feldspar selvage; porphyry with quartz-Mo vein cuts A vein with K-feldspar
selvage; porphyry with quartz-Mo vein; three quartz-Mo veins in the hornfelsed wall rock;
three contact breccias with quartz-K-feldspar-Mo breccia fill.

However, most research suggests Mo precipitates at higher temperatures than Cu (360-580oC

vs 320-430oC (Seo et al., 2012). At the Cadia East wallrock Au porphyry mineralisation is
associated with sheeted linear A veins with K-feldspar selvages with bornite and molybdenite
(figure 5.32). The sheeted veins are indicative of a dilatant structural setting that would
facilitate the migration of high temperature (from the bornite-molybdenite and K-feldspar
selvages) ore fluids to elevated crustal settings distal to the intrusion source. A model for
testing might be that early Cu>Mo mineralisation deposited in the intrusion stock has been
derived from the cooling margin of the intrusion source. Later progressive failure within the

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magma source has then tapped high temperature Mo-rich fluids from a more central higher
temperature portion of the intrusion.

Figure 5.32 Porphyry Mo mineralisation from the Rawbelle district NE Australia from the top
left down as: disseminated Mo in a ‘rhyolite’, Mo pegmatite, Mo greisen, quartz-Mo vein
with K-feldspar alteration, Mo fill breccia, Mo fill breccia with epidote-actinolite alteration,
laminated quartz vein with Mo within the laminations and cross cutting, laminated quartz-
pyrite-Mo vein and early A vein with Mo at the margin.

Figure 5.33 Cadia East wallrock Au porphyry veins characterised as sheeted A veins with K-
feldspar selvages and bornite-molybdenite mineralisation. The graphic is from Wilson et al.
(2007).

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5.4 Supergene environment

Supergene Cu enrichment may upgrade low grade hypogene (protolith) resources to form
higher metal grade ‘supergene blankets’, commonly obscured by leached caps and oxide ores
(Jerome, 1966; Blanchard, 1968). Some supergene Cu may vector to hidden hypogene Cu
ores, while exotic Cu may occur several kilometres from the hypogene source. The process of
supergene Cu formation in porphyry Cu settings varies according to the nature of the
hypogene ore and hydrothermal alteration, climatic conditions, depth and intensity of
weathering, time, and degree of uplift and erosion and so on (Chávez, 2000; Titley and
Marozas, 1995; Anderson, 1982). Supergene Au enrichment is discussed in section 9**.

Figure 5.33 Model for the elements of leached cap-supergene enrichment.

One of the key factors in development of supergene Cu resources is the quantity of pyrite
which oxidises, in the presence of atmospheric oxygen and/or meteoric water, to provide the
acidic (pH<2) ground waters required to transport Cu. Consequently, supergene Cu ore in
porphyry environments are recognised in the presence of pyrite-rich phyllic or advanced
argillic alteration, and Cu deposition is generally focused where reactive fresh or potassic-
propylitic alteration neutralise the acidic fluids and promote Cu deposition. Because of the
higher S contents of pyrite (53%) than chalcopyrite (35%), leached cap studies feature higher
pyrite:chalcopyrite ratios. Investigations over many years (Chávez, 2000; Titley and
Marozas, 1995; Anderson, 1982; Blanchard, 1968; Jerome, 1966) describe vertically zoned
supergene profiles which include many metastable minerals. For instance, explorationists
may be familiar with the metastable supergene Cu sulphate mineral chalcantherite
(CuSO4.5H2) and the Fe equivalent malantherite (FeSO4.7H2O) (figure 2.25) developed in
near neutral conditions on oxidised drill ore or mine waste dumps (Chavez, 2000; figure
5.33). The vertical zonation in supergene Cu systems grades downward as:

Economic Geo. _ JH
Leached caps form as very acidic ground waters (pH <2) which leach the protolith (of
commonly phyllic altered porphyry) using permeability provided by stockwork quartz veins,
form a residue of montmorillonite, kaolinite, minor alunite and iron oxides such as hematite
replacing sulphides along with goethite, and mixes of manganese and local copper oxides.
Many of these minerals are discussed in section 9.**. Sites of former sulphides are therefore
evidenced by boxworks after sulphides and the type of original sulphides may be
distinguished by the FeO crystal shape and colour (Blanchard, 1968). Minor Cu may remain
as incompletely leached sulphides or oxide Cu, although the ‘superleached cap’ at La
Escondida contained <100ppm Cu (Chavez, 2000), where advanced argillic alteration
represented a source of abundant pyrite. The leached cap lies within the phreatic zone
extending from the surface to the base of oxidation, typically at the palaeo water table.
Progressive uplift and erosion promotes the collapse of the water table to form varying styles
of leached caps. The typical jarosite leached caps develop from the oxidation of pyrite-
chalcopyrite whereas haematite results from the oxidation of supergene chalcocite (Anderson,
1982) described below and may be termed live haematite from the Cu content

Oxide zones develop in response to collapse of the water table, typically as a result of uplift
and erosion. Chalcocite (Cu2S) within the enrichment zone (below) is oxidised where it lies
above the new water table to form neotocite (CuMnFe)SiO2.nH2O (Anderson, 1982) or
copper pitch, while dilute (low pH) solutions will deposit chrysocolla, tenorite and malachite
(Titley and Marozas, 1995), especially if carbonate is available. In conditions of less acidic
groundwaters, including by neutralisation through wall rock reaction, cuprite and native
copper replace chalcocite, locally via a neotocite stage (above), commonly at the deeper
portion of the zone in contact with fresh protolith. At the Rocklands IOCG deposit, in the Mt
Isa district, native copper is well developed in contact with magnetite and sulphide Cu
minerals (figure 5.34).

Supergene enrichment zones develop as Cu++ ions within descending solutions take S from
primary sulphide minerals, pyrite (FeS2), chalcopyrite, (CuFeS2) and bornite (Cu5FeS4), to
form chalcocite (Cu2S) and local covellite (CuS), developed as the characteristic chalcocite
blanket at the top of the protolith, commonly extending down from the phreatic portion of the
transition zone (figure 5.34). Supergene Cu grades increase as initial chalcocite coatings
progressively replace entire sulphide minerals (figure 9.**). In settings of insufficient Cu++
covellite may replace chalcopyrite or bornite (Chavez, 2000), recognised as a substantial
covellite zone above the chalcocite blanket at Bingham Canyon (Lindgren, 1933).

Exotic copper deposits result from rapid erosion commonly as a result of Andean rapid uplift
and the flow of Cu within acidic solutions through permeable gravels, often overlying
impermeable kaolin altered bedrock, to deposit different Cu minerals governed by distance
from the source and pH-Eh (Münchmeyer, 1997). Chrysocolla (CuSiO3.2H2O) represents a
most common ore (Chevez, 2000) developed in gravels, often with malachite
(CuCO3.Cu(OH)2) at the contact with bedrock, especially if carbonate is present, while near
neutral conditions favour the deposition of atacamite (CuCl2.3Cu(OH)2) in the presence of
desert Cl and also copper wad (figure 5.33 or 9.**). ******

Uplift and erosion promote collapse of the water table and associated downward movement
of zones of oxidation and enrichment to provide highest Cu content supergene blankets in
mature systems. This process exposes greater quantities of protolith Cu to extraction by
leaching in addition to concentration of the collapsing chalcocite blanket. Collapse of the

Economic Geo. _ JH
water table onto the chalcocite blanket may convert chalcocite to more metallurgically
favourable oxide ores, which overlie the new chalcocite blanket, although less metallurgically
acceptable cuprite and native copper are also recognised, especially towards the base of the
oxide zone (Anderson, 1982).

Thus, supergene Cu processes, best developed in within outcropping porphyry deposits, mark
the final stage of the staged porphyry model and continue the theme of zonation in space and
time as leached caps vary vertically and with time uplift and erosion promote the collapse and
enrichment of the chalcocite blanket to form mature higher grade and larger supergene ores,
locally with higher Cu grade than the original protolith (hypogene ore). In addition, careful
studies of the leached caps may be used as an exploration tool to vector towards underlying
porphyry deposits, although not all porphyry deposits host leached caps which only develop
in pyrite-rich settings such as phyllic or advanced argillic alteration. The use of leached caps
as exploration tools is discussed in section 8*, including the distinction of those developed
above barren advanced argillic alteration which might not vector to ore.

5.5 Conclusion

Porphyry intrusions are emplaced along major structures at transient changes in the nature of
convergence to form in dilatant settings which host spine-like intrusions and sheeted veins
which transport ore fluids from magmatic source rocks at depth. The introduction of time in
the staged model for porphyry development provides an understanding of the overprinting
relationships as prograde alteration minerals are destroyed by later retrograde alteration and
new minerals created. Prograde potassic-propylitic alteration may be magnetic whereas
retrograde phyllic alteration is magnetite destructive and contains abundant chargeable pyrite,
so an understanding of the geology is important in order to interpret the geophysical data.
Several episodes of Cu-Au mineralisation may be associated with different vein styles
initiated during prograde and extending to retrograde alteration and most quality porphyry Cu
deposits feature polyphasal intrusion and associated mineralisation. Different styles and
events of advanced argillic alteration include: early barren shoulders derived from the
reaction with wall rocks with rising acid waters, other collapsing advanced argillic alteration,
as well as alteration associated with later high sulphidation epithermal mineralisation
overprints. Zonation in prograde and retrograde hydrothermal alteration can be used as
exploration vectors along with features such as pebble dykes and D veins discussed in section
9.

Exploration implications for porphyry exploration include recognition of the:

 Controls to porphyry emplacement as dilatant settings, typically splays as the deeper
portions of negative flower structures, within major throughgoing structures.
Exploration models for one deposit may be used regionally.
 Common small footprints of the vertically attenuated spine like intrusions.
 Sheeted veins which both transport and host sulphide mineralisation and must be
taken into account when planning drill directions.
 Different alteration styles which provide variable geophysical signatures and display
variable relationships to mineralisation.
 Vectors to mineralisation provided by zoned alteration, pebble dykes and D veins
discussed more fully in section 9**.

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6 SKARN DEPOSITS

Skarn deposits are calc-silicate rocks commonly developed by the metasomatic alteration of
carbonate-bearing precursors in a process that involves the transfer of elements during regional
or contact metamorphism (Einaudi et al., 1981; Meinert et al., 2005). The number of ways to
consider skarns include:
 Geological setting as regional or contact metamorphism, such as any association with the
emplacement of porphyry Cu style intrusions,
 By commodity as Fe, Cu, Zn, W or Au,
 Different precursor rocks such as limestone, marls (calcareous shales etc), dolomite or
volcanic rocks, govern the development and mineralogy of zoned alteration (figure 6.1),
 The role of intrusion composition,
 As staged skarn evolution which mirrors the paragenesis of porphyry-epithermal
alteration and mineralisation.

Figure 6.1 Skarn alteration, characterised by carbonate-chlorite-epidote within the matrix of a

permeable volcanic breccia, from southern Peru.

This discussion will focuses upon Au-Cu skarn deposits formed marginal to porphyry style
intrusions. Some terms used in the study of skarns include:
 Exsoskarns develop outside and locally some distance from the source intrusion.
 Endoskarns occur within the intrusion including as blocks of wall rock which may have
been consumed by or fallen into an intrusion (Zn mineralisation at La Granja, Peru).
 Isochemical skarns feature contact metamorphism with little or no component
interchange.
 Metasomatic skarns are characterised by the transfer of magmatic volatiles, typically
H2O, Al, Si, Fe into the wall rocks and Ca, CO2 + Mg into the intrusion from carbonate
wall rocks.
 Skarnoid is a general term for weak skarn-like alteration, typically within propylitic
alteration (figure 6.2).

As this study focuses upon skarns formed in association with porphyry Cu-Au style intrusions,
typically as fluids derived from the same magmatic source bodies a porphyry stocks have come
in contact with reactive host rocks, there is an emphasis upon the typical zonation from proximal
Cu-rich to distal Au-rich and a paragenetic sequence of events recognised in porphyry-
epithermal deposits.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Skarn deposits might therefore be considered in a paragenetic sequence as:
 Isochemical or contact metamorphic,
 Prograde metasomatic,
 Retrograde metasomatic,
 Epithermal
 Components of supergene Cu and Au enrichment are also locally recognised.

Figure 6.2 Skarnoid, as bleaching adjacent to sulphide-bearing fracture/veins from the margin of
the Anthony porphyry, Australia.

6.1 Paragenetic sequence of skarn formation

Several stages of skarn development are catagorised (Einaudi et al., 1981; Corbett and Leach,
1998) as:

6.1.1 Isochemical skarns, which form within wall rocks in response to emplacement of an
intrusion heat source, are characterised by heat induced changes in wall rock mineralogy without
significant interchange of components between the wall rocks and adjacent intrusion heat source.
Importantly, isochemical skarn development is not a mineralising event as ore components do
not leave the intrusion at this stage. The term metamorphic skarn is often used for these skarns,
which include hornfelsed wall rocks, developed within contact metamorphic aureoles adjacent to
intrusions. Hornfels alteration of suitable composition wall rocks (andesite or shale) might be
dominated by secondary biotite-magnetite + K-feldspar + pyrite + pyrrhotite (figure 6.3).
Isochemical skarns display mineralogical zonation as heat declines within the progressively
more distal wall rocks, from about 650oC closest to the intrusion heat source.

The wide variety of generally fine grained calc-silicate minerals within isochemical skarns is
governed by different host rocks and zonation away from the source intrusion. The mineralogy
of the skarn should reflect the protore composition. Although the mineralogy is commonly
zoned, the bulk composition of each zone should remain similar to the original wall rocks
(Einaudi et al., 1981), allowing for some movement of volatiles (O2, H2O and CO2). Some H2O
is expected to progressively move from the intrusion into the wall rocks and CO2 from the wall
rocks into the skarn. Wall rock compositional controls to zoned skarn mineralogy moving away
from the intrusion might include: in a limestone the mineral zonation is expected to occur as,
(Ca) garnet -> wollastonite + vesuvianite -> marble; while in a dolomite the same zonation
would vary as, garnet -> pyroxene -> tremolite -> talc/pyrophyllite (Corbett and Leach,
1998).Where a variety of components are present such as in the original dolomitic sandy

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argillaceous limestone at Johnson Camp, Arizona (Cooper, 1957 in Einaudi et al., 1981) skarn
mineralogy is dominated by wollastonite-grossular-diopside and forsterite-diopside-tremolite
assemblages, locally overprinted by garnet-pyroxene + scheelite and sulphide replacement
bodies. This latter stage no doubt represents the transition to metasomatic skarn (below).

Alteration zonation is influenced by mineral stabilities. Wollastonite is stable above 550oC,

diopside, andradite garnet and forsterite above 475oC and tremolite above 420oC, below which
temperature serpentinisation of forsterite-bearing skarn begins, although these temperature
ranges decline with activity of CO2 or confining pressure (Einaudi et al., 1981).

Figure 6. 3 Isochemical skarn developed as a hornfels characterised by magnetite, secondary

biotite, K-feldspar alteration. From the Constancia porphyry, Peru.

6.1.2 Prograde metasomatic skarn is characterised by the prograde transfer of heat (650oC
declining to about 450oC) from the intrusion to wall rocks and also components in both
directions between the intrusion and wall rocks as described above. There is a rise in the tenure
of mostly anhydrous minerals from the primary wall rocks in a manner similar to potassic
alteration in porphyry systems. Metasomatic skarns overprint the earlier isochemical skarns in
response to the release of magmatic fluids and so have also been termed infiltration or
replacement skarns (Corbett and Leach, 1998).

The zoned nature of prograde skarns derived from the progressive movement of heat and
interchange of components as H2O, Al, Si, Fe into the wall rocks and Ca, CO2 + Mg into the
intrusion (above). Skarn mineralogy is influenced in primary composition of both, such as Mg in
dolomite. There is an increase in Fe with time and space as more Fe migrates from the intrusion
into the wall rocks, and also change in Fe minerals with oxidation state (Enaudi et al., 1981).
Common zonation in an altered limestone might grade as:
Intrusion -> K-feldspar-biotite-magnetite (of the isochemical skarn) -> garnet>pyroxene ->
pyroxene>garnet ->wollastonite + vesuvanite -> marble -> limestone, with an associated
proximal to distal change in garnet from Ca-Fe rich andradite to Ca-Al rich grossular, pyroxene
from Ca-Fe rich hedenbergite to Ca-Mg rich diopside.

Importantly, magnetite and sulphides are introduced late into an essentially barren zoned skarn
as the magmatic source progressively cools with the evolution of the hydrothermal system from
heat transfer stage, to exsolution of metals within a magmatic fluid, as recognised in porphyry
systems. Consequently, bornite infill of bladed wollastonite (figure 6.4), recognised as an
important mineral assemblage in many skarn Cu-Au deposits, represents the deposition two high

Economic Geo. _ JH
temperature prograde minerals, wollastonite as an initial skarn alteration derived from heat
transfer and later bornite from magmatic fluid exsolution. Gold contained within bornite
therefore represents an important skarn ore (Browns Creek, Australia).

Figure 6.4 Prograde skarn characterised by bladed wollastonite infilled by bornite from the
Mission porphyry, USA. These wollastonite-bornite skarns are often Au-bearing.

Skarn fronts (figures 6.5 ), also termed ‘marble line’ (Burt, 1977 in Enaudi et al., 1981), result
from the rapid deposition of sulphides in a cool environment, close to the outer limit of skarn
development, near the boundary with host marble, and represent the main setting of
mineralisation at many skarn deposits (see Sheahan-Grants below).

Figure 6.5 Skarn front, apparent as the zonation from deposition of pale wollastonite to later
sulphides (bornite-chalcopyrite), developed by the rapid cooling of the magmatic fluid on the
periphery of the skarn alteration system. From the Mungana district, Australia.

6.1.3 Retrograde (metasomatic) skarns overprint prograde metasomatic skarns as the

hydrothermal system cools (from 450oC to 350oC; Enaudi et al., 1981) and meteoric waters are
drawn into the system in a manner similar to the progression from prograde to retrograde

Economic Geo. _ JH
alteration in porphyry systems. Consequently, prograde anhydrous minerals are replaced by
retrograde assemblages such as (Enaudi et al., 1981; Corbett and Leach, 1998):
Grossular garnet -> epidote + chlorite + calcite (Ca, Al)
Andradite -> FeO + quartz + calcite (Fe, Ca)
Almandine garnet -> biotite + hornblende + plagioclase (Fe, Al)
Diopside -> amphiboles (Ca, Mg) -> talc
Hedenbergite -> actinolite -> chlorite
Forsterite -> serpentinite

Destruction of the prograde skarn may be accompanied by significant release of FeO deposited
as magnetite commonly with calcite and sulphides, while late stage clay alteration is likened to
argillic alteration in porphyry systems (figure 6.6).

Figure 6.6 Retrograde magnetite-epidote-chlorite overprint prograde pyroxene-garnet skarn from

Constancia, Peru.

Sulphide deposition is initiated at the waning stage of prograde skarn formation and continues
during the cooling retrograde skarn stage, as the common main stage of mineralisation.

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6.1.4 Epithermal mineralisation develops during the cooling of the magmatic-meteoric
hydrothermal fluid below 350oC and so in many ‘gold skarn’ deposits, the skarn alteration might
represent an early stage of the hydrothermal system and the mineralisation could be better
regarded as epithermal in style. Some examples are discussed below.

6.2 Examples

6.2.1 The Sheahan-Grants gold skarn represents one of many skarn/intrusion-related Au-Cu
occurrences in the Junction Reefs-Glendale (Burnt Yards) area, south of Bathurst in the Lachlan
Orogen of eastern Australia. At Junction Reefs skarn alteration and mineralisation is developed
within calcareous portions of the folded Ordovician volcaniclastic and volcanic host rocks
marginal to monzodiorite intrusions (Overton, 1990; Gray et al., 1995). Several mineralised
skarns localised at the outer margins of the alteration zonation have been mined in historic and
recent times (figure 6.7).

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Figure 6.7 Junction Reefs district, Australia, zoned skarn formed by alteration of a folded
limestone marginal to a monzonite intrusion, adapted from Gray et al. (1995). Dark green are
dykes.

The relationships of overprinting zoned prograde and retrograde skarn alteration at Junction
Reefs described by Gray et al. (1995) summarised in figure 6.8 illustrate many features typical of
gold skarns. Typical prograde alteration zonation moving away from the intrusion displays a
transition from garnet to pyroxene dominant with an associated change from Fe- to Ca-rich
minerals. There is a skarn front characterised by wollastonite-vesuvianite in contact with marble,
with highest grade Au mineralisation localised close to the front (figure 6.9). It is concluded
sulphide introduction may have begun at the closure of the prograde skarn stage but dominated
as part of the overprinting retrograde continued event. The retrograde overprinting becomes
progressively more pervasive in the later stage cooler skarns and is accompanied by the majority
of mineralised sulphide deposition as illustrated in the histogram in figure 6.8. Au is
concentrated within 10-30 m of the skarn front replacing particular units which represent about
50% of the stratigraphic package (Gray et al., 1995). Those workers suggest Au occurs on grain
boundaries of sulphides dominated by pyrrhotite with lesser arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrite
and Bi minerals, as well as to a lesser extent with gangue of quartz, chlorite and calcite (figure
6.10). The temperature range of 250-245oC falls into the epithermal stage described above while
the mineralogy is consistent with the low sulphidation deep epithermal quartz-sulphide Au + Cu
mineralisation style (section 7.2.1.1).

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Figure 6.8 Summary of the relationships of overprinting zoned prograde and retrograde skarn
leading to Au deposition with Au grades shown at top. Skarn type corresponds to the zonation
shown in figure 6.7 marginal to the intrusion source and is consistent with the dominance of
mineralisation within the more distal skarns.

Figure 6.9 Distribution of Au grades at the Sheahan-Grants mine derived from Gray et al. (1995)
which is simplified from Overton (1990).

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Figure 6.10 Junction Reefs mineralisation characterised by pyrrhotite with lesser arsenopyrite,
chalcopyrite and pyrite (specimen M Rangott).

6.2.2 The Lucky Draw gold mine occurs within folded Ordovician Triangle Group adjacent to
the Carboniferous Burraga Granodiorite (327 Ma; Brewer et al., 1990), south of Bathurst in the
Tasman Orogen of Eastern Australia (Shepherd et al., 1995). It lies 8 km north of the historic
Burraga Cu mine which has been reinterpreted as of an intrusion-related (deep) quartz-sulphide
Au + Cu style (Corbett, unpubl. report, 2008). A small open pit operation went into production
with a 1988 reserve of 1.48 Mt @ 3.53 g/t Au to exploit two fault-bounded, stratigraphic-
controlled lenses, while the Hackneys Creek resource 800 m north is described as 0.19Mt @
2.68 g/t Au (Brewer et al., 1990). Calc-silicate alteration is restricted by the lack of reactive
carbonate within a sequence dominated by mafic-ultramafic volcanic rocks and lesser slate and
quartz-rich, feldspathic greywacke sedimentary rocks (Mock, 1989; Brewer et al., 1990;
Shepherd et al., 1995). Early biotite-cordierite hornfels formed in association with pluton
emplacement is overprinted by garnet (Fe, almandine)-anthophyllite (gedrite), sulphide poor Au-
As-Bi-Te mineralisation, interpreted as a skarn-style replacement. Free Au is associated with
disseminated Bi-Te minerals and minor pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, molybdenite (figure 6.11). A
high temperature for the formation in the order of 550°C at a shallow crustal level (P ~ 2 to 3
kb), estimated by Shepherd et al. (1995) is consistent with development as a dominantly
prograde skarn related to alteration of non-carbonate host rocks by an unseen element of the
adjacent Burraga Granite.

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Figure 6.11 Sulphide poor, garnet-anthophyllite Au-As-Bi-Te mineralisation from Lucky Draw,
Australia.

6.2.3. The Mungana district, NE Australia, hosts a number of skarn deposits initially exploited as
the Red Dome Cu-Pb-Ag and minor Au from ore which was smelted on site to the 1920’s. Skarn
deposits result from the emplacement of fault-controlled rhyolite dykes (Ewers et al., 1990).

Mineral occurrences extend for over 10 km within a NW trending portion of the Palmerville
Fault, a long-lived and complex suture between Precambrian and Palaeozoic rocks, extending
from early extensional basin formation, to later compression and thrust deformation (Henderson,
2013; Nethery, 2015). NS compression described by Corbett (unpubl. report, 2006) as transient
from more normal NE compression and Nethery (2015) as long-lived, is speculated to have
provided dilatant sites for ore formation. Torrey et al. (1990) delineated two main events of skarn
formation associated with Permian-Carboniferous felsic magmatism emplaced into the tightly
folded Silurian-Devonian Chillagoe Formation fossiliferous limestone.

There is a common theme of the activation of structures in the footwall with common
development of open space fill structures (figure 4.4) on the footwall of wide banded vein zones.

Skarn mineralogy is therefore zoned as:

From the hot hanging wall side: K-feldspar-biotite-pyroxene -> pyroxene + garnet ->
wollastonite-pyroxene -> wollastonite-garnet-pyroxene -> wollastonite -> magnetite-marble ->
marble: to the cool footwall side. The K-feldspar-biotite assemblage is likened to an isochemical
(contact metamorphic) skarn followed in time and space by the metasomatic prograde skarns
described above and later hydrous retrograde skarns. Other progade skarn zonations include
proximal to the intrusion and early red-brown andradite garnet (figure 6.12) with hedenbergite to
distal grossular garnet with diopside (figure 6.13). However, red (Fe) may overprint green (Ca)
skarn as more Fe leaves the magma source. Sphalerite associated with retrograde amphibole
deposited from the rapidly cooling ore fluid displays a progressive change in colour and
composition from the hanging wall to footwall as: black Fe-rich, through red and then yellow, to
white Zn-rich, which is indicative of a decline in temperature (Corbett and Leach, 1998).

Skarns are zoned in time and space from Cu-rich closest to intrusion through Cu-Zn-rich and Zn-
rich over a distance of 300-500 m (Morrison and Beaton, 2015), while Ag-Zn-Pb-Cu epithermal

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lodes extend in the marginal wall rocks. Other workers (Torrey et al., 1990) also suggest Cu and
Au rim the felsic dyke source rocks. Within the prograde skarn alteration, high Cu (without Au)
contents are recognised within with proximal prograde andradite garnet-chalcocite skarn (figure
6.12), whereas Au contents (with Cu) rise within bornite-bearing prograde wollastonite skarn
fronts (figure 6.5). Au also rises in many marginal lodes with retrograde skarn alteration and is
concentrated (possibly by supergene processes) within the oxidised karst breccia ores mined at
Red Dome.

Figure 6.12 Andradite garnet-wollastonite-chalcocite skarn from Mungana, Australia.

Figure 6.13 Grossular garnet-wollastonite-chalcocite skarn from Mungana Australia.

Late-stage marginal Ag-Zn-Pb-Cu lodes display clear epithermal characteristics as banded

vein/breccias likened to the Ag-rich end member of Pacific rim intrusion-related low
sulphidation carbonate-base metal epithermal Au ores mined in extensional settings in Mexico,
Peru and Patagonia and termed polymetallic Ag deposits in section 7.2.2.1. The mineralisation
overprints skarn and intrusions, locally well developed at dyke margins where anomalous Au is
recognised (figure 6.14). Many of these deposits also represent significant Zn resources, in
addition to the more traditional Ag (San Cristobal, Bolivia; Caylloma, Peru). The Mungana Ag
lodes comprise in declining order of abundance: pyrite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite and
tennantite-tetrahedrite which includes a Ag-rich tennantite as the main economic mineral grading
up to several hundred g/t Ag (figures 6.15 & 6.16). The gangue dominated by quartz and
carbonate includes rhodochrosite which is associated with higher precious metal graded in many
deposits of this style. Most lodes display breccia or mylonite textures indicative of formation
within fault structures characterised by repeated activation.

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Figure 6.14 Carbonate-base metal Au style vein cuts earlier porphyry vein within a felsic dyke,
Mungana, Australia.

Figure 6.15 Banded Ag-rich polymetallic sulphide lode, Mungana, Australia.

Figure 6.16 Banded Ag-rich tennantite from a polymetallic sulphide lode, Mungana, Australia.

6.2.4 The Browns Creek Au skarn lies immediately adjacent to the Late Silurian Carcoar diorite-
granodiorite in Central Western NSW, Australia, 15 km SE of the Cadia mine and 8 km west of
Blayney township. Gold was first mined from oxidised skarn lenses in the 1870’s and again by
BHP in the 1980’s, which expanded exploration to the Cadia Valley, prior to open pit and
underground mining of hypogene ore in the late 1990’s. The strongly folded Ordovician Blayney
Volcanics host rocks include the Cowriga Limestone Member within a sequence of calc-alkaline
to shoshonitic lavas and deep ocean volcaniclastic rocks (Wilkins and Smart, 1998). The district
is dissected by a NS trending structures of the Carcoar Fault System which in the mine area
display dextral offsets of ore (Wilkins and Smart, 1998) interpreted (Corbett, unpubl. reports,

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1997) as essentially post-mineral. The array of skarn lenses (figure 6.17), including NW trending
sheeted quartz veins, are interpreted to have developed in response to transient sinistral strike-
slip movement on the structural grain (Corbett and Leach, 1998).

A paragenetic sequence of events typical of skarn environments are described (Leach, 1999) as:
 The initial isochemical skarn developed as a contact metamorphic hornfels formed as
adjacent to the Carcoar intrusion, which comprises biotite-magnetite-K-feldspar
alteration of the mafic volcanic rocks and marbleisation of the limestone.
 Alkali, monzonite and aplite dykes cut the skarn.
 Prograde metasomatic skarns comprise garnet-diopside which grades to wollastonite-
bornite mineralisation typical of skarn fronts (figure 6.17), with little apparent vertical
skarn zonation, consistent with a deep high temperature setting, described as 475-540oC
by Wilkins and Smart (1998). Leach (1999) notes a horizontal mineral zonation typical
of prograde (potassic-propylitic) porphyry alteration in silicates as: wollastonite ->
phlogopite -> actinolite -> epidote -> chlorite, and Fe minerals magnetite -> pyrrhotite ->
arsenopyrite -> pyrite typical of the porphyry-epithermal transition.
 Retrograde skarn alteration results from the incursion of meteoric waters and the
transition to cooler hydrous minerals as three sub-stages (Leach, 1999) typical of a
porphyry-epithermal transition and dominated by actinolite, then chlorite-epidote-quartz-
calcite and finally chalcedony-chlorite-smectite. The high Au grade (15-30 g/t Au)
sheeted quartz vein event with chalcopyrite-bornite mineralisation is interpreted to have
developed at this stage in response to sinistral movement on the NS structures (figure
6.17).
 Dextral and normal fault movement offsets many skarn lenses.
 Deep oxidation formed clay-rich Au ore bodies, not unlike those at Red Dome
Queensland, which were the subject of early mining.

There is a clear structural and lithological control to the development of skarn lenses and
overprinting sheeted quartz veins, proximal to a major intrusion, but possibly related to renewed
magmatism at depth (Leach, 1999).

Economic Geo. _ JH
Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 6.17. Geology of the Browns Creek gold mine showing the Carcoar intrusion, NS
structural grain and skarn lenses projected to the surface mine in the open pit and underground.
Garnet-diopside-wollastonite drill core is cut by a calcite vein and underground exposures
contain typical wollastonite-bornite Au ore and higher grade cross cutting sheeted quartz veins.

6.2.5 At Constancia, Peru, high grade Au occurs within Cu-bearing skarns developed by the
interaction of fluids derived from the underlying Oligocene porphyry Cu deposits with the host
Cretaceous limestone, common throughout the district. A typical paragenetic sequence of skarn
alteration is apparent as:
 A prograde skarn hosts primary Cu mineralisation in the mineral assemblage of
magnetite-garnet-pyroxene-chalcopyrite including local banded magnetite-chalcopyrite
rocks formed by replacement of limestone (figure 6.18). The majority of the distinctive
magnetite anomalies formed at this stage. Pyroxene is locally apparent replacing garnet.
 Retrograde skarn alteration provided additional Cu mineralisation as an overprint on
prograde minerals by fracture-controlled epidote-chlorite-magnetite-pyrite-chalcopyrite,
with sulphides locally well developed at the marble contact, similar to a skarn front
described above (figures 6.6 & 6.18).
 Epithermal Au mineralisation identified during exploration within artisan mine workings
has been catagorised as of the quartz-sulphide Au + Cu, carbonate-base metal Au and
epithermal Au + Ag styles. Low temperatures of formation apparent from yellow
sphalerite (see section 7.2.1.2.1)
 Supergene enrichment no doubt provides an upgrade of the epithermal Au mineralisation,
typical of the auriferous pyrite in the quartz-sulphide mineralisation (see section 7.6.2).

Economic Geo. _ JH
Supergene Cu enrichment is also apparent as a chalcocite blanket developed at the
interface between oxide and sulphide ores.

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Figure 6.18 Prograde garnet-pyroxene-magnetite skarn, magnetite-chalcopyrite limestone
replacement, retrograde magnetite-chalcopyrite-calcite, retrograde epidote-sulphide cutting
marble similar to a skarn front, epithermal quartz-sulphide with visible Au and a quartz vein with
adjacent high fineness free Au, all from Constancia, Peru.

6.2.6 The Tres Chipas Au skarn in Central Chile, worked as a small scale underground mine,
provides a good example of the zoned alteration and mineralisation developed where a regional
scale NS structure transects a carbonate-rich portion of a volcanic sequence and an underlying
batholith (figure 6.19). Zoned alteration and mineralisation discernible in the field grade away
from the limestone-batholith. Biotite hornfels represents an isochemical skarn at the contact with
batholith. Zoned prograde metasomatic skarn demonstrates the change from Fe to Ca rich garnet
as it grades from red garnet + chalcopyrite to yellow garnet-bornite and then typical skarn front
ore comprising wollastonite-garnet-bornite. The more marginal silica-chlorite-pyrite-pyrrhotite

Economic Geo. _ JH
represents the retrograde skarn developed as the transition in time and space from porphyry to
epithermal conditions.

At Tres Chipas Au-Cu mineralisation is best developed within the skarn front developed close to
the contact between host rocks and the prograde skarn, although no epithermal mineralisation is
apparent here.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 6.19 Skarn zonation at the Tres Chipas mine, Chile using drill ore samples as
wollastonite-yellow garnet-bornite, yellow garnet-bornite and red garnet + chalcopyrite.

6.3 Conclusion

Skarn deposits considered herein result from the alteration of carbonate-bearing rocks by heat
and volatiles derived from intrusion source rocks which also provide metals, and typically
display characteristic zonation and paragenetic sequences similar to the staged alteration and
mineralisation recognised in porphyry deposits. Initial heat transfer forms isochemical skarns,
which changes to prograde metasomatic component transfer and is overprinted by hydrous
retrograde skarns. Much of the precious metal deposition deposited during late stage cooling is
likened to epithermal Au-Ag deposits. Best Au grades are recognised in association with skarn
fronts close to skarn-wall rock contact and within late stage epithermal lodes, the latter locally
with near surface supergene enrichment.

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Economic Geo. _ JH
7 CONTROLS TO LOW SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Ag

7.1 Introduction

Low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits develop from dilute near neutral meteoric-
magmatic fluids in which sulphur occurs as H2S, and display a considerable variation in ore
types from sulphide-rich, developed both proximal and distal to intrusion source rocks, to
banded veins dominated by quartz gangue deposited from meteoric-dominant waters in distal
settings to intrusion source rocks, which contribute the limited Au-Ag bearing sulphide
magmatic component (section 1). Locally, mineralised sulphides with carbonate and quartz
gangue occur as matrix within breccia pipes (San Cristobal, Bolivia; Mt Leyshon, Australia;
Golden Sunlight, USA), disseminated within intrusions extending to brecciated margins (Mt
Wright or Twin Hills, Australia; Bulawan, Philippines), stockwork veins proximal to
intrusions (Porgera, Mt Kare in Papua New Guinea) and distal fissure veins (Arcata, Peru;
Fresnillo, Mexico; Cerro Negro, Patagonia). Only rarely are Au-bearing sulphides hosted
within permeable volcanic rocks (Lihir, Papua New Guinea; Round Mountain, Nevada).

Figure 7.1 Zoned hydrothermal wall rock alteration formed adjacent to a typical chalcedony-
ginguro style low sulphidation epithermal vein. See also section 2.2.2.

7.1.1 Wall rock alteration

Wall rock argillic hydrothermal alteration is dominated by zoned illite-pyrite-chlorite and

locally carbonate mineral assemblages (figure 7.1; section 2.2.2), to some extent varying to
sericite at deepest levels and to smectite at higher levels, especially distal to veins. However,
the dominant factor to influence clay type is the zoned alteration defined by temperature
which declines from deep to shallow levels and from proximal to distal relationships to veins.
Alteration is more extensive in permeable horizons and swelling clays such as smectite may
destroy host rock competency and so inhibit vein formation. Near surficial levels may contain
acid sulphate caps (section 2.2.8) characterised by low temperature silica such as cristobalite
with kaolin-illite-alunite + sulphur mineral assemblages, and local basal silica edges

Economic Geo. _ JH
dominated by chalcedony developed at the palaeo water table. These mineral assemblages are
generated by reaction with wall rocks of low pH ground waters formed by the oxidation of
exsolved H2S, and which may collapse back into the ore environment to promote high grade
Au deposition by mixing reactions (below; Leach and Corbett, 2008).

7.1.2 Banded epithermal veins

Banded veins in epithermal deposits (figure 7.2) may contain regular layers of variable
mineral composition developed by the episodic deposition of different ore and gangue
minerals from distinctly different fluids, often driven by repeated earthquake activation on
controlling structures to form the multiple bands of mineral deposition (Sibson, 1987).
Sampling in exploration must take into account that not all bands display the same degree of
Au-Ag mineralisation, and the bands with bonanza Au might also be clay-rich, and difficult
to sample (section 7.4.4.4.).

Figure 7.2 Banded epithermal quartz veins developed by episodic deposition of materials
such as chalcedony, ginguro, sulphides, rhodochrosite etc. Note how the Golden Cross vein
has grown inwards with mirror image bands.

A model for banded vein development (Corbett, 2008) features a dilatant structure which taps
the magmatic source for metals, volatiles and some water, as well as a role as the heat engine
to drive cells of circulating meteoric-magmatic fluids by the entry of variable quantities of
barren meteoric waters (figure 7.3). Many exploration geologists have carried out the exercise
to analyse different portions of banded epithermal veins separately and determined the quartz
contains only very minor Au compared to the sulphide bands which host most mineralisation,
including as the fine grained ginguro bands defined below.

If the structure opens shallowly then it might tap shallow circulating meteoric waters which
have not come in contact with magmatic source for metals and so may deposit veins
dominated be clean chalcedony, as shown in path A (photo A in figure 7.3). This rapid and

Economic Geo. _ JH
repeated opening, such as recognised by the daily venting to the Old Faithful geyser at
Yellowstone National Park, USA, could deposit very finely banded spectacular looking
epithermal quartz veins within the host structure, which are nevertheless barren because the
fluids responsible for vein formation have not come in contact with the mineralised source
intrusion. Circulating meteoric waters might penetrate to a sufficient depth to entrain a
magmatic component and form a meteoric-magmatic fluid (path B in figure 7.3), which could
rise up the dilatant structure and deposit a vein or breccia dominated by barren quartz gangue
with disseminated mineralised sulphides (photo B in figure 7.3). These veins or breccias
might host low grade Au mineralisation. Occasionally, the host structure opens to a
significant depth to tap the deeply buried magmatic source for an ore fluid which rises up the
host structure to deposit a magmatic-rich vein portion, commonly dominated by sulphides,
and containing elevated Au-Ag mineralisation (path C & photo C in figure 7.3). Thus, the
different mineralogy in variable vein bands can be accounted for by changes in the ore fluid
and thick chalcedony-rich veins might be barren, while much thinner sulphide-rich vein
portions could be well mineralised (figure 7.3). In some settings an impermeable rock layer
may prevent meteoric waters from coming in contact with the magmatic source to provide
veins with an abundance of barren chalcedony.

Figure 7.3 Conceptual model for the development of banded low sulphidation epithermal
veins of different compositions (from Corbett, 2008).

7.1.2.1 Exploration implications of banded veins. The model in figure 7.3 using was drawn in
the field at Palmarejo, Mexico using local drill core, to answer the question “Why are these
thick veins barren and those thin ones mineralised”. The answer was that the thick nicely
banded veins contained only chalcedony and adularia deposited form barren meteoric waters,
whereas all the precious metals were contained in the sulphide bands deposited from the
limited event of magmatic fluid input to vein development. Explorationists must understand
the type of vein material being sampled (as shown in figures 7.2 & 7.3) in order ensure a
valid sample is being taken and interpret those results. It is possible for spectacularly banded
quartz veins, identified in reconnaissance exploration, to be essentially barren. Also, it will be

Economic Geo. _ JH
shown herein (section 7.4.4.4) that bonanza grade Au commonly resides within clay bands of
banded quartz veins which can be difficult to sample. The distribution of magmatic versus
meteoric fluid portions therefore contribute towards the development of mineralised versus
barren veins or vein portions in any district. It is also possible for circulating meteoric waters
to dominate high in the hydrothermal system and magmatic fluids at depth causing individual
veins to vary from barren at surface to mineralised at depth (Juevos Verde and Cerro Moro in
Argentine Patagonia (figure 7.4; Dietrich et al., 2012; Corbett, unpubl. reports). Not all
barren veins pass to mineralised at depth. Methods to estimate the level in the hydrothermal
system for prospecting in these terrains are explained in section 8.

The development of quality Au mineralisation (size and grade) which is commonly

developed within ore shoots is controlled by a number of factors discussed later, including
competent host rocks and efficient mechanisms of Au deposition. A model is proposed later
that low sulphidation epithermal veins might initially be deposited by boiling and cooling
fluids with low grade Au mineralisation and then later fluid mixing reactions account for
bonanza Au development in some individual bands (section 7.4.4.4). In the specimen from
Cracow below (figure 7.5) modest Au grades within banded quartz deposited from a mixed
meteoric-magmatic fluid rise with and increased magmatic ginguro component attaining
highest Au grades in the presence of hypogene kaolin as evidence of Au deposition by fluid
mixing.

Figure 7.4 It is possible for quartz veins to vary from barren at surface to well mineralised at
depth from Cerro Moro, Argentine Patagonia. Note the hypogene kaolin with high grade ore.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.5 The Cracow, Australia, chalcedony-ginguro vein system in which nicely banded
chalcedony, interpreted to have been deposited form a dominantly meteoric fluid, contains
only low grade Au-Ag (2.44 g/t Au & 2.7 g/t Ag), whereas the specimens with ginguro bands
(16.5 g/t Au and 25 g/t Ag) breccia fill (62.9 g/t Au & 19.8 g/t Ag) deposited from a
magmatic fluid contains elevated Au grades, the latter with hypogene kaolin (discussed later).

7.1.3 Controls to the formation of ore shoots

Most low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits include a vein component, typically
throughgoing fissure veins, in which the best mineralisation is localised within ore shoots,
characterised as wider and higher Au-Ag grade vein portions, developed at the coincidence of
several factors (Corbett, 2007; 2013) including:
 Style of low sulphidation mineralisation.
 Competent host rocks.
 Dilatant structures.
 Efficient mechanisms of Au deposition.
The effect of post-mineral near surface supergene Au enrichment and dilution by dykes or
gangue minerals must be taken into account.

7.2 Styles of low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag

Two fluid flow paths diverge from the magmatic source, to form two groups of low
sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits introduced in chapter 1 (figure 1.8). These will now
be described in detail and an explanation provided for their derivation. The typical trend
recognised within magmatic arcs (mainly SW Pacific rim such as Porgera & Morobe
Goldfield, Papua New Guinea; Kelian, Indonesia) occurs as: quartz-sulphide Au + Cu ->
carbonate-base metal Au -> epithermal quartz + Ag (figures 1.9 & 7.6). In strongly
extensional settings (Sierra Madre of Mexico; Southern Peru; Deseado Massif of Argentine
Patagonia) the progressive introduction of quartz and lesser adularia from meteoric waters is
associated with a trend of ore styles classed as: quartz-sulphide Au + Cu -> polymetallic Ag-
Au -> chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag (figure 1.11).

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.6 Styles of arc-related low sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation with
associated vertical geochemical patterns.

7.2.1 Arc related Au-Ag mineralisation

A fluid flow trend and associated mineralisation styles, first recognised in SW Pacific rim
island arcs (Papua New Guinea & Indonesia in Leach and Corbett 1993, 1994, 1995), has
been refined by the analysis of many ore systems (figure 7.6). While not all deposits display
the full fluid flow trend, changes in the Au grade, Ag:Au ratio and metallurgical
characteristics are well documented. The arc-related mineralisation styles discussed herein
have been deposited from an ore fluid which has evolved during migration from a magmatic
source at depth to higher crustal levels, under the influence of highly variable extensional
settings. These ores display stronger relationships to magmatic source rocks than the ores
discussed below formed in strongly extensional settings.

7.2.1.1 Quartz sulphide Au + Cu

Quartz sulphide Au + Cu (Leach and Corbett, 1995; Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett, 2013)
is a common style of magmatic arc Au mineralisation, developed early in the paragenetic
sequence as the ore fluid exsolved from the magmatic source, and displays considerable
vertical variation from near surficial low temperature (Cerro Contreras, Argentine Patagonia)
to near porphyry crustal levels, where veins may form gold porphyry deposits (Cadia,
Australia; Maricunga Belt, Chile) and are transitional to D veins formed above porphyry
intrusions. Saline fluid inclusions demonstrate the ore fluid is strongly magmatic (Corbett and
Leach, 1998).

7.2.1.1.1 Variations in the mineralogy of quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation with crustal

level include:

Economic Geo. _ JH
  The most common quartz-sulphide ores comprise early barren quartz and later coarse
grained cubic pyrite with low Ag:Au ratios (figure 7.7; Corbett and Leach, 1998).
While quartz is not always present, forms vary from well crystalline filling open space
to more amorphous lower temperature chalcedony and chalcedony, or crystalline
quartz, all of which may be banded. Fluid inclusion studies identified both dilute
meteoric and saline magmatic sources. Other gangue may include barite which is
common in many examples in Latin America, local secondary K-feldspar and
carbonate. Some galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite may also be present. Veins are
commonly open and mineral phases may be coarsely crystalline as a result of slow
cooling of the ore fluid at depth. Examples include: many deposits such as Nolans in
the Ravenswood district, Mt Wright, Adelong, Paulsens, Mt Morgan and parts of
Twin Hills in Australia; Hamata, Bilimoia and Malamunda in Papua New Guinea;
Himmetdede, Kestanelik in Turkey; Round Mountain in Nevada; Emperor Gold
Mine, Cirianiu in Fiji; parts of Rawas, Indonesia; Reefton and parts of Thames in
New Zealand (figure 7.7).
 Many wall rock porphyry deposits (Cadia Hill Australia; Gaby, Ecuador; parts of the
Maricunga Belt, Chile) might also be regarded as quartz-sulphide Au + Cu ores, as
they are dominated by auriferous pyrite and chalcopyrite with quartz, typically as
sheeted veins (figure 5.1).
 High temperature ores developed at deep crustal levels contain additional chalcopyrite
and locally pyrrhotite, specularite and rare magnetite, (figure 7.8). Base metal
sulphides such as galena and sphalerite may be present in some deposits, along with
additional barite gangue, particularly in Latin America. Sphalerite is likely to be the
dark Fe-rich variety. Examples include parts of Porgera and Hamata, Papua New
Guinea; parts of Kelian, Indonesia; parts of the Drake, Charters Towers and
Ravenswood goldfields in Australia. Many vein systems have been mined as Cu as
well as Cu ores (Burraga, Australia; Cutter Cove, Chile).

Figure 7.7 Typical quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation, from the top left down in
columns as: the 1991 type specimen from Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea (1-4 g/t Au); early
quartz-pyrite, Cowal Australia <1 g/t Au; Charters Towers quartz-pyrite base metal lode;

Economic Geo. _ JH
Adelong quartz-pyrite, Australia 30 g/t Au; Paulsens Australia quartz-pyrite 15-30 g/t Au;
Nolans pit, Charters Towers, Australia 1-2 g/t Au Mt Wright, Australia breccia matrix (1 g/t
Au); Hamata, Papua New Guinea pyrite lode (1-10 g/t Au); Sunset Ravenswood district,
Australia, quartz-pyrite-carbonate lode 276 g/t Au.

Figure 7.8 High temperature deep crustal level quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation from
the top left: sheeted pyrrhotite veins, Kelian, Indonesia 1-5 g/t Au; pyrrhotite breccia, Buck
Reef, Ravenswood, Australia 6.6 g/t Au; specularite breccia, Hamata, Papua New Guinea;
pyrite-K-feldspar-specularite, Whites, Yukon, 16.95 g/t Au; quartz-pyrite-pyrrhotite,
Sarsfield, Ravenswood, Australia, 20.9 g/t Au, 271 ppm Bi; pyrite-chalcopyrite-haematite
breccia, Mineral Hill Australia, >30 g/t Au, 3% Cu, 1000-5000 ppm Bi; quartz-chalcopyrite
pyrite-chalcopyrite, Drake, Australia; D vein Nakru, Papua New Guinea.

 Low temperature ores are typically developed at elevated crustal settings where pyrite
may be supplemented by marcasite as tabular crystals or botryoidal forms and locally
arsenean pyrite (figure 7.9). Lower temperature forms of quartz may include
chalcedony and opal although fine crystalline quartz is also recognised in open space.
Examples include: Rawas and Kencana, Indonesia; Chatree, Thailand; Las Calandrias
and Cerro Contreras, Argentine Patagonia; Lihir and Simberi, Papua New Guinea;
Himmetdede and Kestanelik, Turkey; Sleeper, Nevada. Rapidly cooled fluids may
form fine grained grey silica (silica gris in Spanish) comprising chalcedony with fine
grained pyrite which contains encapsulated fine pyrite (Kerimenge, Papua New
Guinea; figure 7.9; Pearses at Mineral Hill, Australia). These ores are often As-rich
and typically display problematic metallurgy in which Au is encapsulated within
microfine arsenean pyrite (Lihir & Simberi, Papua New Guinea).

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.9 Low temperature quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation from the top left: opal-
marcasite, Rawas, Indonesia; opal-marcasite (note radiating tabular crystals), Chatree,
Thailand; microfine arsenean pyrite, Pearses, Mineral Hill, Australia, 15 g/t Au; Las
Calandrias, Argentina; pyrite-kaolin in brecciated dome margins, 2.3 g/t Au & 71.1 g/t Ag;
pyrite in brecciated dome margin, 0.8 g/t Au & 22.8 g/t Ag; silica- marcasite (note tabular
crystals). See also Kerimenge and Ladolam, Papua New Guinea (figures 7.23 & 7.12).

7.2.1.1.2 The ore geochemistry of quartz-sulphide Au + Cu systems, as apparent above, is

dominated by Au throughout with local Bi, Zn and Pb rising to As-rich at high levels with
local Ba, Hg Sb and Te, and the Cu at depth. As quartz-sulphide Au + Cu deposits represent
the first stage in a progression of low sulphidation mineralisation styles they progressively
become overprinted by carbonate-base metal Au and then epithermal quartz Au + Ag
mineralisation, with associated changes in the geochemistry through time and space (figure
7.6). Many are Bi-rich with deposits such as Mineral Hill produced a Cu-Au-Bi concentrate
while elsewhere elevated Au is associated with late stage tellurobismuthenite (Mt Morgan,
Australia; Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea) and some others occur as Au-Te deposits (Emperor,
Fiji figure 7.15), described in section 7.2.1.1.6.

Petrology by Terry Leach demonstrated (Corbett and Leach, 1998) relatively high fineness
(modest Ag, >800 fineness) Au tends to occur on fractures and grain boundaries in the
sulphides and quartz is barren. Coarse grained sulphides display good metallurgy and so
quartz-sulphide Au + Cu deposits represent good heap leach operations, especially if oxidised
(Round Mountain and Sleeper, figure 7.13, Nevada; Himmetdede, Turkey, figure 7.17; San
Cristobal, Chile, figure 4.16). Consequently, low grade ores can be worked effectively. By
contrast, fine grained (‘silica gris’ and including fine arsenean pyrite) commonly host Au
encapsulated in the sulphides and so display problematic metallurgical responses (Kerimenge
& Lihir in Papua New Guinea, figures 7.23 & 7.12).

Au grades are commonly modest. In the coarse grade ores gold deposition by cooling
accounts for low Au grades in coarse grained slow cooled ores and locally higher Au grades
in rapidly cooled (quenched) ores, although many of these display problematic metallurgy.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Fluid mixing locally accounts for higher Au grades such as in ores with Mn carbonate
(rhodochrosite), as evidenced by MnO in oxidised ores (below). For instance at the Paulsens
Mine in Western Australia (figure 7.7), Au grades are reported to rise from 5-15 g/t Au to 80
g/t Au in the presence of rhodochrosite. At Kencana, Indonesia, Au grades to 300 g/t Au are
recognised in the presence of hypogene haematite derived from fluid mixing (below). Highest
Au grade ores occur with kaolin as a result of mixing with low pH acid sulphate waters (El
Tranquillo, Argentine Patagonia; Kapit Zone at Ladolam, Papua New Guinea). In other cases
the discernible evolution to higher crustal level epithermal quartz Au mineralisation accounts
for elevated Au grades (Emperor, Fiji; Sleeper, Nevada; Thames, New Zealand). Elsewhere
this mineralisation might be difficult to recognise in some high grade quartz-sulphide ores
(Mastra, Turkey).

A corollary of the good Au metallurgy associated with the typical grained sulphide ores,
particularly where oxidised, is that quartz-sulphide Au + Cu deposits are notorious for near
surface supergene Au enrichment described below. Elevated Au in surficial FeO rich samples
with features such as veins with box works after pyrite should therefore be treated with
caution and could have a profound effect on exploration programs if not recognised and
correctly accounted for.

7.2.1.1.3 The form of quartz sulphide Au + Cu deposits displays wide variation. Veins and
lodes are common (Bilimoia & Hamata, Papua New Guinea; Adelong, Paulsens, Mineral
Hill, Burraga, Australia; Kestanelik, Turkey; Kencana, Indonesia; Cutter Cove, Chile),
locally exploit major pre-existing faults (Malamunda and Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea) or
thrust faults (Himmetdede, Turkey; Kencana, Indonesia; Hamata, Papua New Guinea).
Elsewhere bedding plane discontinuities dilated during collapse host mineralisation
(flatmakes at Emperor Gold Mine, Fiji; Drake, Australia) and many systems occur as
stockwork veins adjacent to feeder structures (Kerimenge, Papua New Guinea; Sleeper,
Nevada; Pollocks or Coyhaique, Chile; Chatree, Thailand; Paloma, Argentina; Cirianiu, Fiji;
Rawas, Indonesia), or extension joints in granites (Nolans, Australia) have become activated.
Disseminated and breccia ores are associated with intrusive domes (Mt Wright & Twin Hills,
Australia; Cerro Contrares, Argentina) or breccia pipes (Carolina, Argentina; San Cristobal,
Chile). Replacement ores in permeable volcanic rocks are also important (Round Mountain,
Nevada; Simberi and Lihir, Papua New Guinea; Mt Morgan, Australia).

Some large deposits include Ladolam at Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea (>50 M oz contained
Au), Round Mountain, Nevada (10 M oz Au) and Mt Morgan, Australia (7.5 M oz Au), while
many other quartz-sulphide Au systems have been worked as low Au grade heap leach
operations of locally oxidised ores, as part of mines which also include other higher Au grade
ores (Sleeper, US) or essentially stand-alone (Round Mountain, US; Cirianiu, Fiji; San
Cristobal, Chile; Himmetdede, Turkey) or underground vein mines (Kencana, Indonesia;
Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea; Emperor, Fiji).

Many quartz-sulphide Au deposits occur as banded veins of sulphide, deposited from

magmatic fluids and quartz from meteoric-dominant waters (see section 1.2.2.2), and so
might be confused with the chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag epithermal veins (described below)
although some transitions are recognised with these deposits in magmatic arcs such as in
Turkey. As discussed for the Kestanelik, Turkey, example below, the two styles display
pronounced differences which must be taken into account in any exploration program.

7.2.1.1.4 Some examples:

Economic Geo. _ JH
7.2.1.1.4.1 Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea provides an example of ‘above porphyry’
mineralisation in an interval of over 500 m between Cu-stained porphyry outcrops at lowest
elevation and advanced argillic altered wall rock at the highest point (figures 2. 23, 7.10 & 7.
11; Corbett et al., 1994; Corbett and Leach, 1998 and Corbett 2005b). Two districts of quartz-
sulphide veins, the Irumafimpa-Kora veins and Arakompa, exploit arc-parallel and arc-
normal structures respectively. Slaty cleavage in the metamorphic rocks becomes a
crenulation close to the mineralised structures at Irumafimpa, as an indication that these
fractures which parallel the nearby country scale Markham Fault (figure 7.10), were formed
at depths such as 5 km and exhumed and mineralised at a higher crustal level. Lodes which
exploit faults as puggy breccias and slickensided faces comprise early quartz deposited by
cooling and mixing of rising hot (300-330oC) pregnant magmatic fluids with cool dilute
waters. Wall rock alteration includes early high temperature sericite and Cr micas (mariposite
and fuschite) as well as later low temperature illite-smectite (figure 7.11). Buried ultramafic
rocks, in this setting near a tectonic plate margin, are speculated to provide the source for Cr.
Later mineralisation comprises coarse cubic auriferous pyrite + base metals and varies from
Cu- (Kora and Robinson Lodes) to Au-rich (East Lode) and minor chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
galena and tennantite. Gold is of a high fineness (834-922) enclosed in pyrite and
chalcopyrite, associated with ferberite (FeWO4), while bonanza grades occur with a variety of
Te and Bi minerals (Corbett et al., 1994). Roughly NS trending ore shoots are formed by a
component of dextral strike-slip movement on the NW structures (figure 7.10; Corbett et al.,
1994). Steep lipping lodes have undergone near surface supergene Au enrichment worked by
local artisan miners. The Irumafimpa lodes went into production with a resource of 1.7 Mt @
22 g/t Au, but mining was hampered by the irregular Au grade distribution (Corbett, 2005b).

Figure 7.10 Setting of Bilimoia quartz-sulphide lodes as the Irumafimpa-Kora arc-parallel

structure and Arakompa arc-normal fractures, as well as the advanced argillic alteration,
porphyry Cu and Maniape carbonate-base metal Au occurrences. Ore shoots at Irumafimpa
formed in response to a component of dextral strike-slip movement on the NW structures.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.11 Bilimoia showing a quartz-sulphide lode from the Irumafimpa Mine with
marginal wall rock fuschite alteration and high grade Au (left); and (on the right) surface and
underground lode material from Arakompa showing boxworks forming after pyrite and also
quartz-sulphide cutting a pebble dyke.

7.2.1.1.4.2 At Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea the development of low temperature
quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation was triggered by sector collapse of the Luise volcnaic
ediface about 100,000 years ago facilitated by listric faults which exploited a rock
competency contrast defiend by the contact between volcanic rocks and the underlying
anhydrite breccia at a porphyry margin (sections 3.2.1.1 & 3.5.1.1; Corbett et al., 2001;
Corbett, 2005 and references therein). Because Ladolam occurs within silica-poor, high-K,
shoshonic host rocks, only minor quartz is recognsied in rocks that are flooded by low
temperature K-feldspar (adularia). Early porphyry Au mineralisation is overpritned by the
epithermal event in which ore fluids utilised the listric faults as feeder structures passing to
fluidised and crackle breccias dominate in competent host rocks, or pyrite flooding is
apparent in permeable volcanic host rocks. Petrology by Terry Leach (Kidd, 2008) delineated
the early high temperature porphyry event (stage I >300oC) followed by a K-feldspar-pyrite
stage II, characterised low temperature secondary K-feldsapr (adularia) and auriferous pyrite
and arsenian pyrite with trace sphalerite, galena, tennantite-tetrahedrite and chalcopyrite,
grading to late illite alteration. Refractory Au is encapsulated in fine grained sulphides
deposited by cooling or sulphidation reactions with wall rocks as well as mixing with
meteoric waters and minor acid sulphate waters at the Kapit Zone (figure 7.12). There has
been a progressive cooling from the porphyry to this stage and then to the final quartz stage
III characterised by chalcedony-opal with frampoidal pyrite and high grade free Au with
anomalous Sb, Ba and As as breccia fill and veins (figure 7.12), followed by the current
geothermal activity.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.12 Ladolam quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation (from top left) K-feldspar-pyrite
event vughy adularia-arsenean pyrite 14 g/t Au; quartz event chalcedony-framboidal pyrite
123 g/t Au (these two rocks are from a set of character samples); crackle (1-2 g/t Au) and
mosaic (2-5 g/t Au) breccias and flooded permeable volcanic rock (5-10 g/t Au)

7.2.1.1.4.3 Round Mountain, Nevada has produced over 10 M oz Au in the past 20 years
from mostly low Au grade quartz-sulphide style mineralisation, oxidised in the upper portion,
treated as a heap leach operation. Upper Oligocene (26.7 Ma) rhyolite ash flow tuffs related
to caldera collapse host fracture-vein ore in an upper welded unit, varying to disseminated ore
in the underlying pumiceous lithic tuff which is described as having acted as a sponge,
possibly constrained below the upper cap unit (figure 7.13; G. Corbett tour guide notes, 2005;
Sander and Einaudi, 1990). In 1990 Fifarek and Gerike (1990) record a mining cut-off grade
of 0.51 ppm Au and Sander and Einaudi (1990) cite the average grade of 1.2 g/t Au, which
had fallen to less than 1 g/t Au by the time of the authors visit in 2005. Gold occurs as mostly
microscopic high fineness electrum hosted within pyrite which is readily leached from
oxidised ores. Pervasive low temperature K-feldspar (adularia) alteration is best developed in
the permeable tuff grading outwards to chlorite-dominant (propylitic) alteration of the welded
tuff (Fifarek and Gerike, 1990; Sander and Einaudi, 1990). Some bonanza grade free Au is
discussed later.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.13 Round Mountain right, showing top ash flow tuff (top), more competent rock
quartz-pyrite vein and disseminated auriferous pyrite (bottom). Sleeper quartz-sulphide
mineralisation, left, comprises pyrite-fill fluidised breccias.

7.2.1.1.4.4 The Sleeper Gold Mine in Nevada, USA, better known for the bonanza Au
(discussed later), also contains an early event of quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation (figure
7.13), partly extracted by heap leach operation. At Sleeper 40% of the Au produced was from
auriferous pyrite crackle and fluidised (feeders structures) breccias (figure 7.13) in the
hanging wall to a range front fault hosted by a competent Miocene rhyolite porphyry (Nash et
al., 1990). Those workers cite grades of 3-30 g/t Au with a Ag:Au ratio of 3:6 for the breccias
declining to 0.3:1.2 g/t for crackle breccias (stockwork veins), extracted as heap leach ore.
The quartz-sulphide mineralisation grades away from the same feeder structures as exploited
by the Au rich veins.

7.2.1.1.5 Mt Morgan Mine, Queensland, Australia produced and estimated 7.6 M oz Au from
the discovery in 1882 to closure of the open pit in 1981 (Taupe, 1990). As typical of quartz-
sulphide Au + Cu deposits, spectacular (to 62,000 g/t Au) near surface Au grades are reported
from early mining of the gossan cap (Jones and Golding, 1994) to the oxide zone which
produced 2.7M oz Au at an average grade of 30.6g/t Au (Taupe, 1986), while deeper sulphide
ores graded 3.4g/t Au with 0.8% Cu (Cornelius, 1969). Many older geological models
developed prior to modern porphyry-epithermal science suggest Mt Morgan is of a volcanic
hosted massive sulphide style (Taupe, 1986), although some workers (Cornelius, 1967 &
1969; Arnold and Sillitoe, 1989) suggest an intrusion-related origin. The modern era of
epithermal exploration now provides sufficient comparisons to support an origin of Mt
Morgan as intrusion-related low sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au + Cu epithermal
mineralisation hosted within silica-sericite-pyrite (phyllic) altered volcanic rocks. Mt Morgan
may occur within an altered pipe-like body overlying an intrusion source localised by a splay
in a regional structure, similar to many porphyry systems (sections 3.3 & 5.1.5). Several
features apparent in 1970’s drill core (without assay data) at the Queensland Government
core storage (figure 7.14) plus published accounts, which contribute towards the interpreted
epithermal origin include:

Economic Geo. _ JH
  Au is associated with pyrite and passes from elevated supergene high grades at
surface to Cu-bearing at depth, with associated quartz.
 The pyrite mineralisation as fluidised and crackle breccias display clear epigenetic
relationships as it cross-cuts host rocks (figure 4.5) as typical of other intrusion-
related ore systems.
 Hydrothermal alteration apparent as potassic (K-feldspar, biotite, magnetite, epidote)
is overprinted by phyllic (silica, sericite, pyrite) as typical of porphyry environments.
 The polyphasal nature of the intrusion-related hydrothermal system is apparent from
the manner in which magnetic dykes cut earlier sericite alteration, which is the reverse
of the typical trend (section 5.2, figure 1.14).
 Late stage pebble dykes (Cornelius (1967 & 1969) are typical of porphyry quartz-
sulphide environments (Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea).
 At Mt Morgan high grade Au, “which may exceed 50 oz/ton (1550g/t) Au” is
described from late stage cross-cutting pipes with tellurobismuthite at Mt Morgan
(Cornelius, 1969; and other workers). This cross-cutting mineralisation is typical of
evolving intrusion-related low sulphidation epithermal deposits (Bilimoia, Papua New
Guinea; Emperor, Fiji).

Thus Mt Morgan is categorised as a low sulphidation epithermal quartz-sulphide Au + Cu

deposit.

Figure 7.14 Typical Mt Morgan rocks, from the top left down, one of 3 dump samples which
assayed up to a 0.37 g/t Au, 716 ppm Cu, 77 ppm Te, 250 ppm Se, 2.5 ppm Bi, 45 ppm Ba,
22 ppm Mo, > 0.5 Ag, 47 ppm Zn, <2 ppm Pb, consistent with the relatively high crustal
level quartz-sulphide origin and from mostly 1970s drill core; quartz-pyrite-magnetite; pyrite
within sericite; quartz-pyrite within sericite; potassic alteration (K-feldspar-magnetite-
epithermal) which cuts sericite as an indication of polyphasal magmatism; and quartz-pyrite.

7.2.1.1.6 Emperor Gold Mine, Fiji, exploits lower Au grade quartz-sulphide Au + Cu

mineralisation formed at an elevated crustal setting and low temperature and is therefore Cu-
poor and As-rich. Like many other similar systems features an overprint of bonanza Au grade
epithermal quartz Au mineralisation. Pliocene K-rich shoshonitic host rocks (Colley and

Economic Geo. _ JH
Flint, 1995) display affinities with the Porgera and Lihir Au deposits in Papua New Guinea,
where subduction reversal and remelting of oceanic crust concentrated Au contents
(Solomon, 1990; Richards, 2009). The Emperor mineralisation is localised at the intersection
of a regional splay fault and caldera margin where dilation related to collapse has reactivated
bedding planes in host basalts to form variably oriented flat dipping ‘flatmake’ structures
which host significant ore, along with steeper dipping feeder structures (figure 3.28; Corbett
and Nethery, unpubl. report, 2001). The Princess-Dolphin flatmake was worked over a strike
of 2 km and down-dip for 1.5 km with an estimated resource of 1.2 Mt @ 13.8 g/t Au
(Denholm, 1967 in Colley and Flint, 1995). Flatmakes comprise in-fill in declining order of
pyrite-marcasite, K-feldspar (adularia), quartz, roscoelite and carbonate and adjacent
bleached wall rock alteration dominated by illite-smectite, chlorite and carbonate (figure
7.15). Significant Au occurs within pyrite (-marcasite) and arsenopyrite, including
submicroscopic Au (Colley and Flint, 1995) which is likely to represent the refractory ores
treated by roasting (figure 7.15). Bonanza grade Au in tellurides and as quartz-roscoelite is
discussed later (figure 7.15). While much of the auriferous pyrite was no doubt deposited by
rapid cooling, Kwak (1990) noted the low temperature of Au formation (180-210o C) and
suggested high grade Au was deposited by the mixing of rising ore fluids with meteoric and
possibly acid sulphate waters, after secondary K-feldspar (adularia) formation.

Figure 7.15 Emperor gold mine mineralisation (anticlockwise from the top left) as: a flatmake
in a stope and close up showing fine auriferous pyrite-marcasite, quartz-roscoelite-gold ore;
and a telluride matrix breccia.

7.2.1.1.7 The Kestanelik vein system, Turkey (figure 7.16) comprises low sulphidation
quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation within banded veins, distinguished from banded
chalcedony-ginguro style by the low Ag:Au ratio, near surface supergene Au enrichment, and
presence of pyrite with banded quartz and rather than the more typical Ag-rich ginguro
material. Overall quartz-sulphide mineralisation is expected to display lower Au contents and
lower Au grades at depth. Under the influence of supergene Au enrichment a considerable
portion of the Au content in the vicinity of the transition zone from overlying oxide ore to
underlying sulphide ore.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.16 The Kestanleik, Turkey quartz-sulphide Au style of low sulphidation vein system
(anticlockwise from top left) as: pyrite matrix breccia, 43.1 g/t Au & 19.7 g/t Ag; vein
outcrop with supergene Au associated with jarosite; banded quartz, high Au in supergene
enriched material, and the Au distribution; graph from a 2013 presentation by Rick Valenta,
Chesser Resources showing enriched Au in the oxide zone.

7.2.1.1.8 The Himmetdede Mine, Turkey, a recent grass roots discovery by Koza Gold Corp.,
provides an excellent example of an oxidised heap leach mineable quartz-sulphide Au deposit
(Corbett, unpubl. report). Gold content approaches 1 M oz of mostly oxide ore (Koza Gold
Corp. report March 2015). Quartz-pyrite Au mineralisation cuts foliated competent basement
pelitic gneiss and marble as mainly fluidised and crackle breccias in which the Au grades are
in part dependent upon the original pyrite content and best developed within steep dipping
feeder structures (figure 7.17). High Au grades within skeletal quartz may represent a
progression to epithermal quartz Au style mineralisation (as recognised at Sleeper and Round
Mountain Nevada and Emperor, Fiji), while some oxide material no doubt exhibits near
surface supergene Au enrichment. Porphyry domes, silica-sericite alteration, minor skarn and
intrusion related breccias provide evidence of a buried magmatic source. Mineralised steep
dipping brittle structures and flat slickensided shears suggest a relaxation in the thrust
deformation may have provided a trigger for the emplacement of mineralisation. A low
temperature of formation at an elevated crustal setting is apparent from the anomalous Hg,
Sb, Ba, As with some Zn, low Pb and virtually no Cu, as well as low temperature minerals
such as opal, marcasite and semi-framboidal pyrite, along with swelling (smectite) clays, and
probable low temperature skeletal quartz.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.17 Quartz-sulphide Au at Himmetdede, Turkey, (down from the top left in columns)
as: oxidised shear parallel to the core axis, 1.2 g/t Au; oxidised skeletal quartz with an open
space texture, 11g/t Au; contact between oxidised skeletal quartz and brecciated marble,
2.1g/t Au; steep dipping FeO zone, 1 g/t Au; gneiss cut by semi-botryoidal pyrite and low
temperature quartz (opal) 0.48 g/t Au; sulphide-rich pyrite fluidised breccia, 1.85g/t Au;
quartz-pyrite cuts foliated gneiss, 0.71 g/t Au; pyrite fluidised breccia, 0.93g/t Au; pyrite
fluidised breccia cuts foliated gneiss, 0.69 g/t Au.

7.2.1.1.5 In conclusion, common patterns such as Au in pyrite, are discernible in quartz-

sulphide Au + Cu deposits and include zonation in space and time. Deep level deposits are
Cu-rich (as chalcopyrite) and locally mined as Cu ores (Burraga, Australia; Cutter Cove,
Chile), with a relationship to D veins (as defined by Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; section
5.2.13). Some quartz-sulphide deposits are clearly marginal to porphyry deposits (Ohio Creek
Porphyry-Thames Goldfield, New Zealand; Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea). While ores
formed by slow cooling at deep crustal levels are coarse grained with good metallurgy,
rapidly cooled high crustal level deposits may feature fine grained refractory Au within
microfine pyrite-marcasite and arsenean pyrite. With the addition of galena, sphalerite, and
carbonate, quartz-sulphide ores pass (in time) to carbonate-base metal Au deposits (described
below) and some deposits evolve further to later, high crustal level, bonanza Au grade
epithermal quartz Au mineralisation (Porgera, Morobe goldfield, Woodlark Is. in Papua New
Guinea; Mastra, Turkey; Kelian, Indonesia; Baguio District, Philippines). The complete fluid
flow path from the magmatic source is shown as path A in figure 1.8. However, a significant
group of deposits evolve from quartz-sulphide to bonanza Au epithermal quartz Au ores
without the intervening carbonate-base metal stage (Sleeper and Round Mountain, Nevada;
Emperor, Fiji; Thames, New Zealand). The common theme here is that those without the
carbonate-base metal stage also lack felsic intrusions which are speculated as a source for
CO2-rich waters. Many quartz-sulphide ores are exploited as heap leach operations of
oxidised ores which are commonly supergene enriched close to the surface and at the base of
oxidation. Explorationists need to be aware quartz-sulphides ores are notorious for near
surface supergene enriched surficial high Au grades which may not be present in deeper drill
testing.

Economic Geo. _ JH
7.2.1.2 Carbonate-base metal Au deposits

Carbonate-base metal Au deposits (Leach and Corbett, 1993; 1995; Corbett and Leach, 1998;
Corbett, 2013) which were first recognised as some of the most prolific Au producers and
other projects in the SW Pacific rim (Porgera, Morobe Goldfield, Woodlark Is., Misima Is.,
Mt Kare, in Papua New Guinea; Kelian, Mt Muro, Cirotan, Chitotok, Romang Is., in
Indonesia; Baguio district and others in the Philippines; Penjom, Malaysia; Chatree,
Thailand; Cowal, Kidston, Mt Leyshon, Drake, Mt Terrible, Bowdens and others in
Australia; Tavatu, Fiji; Gold Ridge, Solomon Islands; Karangahake, New Zealand) also occur
in the West Pacific (Golden Sunlight, Montana Tunnels, Cripple Creek in the US), and South
America (Frute del Norte, Ecuador; Rio de Medio, El Peñón and San Cristobal, Chile;
Carolina, Argentina) as well as the Tethyan arc (Mastra and Ifemcukuru in Turkey; Rosa
Montana, Romania and many Ag occurrences in Greece). These deposits are important
elements of magmatic arcs, also recognised in the magmatic arc geothermal systems of the
Philippines (Mitchell and Leach, 1990). As discussed in section 1.3.2.3.2 carbonate-base
metal Au deposits include the Ag variant polymetallic Ag-Au best developed in extensional
settings of Latin America which lie in a different low sulphidation epithermal fluid flow path
(figure 1.8), and so evolve to Ag-rich chalcedony-ginguro ores, typically form fissure veins
and are more commonly associated with palaeo silica, rather than travertine deposits
recognised in carbonate-base metal Au deposit districts (section ***).

7.2.1.2.1 Variations in the mineralogy of carbonate-base metal Au deposits with crustal level
and relationship to magmatic source include:
 Typical carbonate-base metal Au deposits comprise early quartz and pyrite of the
initial quartz-sulphide Au + Cu stage, varying to chalcopyrite at depth and high level
marcasite with opal, which are overprinted by the base metal sulphides sphalerite and
galena, generally with significantly more sphalerite than galena as well as Ag
sulphosalts, quartz and later carbonate. Many hydrothermal systems evolve further to
host some bonanza Au grade epithermal quartz Au mineralisation.
 Carbonate type also varies depending upon the pH of the bicarbonate waters from
which it was deposited. Studies of geothermal systems, in particular the intrusion-
related magmatic arc systems of the Philippines (Mitchell and Leach, 1990),
identified significant bicarbonate waters developed as CO2 volatiles exsolved from
cooling intrusions and boiling hydrothermal fluids are absorbed by ground waters and
may be combined with acid sulphate waters. While bicarbonate waters are recognised
on the margins of New Zealand back-arc geothermal systems, mineralisation in the
extensional Deseado Massif of Argentine Patagonia contains significant carbonate
(sections 7.1.3.1). Here, (Cerro Negro) and elsewhere (Morobe goldfield, Papua New
Guinea) bicarbonate waters vent to the surface to form travertine deposits which may
contain significant silica (section 9.**), and the two compositions may be interlayered
(Wondumi Sinter, Wau, Papua New Guinea). As bicarbonate waters of different pH
dissolve variable cations from the wall rocks, the more acidic bicarbonate waters
deposit Fe-carbonate (siderite), passing progressively with rising pH to Mn-
(rhodochrosite), MnMg- (kutnahorite), MgCaFe (ankerite), MgCa, (dolomite), CaMg
(Mg-calcite) and Ca (calcite) deposited from neutral pH waters. As bicarbonate waters
often collapse due to drawdown, progressive neutralisation of acid waters by wall
rock reaction promotes a change in carbonate and consequent vertical zonation from
high level siderite, particularly in the vicinity of acid sulphate caps, through Mn
carbonates etc, to deep level calcite, which may also be derived from a direct
magmatic source. There is a strong relationship between carbonate type and Au grade

Economic Geo. _ JH
 in the model of Au deposition by the mixing of rising pregnant magmatic fluids with
bicarbonate waters (section 7.4). Siderite is not common but is associated with high
Au grades, whereas most economic carbonate-base metal deposits are associated with
Mn carbonates (figure 7.18), mainly rhodochrosite and less commonly kutnahorite,
ankerite, etc as the ability to deposit Au declines.

Figure 7.18 Carbonate styles in carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation. From two adjacent
trays of drill core at Chatree, Thailand, there is a decline in Au grade from rhodochrosite, to
dolomite to Mg-calcite. Uncommon siderite displays highest Au grades.

 Sphalerite provides a clear indication of the crustal level of formation (Corbett and
Leach, 1998) commonly supported by many other depth indicators in the exploration
examples which have contributed to this model. The colour of sphalerite is dependent
upon the Fe:Zn ratio as a function of temperature of formation, influenced by the
depth at which sphalerite formed. While low temperature Zn-rich sphalerite
recognised at shallow crustal levels, passes progressively with increased depth of
formation, and higher temperature and Fe-contents through yellow, red brown and
then black colours (figure 7.19). Black Fe-rich sphalerite is termed ‘marmatite’ or
‘black jack’ by early miners, while moderate Fe-Zn sphalerite may be referred to as
‘blende’. Note sphalerite crystals commonly display black rims and so colour
determinations must be carried out on the centre of the crystal using a broken or cut
face. Fine grained low temperature (Fe-poor) white sphalerite formed at shallow
crystal levels may appear black from the dominance of dark rims but could contain
white or yellow cores (figure 7.19 top). Temperature using low temperature (Fe-poor)
sphalerite must be supported by other minerals in the presence of haematite which
may compete for Fe.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.19 Zonation in sphalerite colour with Zn:Fe ratio determined by temperature
governed by depth of formation.

 Shallow level carbonate-base metal Au deposits are likely to be dominated by pyrite-

marcasite, white sphalerite, minor galena and carbonate as well as quartz, typically
low temperature chalcedony or opal. The degree of overprinting epithermal quartz Au
mineralisation influences Au grade. Shallow level ores may contain anomalous As,
Ba, Sb and Hg as well as elevated Au within electrum or Ag sulphosalts such as
argentite-acanthite.
 Deep level carbonate-base metal Au deposits are dominated by pyrite with local
chalcopyrite and/or pyrrhotite and rare magnetite or specularite along with Fe-rich
black sphalerite with galena and carbonate, commonly Mn carbonate and slow cooled
coarse crystalline comb quartz. Deep level ores may contain anomalous Cu and Bi
and Ag within tennantite-tetrahedrite.
 As quartz is an essential component of carbonate-base metal deposits (Corbett and
Leach, 1998) the description of them as quartz-poor using the later term intermediate
sulphidation by Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) is incorrect. Quartz varies from early,
especially as part of the quartz-sulphide initial mineralisation, to syn-mineral as many
deposits comprise banded quartz, Mn carbonate and sulphides (Umuna Lode, Misima
Is., and Morobe Goldfield veins in Papua New Guinea; El Peñón, Chile; Antamok,
Philippines; Mt Muro, Indonesia), to the post-carbonate-base metal Au, chalcedony-
ginguro overprint at Frute del Norte, Ecuador. Although early quartz may be derived
from a magmatic source, meteoric waters may subsequently become a more important
source.

7.2.1.2.2 The geochemistry of carbonate-base metal Au deposits is governed by the position

in the fluid flow path, crustal level and mechanism of Au deposition. The pronounced rise in
Au grades in carbonate-base metal Au compared to the quartz-sulphide deposits is accounted
for by the change in the mechanism of Au deposition from fluid cooling to mixing discussed
below. Overall fineness, although commonly hard to gauge due to overprinting free Au

Economic Geo. _ JH
within epithermal quartz Au mineralisation, typically lies in the modest 700-800 range, lower
than quartz-sulphide or epithermal quartz ores, but significantly higher than chalcedony-
ginguro Au-Ag and the related polymetallic Ag-Au ores (figure 4.8 in Corbett and Leach,
1998). The extreme variability in Au grade which characterises many carbonate-base metal
Au deposits, generally results from overprinting by epithermal quartz Au ores, and may
provide difficulties with resource determinations. Similarly, many carbonate-base metal Au
deposits are characterised by a variety of mineralisation styles which in turn display a variety
of metallurgical responses. The detailed analysis of mineralisation styles at Porgera, Papua
New Guinea (Fleming et al., 1986) was initiated to explain the highly variable metallurgical
responses in early test work. Similar patterns of highly variable Au recoveries by the mill
were apparent in the early mining of the Kelian carbonate-base metal Au deposit, Indonesia
and have been identified in many exploration projects. There early mapping exercises at
Kelian sought to categorise ore types by the retention of reference specimens at the mine
while duplicates were analysed by petrology and also for the metallurgical response.
Petrology by Terry Leach demonstrated most Au in carbonate-base metal Au deposits is
associated with the base metal sulphides, rising to higher Au grades in contact with the
carbonate, as a reflection of the fluid mixing mechanism of Au deposition. The Ag within
carbonate-base metal Au deposits may occur within electrum as the main Au source as well
as Ag contained within sulphosalts such as tennantite-tetrahedrite, or locally as argentite-
acanthite in higher crustal level examples. As mentioned above, sphalerite is likely to exceed
galena contents and should be reflected in Zn:Pb ratios and may also host some Ag. Many
carbonate-base metal deposits contain significant Bi locally combined with Te as
tellurobismuthenite. The Mineral Hill mine, Australia produced a Au-Cu-Bi concentrate.
Vertical geochemical zonation patterns are summarised in figure 7.6.

7.2.1.2.3 The form of carbonate-base metal Au deposits (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and
references therein) varies as:
 Stockwork veins are common about intrusion margins (Porgera, Mt Kare, Woodlark
Is., Papua New Guinea; Drake, Australia) or competent, locally silica rather than clay
altered, host rocks within volcanic sequences (Chatree, Thailand; Bowdens, Australia;
Mastra, Turkey), locally as tension veins adjacent to feeder structures (Hidden Valley,
Maniape, Kerimenge, and Kulumadau, Papua New Guinea; Mt Terrible & London-
Victoria, Australia; Penjom, Malaysia; Tavatu, Fiji). Some stockwork veins display
tension vein forms and exploit bedding plane shears (Cowal, Australia) while the
dilatant character is most apparent in sheeted veins (Kelian, Indonesia).
 Lodes or banded fissure veins host much carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation such
as the Umuna lode, Misima Is., or the veins at Amatok in the Baguio district,
Philippines, Edie Creek, Papua New Guinea, El Peñón, Chile, Mt Muro, Kalimantan
and Mineral Hill, Australia. Many lode deposits in the Banda Arc of Indonesia have
been worked since colonial times and probably earlier (Cirotan, Chitotok) while
exploration continues to identify new occurrences (Romang Is.). The Karangahake
lode, New Zealand, hosts higher grade Au in association with MnO and base metal
sulphides within fissure veins of a general chalcedony-ginguro appearance. Therefore,
many lodes typically recognised as banded veins, feature substantial quartz deposited
from meteoric-dominant waters in addition to the typical carbonate-base metal Au
mineral assemblage from mainly magmatic sources (Umuna lode, Edie Creek, El
Peñón, Mt Muro above).
 Many carbonate-base metal Au deposits are related to brecciated felsic dome margins
(Bulawan, Philippines; Drake, Australia) and associated breccia pipes. Generally,
high temperature mineralisation evidenced by black sphalerite at the Kidston

Economic Geo. _ JH
 magmatic hydrothermal breccia pipe (Section 4.4.4.4.1) occurs in sheeted quartz-
sulphide-carbonate veins about the pipe margin. Many deeply eroded typically
phreatomagmatic breccia pipes host relatively high temperature carbonate-base metal
Au mineralisation within the matrix of relatively competent silica-sericite altered
breccias (Mt Leyshon, Mt Rawdon, Australia; Rosia Montana, Romania; Golden
Sunlight, Montana Tunnels [Sillitoe et al., 1985], USA). Fracture veins host
mineralisation within the breccia pipes at Cripple Creek, USA (figure 4.42; section
4.4.4.9.9) and Gold Ridge in the Solomon Islands (figure 4.43). In the latter case more
competent silicified sandy layers host best Au grades. At elevated crustal settings
illite-smectite altered breccias tend to be incompetent and so carbonate-base metal Au
mineralisation occurs in the adjacent wall rocks (Kelian, Indonesia; figure 4.38)
particularly at the breccia-wall rock contact (GW breccias at Acupan, Indonesia;
figure 4.36). At San Cristobal in Bolivia semi-massive galena-sphalerite occurs within
the matrix of a diatreme breccia pipe with marginal felsic domes and a collapsing acid
sulphate cap (below). At San Cristobal, Chile carbonate-base metal mineralisation
occurs in oxidised lodes and disseminated within breccias (figures 4.15 & 4.16).

Figure 7.20 Carbonate base metal zonation patterns UPDATE

7.2.1.2.4 Examples

7.2.1.2.4.1 Porgera, Papua New Guinea was one of the first ore systems to be categorised as
carbonate-base metal Au style (Corbett, 2005b; Leach and Corbett, 1993; Corbett et al.,
1995), where this mineralisation crops out at Waruwari and is overprinted by epithermal
quartz Au style mineralisation at Zone VII (figure 7.21). The Porgera Intrusive Complex
(PIC), localised by the Porgera Transfer Structure (Corbett, 1994), comprises shoshonitic
hornblende diorite stocks, domes and sills, linked to a deeper magmatic source apparent as a
magnetic anomaly (Corbett et al., 1995). The generally incompetent Chim Formation
sediments in contact with the intrusions have been baked, with beaching of organic material,
to render them more competent and capable of hosting vein mineralisation (figure 7.21;
Fleming et al., 1987) in order to render these sediments more competent and capable of
hosting fractures. Early veins exploit elements of NNE trending transfer structure, locally
apparent as banded pyrite galena-sphalerite lodes, locally evolving to later carbonate as
inward mineral deposition with time (figure 7.21; Corbett, 2005b). Other carbonate-base
metal Au mineralisation exploited in the Waruwari open pit mine defines three dimensional
annulus shapes at dome-sediment contacts derived from the exploitation of this as the setting
of best vein-hosting rock competency. The black sphalerite in the NNE feeder fractures
passes laterally to lower temperature red then yellow (Corbett et al., 1995; Corbett and Leach,

Economic Geo. _ JH
1998). Early high temperature mineralisation also included the Jez pyrrhotite lode. Thus, the
presence in outcrop of Fe-rich sphalerite, pyrrhotite and coarse grained augite-hornblende
diorite intrusions supported by fluid inclusion temperatures of sphalerite of 273oC (Corbett
and Leach, 1998) and quartz of 318oC (Richards and Kerrich, 1993), all indicate a deep level
of formation and extensive erosion in order to expose these ores in outcrop. Thrust erosion
(section 3.5.1.2) has been proposed (Corbett, 2005b) as a mechanism to account for the rapid
change from high temperature carbonate-base metal Au to low epithermal quartz Au
mineralisation (section 7.1.1.3) based upon the similar ages (Ronacher et al., 2002).

Figure 7.21 Porgera carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation at Waruwari Hill shown on the
left of the ridge and map whereas the Roamane Fault which hosts the Zone VII mineralisation
extends to the right on the plan and at the base of the hills, accessed by the two adit levels in
the photo. Rock photos from the top are pyrite with sphalerite-galena fill in a NNE transfer
structure, as drill core with later carbonate, and carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation
within bleached sediment in the open pit (in the bottom photo).

7.2.1.2.4.2 Mt Kare, Papua New Guinea which lies about 20 km SE of Porgera is speculated
(Corbett, 2005b) to represent the top of the early Porgera ore system removed and transported
during thrust erosion (section 3.5.1.2). A major gold rush from 1988 by local people who had
watched the activities of exploration geologists probably produced about 1 M oz Au by 1991
(Ryan, 1991). Regional reconnaissance exploration identified a 0.6 ppm Au 080 mesh stream
sediment, 8 ppm Au pan concentrate and 1.45 rock float anomalies 7 km downstream with no
other significant elements (Corbett, 2005b and references therein). Whereas the carbonate-
base metal mineralisation displays a highly variable and low fineness Au, much of the Au
mined by local people from the vicinity of a creek about 500 m downhill (figure 7.22) was of
a consistent high fineness and commonly crystalline, leading to the suggestion (Terry Leach
and the author) that much of this Au was of a supergene origin, transported by chemical and
not alluvial processes. Carbonate-base metal Au at Mt Kare is similar to that at Porgera as
quartz-sphalerite-galena-carbonate veins (Corbett, unpubl. reports; figure 7.22), but more
restricted in size because of the poor host rock competency provided by the only minor
intrusions and lack of baked sediments at Mt Kare, although the calcareous siltstone and
sandstone are more competent than the Porgera shales. Extensive MnO in surface trenches

Economic Geo. _ JH
attests to the substantial original manganocarbonate (rhodochrosite) and the significant
surficial supergene Au exploited by artisan miners, are both indicative of deeper oxidation
than at Porgera. Sphalerite is of a dark high temperature style, while Au is also present in
quartz breccias and quartz-roscoelite-Au (figure 7.22) would be expected to have formed at
lower temperatures. Mineralisation terminated at depth in a thrust contact with underlying
brown shale (section 3.5.1.2; Corbett, 2005b). In July 2013, Indochine Mining Limited
provided a (measured and indicated) resource of 1.53 M oz Au and 15.7 M oz Ag.

Figure 7.22 Mt Kare carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation as shale-hosted quartz-pyrite-

sphalerite-galena veins, as well as free Au in quartz or roscoelite and abundant crystalline
high fineness Au in outcrop. The extent of rock mining by local people is discernible from
the old drill steel protruding from the ground in the bottom photo.

7.2.1.2.4.3 Morobe Gold Field, Papua New Guinea

Figure 7.23 includes Kerimenge ores

7.2.1.2.4.4 Woodlark Island, Papua New Guinea

Figure 7.** Woodlark

7.2.1.2.4.5 Kelian, Indonesia

Kelian rocks and maps are treated elsewhere

7.2.1.2.4.6 The Mastra gold mine in NE Turkey exploits carbonate-base metal Au

mineralisation interpreted (Corbett, unpubl. report, 2013) to have formed within a negative
flower structure in response to transient change from NS-oriented typical subduction-related
arc compression, to localised NS extension, expressed as movement on NE and NW
conjugate fractures (section 3.5.1.4). Best mineralisation occurs in ore shoots, as typical of

Economic Geo. _ JH
low sulphidation carbonate-base metal Au deposits. Quality veins are confined to competent
andesite lavas and silicified breccias constrained between unmineralised incompetent clay
altered volcanic breccias, to provide a flat dipping component to the ore zones. Dilatant
settings such as the “Extension Vein” host best mineralisation within overall steep plunging
ore shoots.

The style of evolving low sulphidation epithermal mineralisation influences Au grade and
Ag:Au ratios (figure 7.24). Early quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation characterised by quartz-
pyrite and chalcopyrite generally provides low Au grades and Ag:Au ratios < 1 where no
base metal sulphides are present. Carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation is evidenced by
overprinting mostly yellow to red sphalerite and lesser galena and carbonate with a
significant increase in Au content and rise in Ag:Au ratios to >1. Lower temperature ores
with white sphalerite host higher Au grades than high temperature ores with black sphalerite.
Bonanza Au grades are associated with an evolution of the ore fluid to epithermal quartz Au
+ Ag style Au mineralisation characterised by late stage high fineness very yellow free Au
with very high Au contents relative to Ag and the very low Ag:Au ratios. Overall most
mineralisation is of the carbonate-base metal style.

There is a strong control to Au grade by the mechanism of Au deposition (section 7.4 below).
Cooling ore fluids are responsible for low Au grades and Ag:Au ratios of 1-10 in fine grained
quartz-pyrite and some coarse grained base metal sulphide ores (see - early quartz-pyrite with
minor sphalerite, 1.6 g/t Au & 7.23 g/t Ag, in figure 7.24). Mixing of rising ore fluids with
ground waters, evidenced by late stage opal, accounts for higher Au grades (see – progression
from quartz-pyrite -> yellow-red sphalerite -> opal, 38.7 g/t Au & 54 g/t Ag, in figure 7.24).
Au grades rise and Ag: Au ratios decline in the carbonate-base metal ores (see - quartz-white
sphalerite-galena-chalcopyrite-pyrite-barite-carbonate, 30 g/t Au & 18 g/t Ag, figure 7.24).
The lack of abundant rhodochrosite is consistent with modest Au grades, compared to other
carbonate-base metal Au deposits. Locally bonanza Au grades are recognised in the presence
of (crystalline and hence hypogene) kaolin as evidence that Au deposition resulted from the
mixing of rising ore fluids with low pH waters (see figure 7.24).

Figure 7.24 Carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation, Mastra Turkey showing the typical
paragenetic sequence and relationship of Au grade to style of mineralisation, structure and

Economic Geo. _ JH
mechanism of Au deposition, from the top left anticlockwise as: early quartz-pyrite with
minor sphalerite, 1.6 g/t Au & 7.23 g/t Ag; quartz-sphalerite-galena [4.5], 6.58 g/t Au &
10.84 g/t Ag [1.6]; quartz-white sphalerite-galena-chalcopyrite-pyrite-barite-carbonate, 30 g/t
Au & 18 g/t Ag [0.6]; (main picture) progression from quartz-pyrite -> yellow-red sphalerite
-> opal, 38.7 g/t Au & 54 g/t Ag [1.3]; (top right) two photos of the extension vein with
kaolin 108.15 g/t Au & 59.24 g/t Ag (left) [0.54] and finely with high fineness bonanza Au,
1255 g/t Au & 64 g/t Ag (right) [0.04]. Note the change in Ag:Au ratios with change in
mineralisation styles.

FdN Ecuador

Gold Ridge

Chatree, Thailand

Baguio district, Philippines

Kidston, Australia

Cowal Australia

Mineral Hill, Australia

Penjom, Malaysia

Frute del Norte

The Ducat district in Far Eastern Russia

Levitan (2008) estimated 67 M oz Ag production since discovery in 1973, although that

seems low and it is difficult to assess Soviet era Au production. He goes on to cite resources
heled by Polymetall, the owner of the field, in 2005 as 464 M oz Ag and 0.95 M oz Au.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.25 Ducat, Far Eastern Russia

San Cristobal Bolivia

Figure 7.** San Cristobal Bolivia

7.2.1.2.5 In conclusion, carbonate-base metal Au deposits, which represent important ores in

many magmatic or island arcs, Au-Ag in association with quartz, pyrite, base metal
sulphides, carbonate and local Ag sulphosalts. Gold fineness occurs dominates in the 500-850
range (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Best mineralisation (wider veins and higher precious metal
grades) commonly occurs within ore shoots characterised by the coincidence of
mineralisation style, dilatant structures, competent host rocks and efficient mechanisms of Au
deposition. The change in the mechanism of Au deposition to mostly mixing, from
dominantly cooling in quartz-sulphide Au + Cu ores, provided higher Au grades in
carbonate-base metal Au deposits, which are deposited later in the paragenetic sequence.
Bisulphide complexes, responsible for Au transport within rising pregnant ore fluids, become
destabilised and deposit Au upon contact with oxidising bicarbonate waters, derived from
condensed CO2. Higher Au grades are recognised in the presence of carbonates deposited
from lower pH bicarbonate waters. Carbonate-base metal ore systems commonly display
considerable internal variation in Au grade, Ag:Au ratios and metallurgy, derived from the
presence of different mineralisation styles, deposited as the ore fluid evolves from quartz-
sulphide Au + Cu to carbonate-base metal Au and then epithermal quartz Au + Ag style. The
characteristic irregular Au distribution mainly results from overprinting of carbonate-base
metal Au ores by epithermal quartz Au + Ag mineralisation (Porgera, Mt Kare, Woodlark Is.,
Papua New Guinea). Patterns of Au grade may also be complicated by changes in host rock
competency along with structural and volcanoplutonic setting (Woodlark Is., Papua New
Guinea; Chatree, Thailand; Penjom, Malaysia). For instance, at Penjom carbonate-base metal
Au mineralisation displays highest Au grades within brecciated competent metamorphic
quartz veins with siderite deposited from low pH bicarbonate waters and yellow low
temperature sphalerite. Although Au occurs within metamorphic rocks it is not of a
metamorphic origin. .

Economic Geo. _ JH
7.2.1.3 Epithermal quartz Au + Ag

Epithermal quartz Au + Ag mineralisation represents the final most evolved stage of the
typical arc fluid flow trend (figures 1.12 & 7.6), typically developed at low temperatures and
elevated crustal settings, and so it commonly overprints quartz-sulphide Au + Cu and
carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation. It is gangue poor comprising minor quartz, high
fineness free Au rising to bonanza Au grades, and illite wall rock alteration (as roscoelite the
vanadium illite at Porgera & Mt Kare, Papua New Guinea; Emperor, Fiji). This
mineralisation is distinguished from the end member of the extensional fluid flow trend
(below) by the generally Ag-poor gold mineralisation, whereas the gold in banded
chalcedony-ginguro epithermal vein mineralisation comprises Ag-rich electrum (in ginguro
bands) along with the much higher quartz (chalcedony) content of the banded vein
mineralisation. Rare Ag-rich examples of the epithermal quartz Au mineralisation are
recognised (Ducat district, Far Eastern Russia) and others are Te-rich, commonly within
tellurobismuthite (Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea; Mt Morgan Australia) or tellurides
(Emperor, Fiji; and others). Analysis of many examples has facilitated the refinement of the
terminology from the original ‘epithermal quartz Au-Ag’ term in Leach and Corbett (1995) to
acknowledge the Ag-poor nature of this mineralisation.

Epithermal quartz Au + Ag mineralisation includes:

 Some epithermal quartz Au systems related to alkaline source rocks are silica poor
(Porgera, Mt Kare, Papua New Guinea; Emperor, Tavatu, Fiji) and recognised as free
Au with minor quartz and wall rock alteration of illite including local roscoelite (a
distinctive bright green vanadium illite) and chlorite, variably overprinting earlier
quartz-sulphide Au + Cu and carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation.
 Earlier mineralisation commonly provides host rock competency for free Au with
minor quartz gangue to overprint carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation (Edie Creek
in the Morobe Goldfield, Busai at Woodlark Is., Porgera in Papua New Guinea; Frute
del Norte, Ecuador; Tavatu, Fiji), or quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation (Round
Mountain, Nevada; Selene, Peru; Emperor, Fiji; Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New
Guinea; Mineral Hill, Australia).
 Banded chalcedony veins may contain high fineness free Au (Sleeper, Nevada;
Gosowong, Indonesia), rather than low fineness ginguro material (below) within
districts where other ore systems are consistent with the typical arc quartz-sulphide
Au + Cu - carbonate-base metal Au fluid flow trend. These ores are distinguished
from the chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag style (below) which dominate in extensional
settings such as back arcs.
 While many ores occur within structures dedicated to epithermal quartz Au
mineralisation such as the localisation of Zone VII within the Roamane Fault at
Porgera, Papua New Guinea or listric faults at Gosowong, Indonesia and Sleeper,
Nevada, others overprint earlier competent stockwork veins (Porgera, Waruwari) or
form smaller discrete ore shoots. ). Bonanza ores characterised by only minor quartz-
illite gangue may be difficult to recognise overprinting earlier competent stockwork
veins (figure 7.**Porgera).
 Characteristic bonanza Au ore shoots are commonly localised within competent host
rocks at structural intersections which represent sites for the mixing of rising pregnant
fluids with oxidising waters responsible for the destabilisation of Au-complexes
(Thames, New Zealand; Porgera Zone VII, Papua New Guinea).

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.26 Epithermal quartz Au + Ag mineralisation at Porgera Zone VII which occurs
within the Roamane Fault which dips towards the viewer with the line of drill pads on the
hanging wall on the side of Rambari-Peruk hills. The arrow points to the approximate
position of the cross section. Au occurs as free bonanza Au and overprinting a competent
pyrite vein in less competent shale, in each case with the green V illite roscoelite.

7.2.1.4 Synthesis of the arc trend

Figure 1.14 illustrates two separate fluid flow trends and associated styles of low sulphidation
epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation which dominate either within arcs (magmatic in continental
settings and island arcs emplaced into oceanic crust) or strongly extensional settings such as
back arcs. In both cases much of the Au-Ag is hosted within sulphides, in the former case
with gangue of quartz and mixtures of FeMgMnCa carbonates deposited from bicarbonate
waters, while in extensional settings, circulating meteoric-dominant waters deposit banded
veins (section 1.2.3.3.4, and below). The arc group of deposits display a paragenetic sequence
as: initial quartz-sulphide Au + Cu, grading to carbonate-base metal Au and overprinted by
later epithermal quartz Au mineralisation, with an associated increase in Au grade derived
mainly from changes in the mechanism of Au deposition discussed in more detail below.
Each deposit type displays characteristic mineralogy, metallurgy and wall rock alteration
which contribute towards the exploration significance. Explorationists should be aware that
quartz-sulphide ores are notorious for near surface supergene Au enrichment, and individual
carbonate-base metal deposits may exhibit many ore styles and highly variable mineralogy,
and therefore Au grades and metallurgical characteristics

7.2.2 Mineralisation formed in strongly extensional settings

The fluid flow trend which accounts for the styles of low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag
mineralisation formed in strongly extensional settings is compared to arc deposits in figure
1.8 and illustrated in more in figure 1.11. While the vertical and temporal transition from
quartz-sulphide, to polymetallic Ag-Au and on to banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag vein
mineralisation is best developed in strongly extensional settings such as the Sierra Madre of

Economic Geo. _ JH
Mexico, extending north into the Basin and Range region of Western US, southern Peru or
the Deseado Massif of Argentina, some individual examples are recognised in the SW Pacific
Rim. An essential feature here is that in a dilatant structural environment, ore fluids undergo
extensive evolution as they are bled considerable distances from the magmatic source rocks
at depth to the epithermal setting of mineral deposition. At the same time in the upper crust,
meteoric waters deposit additional gangue dominated by low temperature quartz (chalcedony)
and in the presence of K-rich felsic wall rocks, also deposit low temperature K-feldspar
(adularia). Carbonate may be deposited directly from magmatic sources or more evolved
bicarbonate waters. Different deposit styles are deposited from evolving ore fluids.

Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation represents the initial stage in the paragenetic

sequence of the extensional fluid flow trend apparent as mainly quartz (chalcedony) and
pyrite, although barite or chalcopyrite are locally abundant. The quantity of this stage of
mineralisation within any vein varies from negligible to the majority where ore fluids appear
not to have evolved to polymetallic Ag-Au and chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag styles (Cerro
Contreras and El Tranquillo, Argentine Patagonia). Some Tethyan chalcedony-ginguro style
Au-Ag veins appear to have been deposited from a less evolved or fluid than in the Pacific
rim, and so tend to comprise more pyrite-rich ores.

Figure 7.27 Vertical transition from polymetallic Ag-Au to chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag, with
ore fluid evolution and the entry of additional meteoric waters, also showing some controls to
mineralisation such as: host rock competency, steep dipping portion of a listric fault and fluid
mixing, using examples from Argentine Patagonia. Vertical metal zonation is also illustrated.

7.2.2.1 Polymetallic Ag-Au

Polymetallic Ag-Au veins dominate in Latin America as Ag-rich variants of the carbonate-
base metal Au mineralisation developed in different tectonic settings (Corbett, 2008) and
distinguished in table 1.4. These deposits represent sources of pre-Columbian silver and gold
(although much won from alluvial sources) and subsequently fuelled the Spanish conquest of
Latin America, going on to fund the Spanish empire and Catholic church for several hundred

Economic Geo. _ JH
years. While overlooked by the major mining companies for many years, polymetallic Ag-Au
deposits have proved to be company makers for many junior explorers (Palmarejo, Mexico
for Bolnisi; Cerro Moro, Argentina for Exeter; Cerro Negro, Argentina for Andean) and some
larger groups (Fresnillo, Mexico for Penoles). Most polymetallic Ag-Au deposits occur as
banded fissure veins developed in extensional structural settings, typically within the steeper
dipping portions of listric faults. While felsic domes are locally present, vein mineralisation is
interpreted to have developed some distance from the magmatic source. Mineralogy is
dominated by quartz, pyrite, galena, sphalerite with carbonate as for carbonate-base metal Au
deposits with, lower fineness electrum, the addition of local barite and greater quantities of
Ag-rich minerals such as tennantite-tetrahedrite group minerals (including the Ag-rich end
member, freibergite), along with argentite and its low temperature end member acanthite. The
value from Ag production is generally significantly greater than for Au, which may be
negligible in some examples while others vary to Au-rich. Precious metal grades rise in the
presence of improved mechanisms of deposition discussed below.

Vertical zonation is apparent as:

 At deepest crustal levels polymetallic Ag-Au veins are likely to contain abundant
chalcopyrite, along with low Ag:Au ratios associated with higher Au contents
(Tahuehueto, Mexico). Sphalerite colour is expected to vary with increasing Fe
contents from red, to brown, and black in deepest crustal levels and higher
temperature conditions of formation (Namiquipa, Mexico).
 Some polymetallic Ag-Au veins dominated by the early quartz-sulphide stage contain
abundant coarse crystalline barite. The domes at Cerro Contreras in Argentine
Patagonia contain Au within pyrite, marcasite and arsenean pyrite.
 Most polymetallic Ag-Au deposits occur as banded fissure veins characterised by
chalcedonic quartz and carbonate with yellow to red sphalerite, galena, and Ag
sulphosalts ranging from tennantite-tetrahedrite (including the Ag rich member
freibergite) to argentite. Ag-Au contents are partly dependent upon the sulphide
content and also the quantity and nature of the carbonate which, through fluid mixing
(below) promoted the deposition of Au mineralisation. Some examples of this deposit
type familiar to this author include Arcata, Caylloma, Corani and San Juan de
Lucanas in Peru; Palmarejo, Pinos Altos, Ocampo, Fresnillo and Namiquipa in
Mexico; Cerro Negro, Cerro Moro and Huevos Verde in Argentine Patagonia; and El
Peñon and Cerro Bayo, Chile.
 At highest crustal levels and low temperatures polymetallic Ag-Au mineralisation
displays a characteristic mineral assemblage comprising crystalline pyrite, white (low
temperature Fe-poor) sphalerite and argentite-acanthite and display elevated Au-Ag
mineralisation, especially in the presence of additional kaolin (below). This mineral
assemblage (locally termed the polymetallic Ag-Au epithermal end-member) marks
the fluid evolution to banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins as the sulphides
typical of polymetallic Ag-Au veins evolve into ginguro material and substantial
meteoric waters deposit chalcedony-adularia gangue (figure 7.27; section 1.3.2.2).
This mineralogy is recognised at Palmarejo, Mexico; Huevos Verde, Argentine
Patagonia, Chatree, Thailand and Kupol, Far Eastern Russia.

As recognised in carbonate-base metal Au deposits, many polymetallic Ag-Au deposits

display considerable internal variation in metallurgical characteristics. For instance Corani
Peru contains low temperature ores with marcasite rather than pyrite and locally quenched
textures with lower Ag recoveries than the late stage high Ag grade freibergite ore with

Economic Geo. _ JH
excellent metallurgy (Corbett, unpubl. reports in Swarthout et al., 2010). Silver scavenged by
MnO can display problematic metallurgy.

Overprinting of lower temperature chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation upon higher

temperature deeper crustal level alteration and mineralisation is promoted by syn-mineral
uplift and erosion, possibly during continued intrusive and extrusive volcanic activity. At
several examples early high temperature deep red sphalerite is overprinted by lower
temperature yellow and white sphalerite, as an indication that mineralisation has taken place
during uplift and erosion. In some cases later mineralisation can be related continued
volcanism (Namiquipa, Mexico). In these settings, improved mechanisms of precious metal
deposition (below), may account for better Au-Ag grades in the later low temperature
mineralisation events.

7.2.2.2 Chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag

Chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag banded epithermal mineralisation (Corbett, 2008, 2009, 2013)

represents the most widely recognised form of low sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation
discussed in the geological literature, where they may be termed adularia-sericite or quartz-
adularia deposits (section 1.3.2.3.4). This mineralisation commonly caps polymetallic Ag-Au
veins as the ore fluid evolves and increased meteoric waters deposit additional chalcedony.
The chalcedony-ginguro terminology best describes the dominant gangue and ore
mineralogy. The silica species is dominantly chalcedony deposited from rapidly cooling
hydrothermal fluids and so possibly at a higher temperature than the upper limit (180oC) for
chalcedony formed by the recrystallization of amorphous silica (section 2.1.7). Adularia
occurs as bands within veins and cited as evidence of boiling (Hedenquist et al., 2000 and
references therein) as and as wall rock alteration, and is not an essential component of this
mineralisation style. As wall rock alteration is dominated by illite the association with higher
temperature sericite is avoided. Chalcedony-ginguro mineralisation comprises generally
microfine chalcedony as the main silica species, saccharoidal and crystalline quartz are also
commonly present as a reflection of slower cooling, with characteristic black sulphidic
ginguro and local adularia, as well as quartz replacing platy carbonate or post-vein calcite.
The word ginguro is derived from the 19th century Japanese miners who recognised the
association of elevated precious metal grades with this material present as bands, breccia
clasts and matrix. Ginguro comprises fine pyrite, Ag sulphosalts (argentite-acanthite),
electrum, free Au, minor chalcopyrite and local components such as selanides (Midas, USA).
The Ag sulphosalts provide the black colour and so most ores display Ag:Au ratios in the 10-
1000 range.

Chalcedony-ginguro Ag-Au deposits develop in strongly extensional settings within

magmatic arcs and back arc environments from a magmatic-meteoric ore fluid. The passage
of meteoric waters through felsic volcanic piles may be conducive to the deposition of silica
and low temperature K-feldspar (adularia) and quartz after platy calcite gangue, whereas the
mineralised ginguro bands are deposited from magmatic component (section 1.3.2.2).
Deposits in arcs contain crystalline pyrite within the ginguro bands and display lower Ag:Au
ratios (Red Rabbit, Turkey; Tolukuma, Papua New Guinea).

Chalcedony-ginguro Au deposits are vertically zoned as:

 Near surficial settings contain outcropping acid sulphate caps (section 2.2.9) locally
with ledges of pervasive silicification, eruption breccia pipes (section 4.4.6), silica
sinter deposits (section 8.**) developed as outflows from hydrothermal vents passing

Economic Geo. _ JH
 down to argillic (locally termed steam heated alteration) characterised by illite-
smectite, chlorite, pyrite and carbonate. Surficial Au with anomalous Sb and As may
result from the mixing of rising pregnant waters with oxidising acid sulphate waters
(Champagne Pool, Waitapu, New Zealand, Section 8.**).
 Sheeted and stockwork quartz veins contain low grade Au-Ag mineralisation at
shallow levels, within eruption breccia pipes (McLaughlin, California; Twin Hills,
Australia) and overlying fissure veins (Golden Cross, Karangahake New Zealand), in
the latter case partly in response to a decline in host rock competency.
 Fissure veins, locally as packages, developed in dilatant structural settings dominated
by listric faults host most chalcedony-ginguro mineralisation. The non-outcropping
veins at Hishikari, Japan are aligned along the intersection of a regional structure and
a dome in basement metamorphic rocks, overlain by clay altered and impermeable
volcanic breccias (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein). The Vera Nancy
vein system in Australia and Kupol, Far Eastern Russia each occupy the steeper
dipping portions of listric faults. Golden Cross and Waihi in New Zealand occur as
tension gash veins constrained between faults with strike-slip components of
movement, the latter within a portion of a listric fault. The Tolukuma veins, Papua
New Guinea, cluster around the bounding structure of a major graben, mostly within
the more competent underlying basement metamorphic rocks. Other fissure vein
deposits include Ovacik, Turkey and Midas, Nevada.
 The economic base of many western Pacific chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag deposits
commonly is represented by a transition to deeper base metal rich banded quartz veins
as the magmatic component has not evolved sufficiently to form the ginguro bands
(Kupol, Russia; Waihi, New Zealand). This transition may also be controlled by
structure such that the less dilatant base metal rich Correnso veins at Waihi are were
deposited from a magmatic rather than meteoric-dominant fluid, which is normally
responsible for the gangue minerals. Elsewhere chalcedony-ginguro veins cap
polymetallic Ag-Au ores, typically in Latin America, and so precious metal grades
decline with depth, but both vein types are commonly economic.

Wall rock hydrothermal alteration may be characterised by initial prograde adularia

overprinted by zoned illite alteration which grades out from veins with declining crystallinity
to smectite (section 2. 2.3.4; figure 7.1), as a replacement of early feldspar and adularia
alteration. The near neutral fluids responsible for argillic alteration commonly destroy
magnetite, with associated changes to the magnetic signature of the rocks, and also deposit
pyrite, while chlorite replaces primary mafic minerals. Near surficial acid sulphate caps are
derived from the reaction with wall rocks of low pH waters generated by oxidation in the
vadose zone of H2S volatiles exsolved from boiling and cooling ore fluids may collapse
(sections 2.2.9 & 2.2.3.2). These low pH waters may participate in Au deposition (below).

7.1.2.2.1 At Hishikari, Japan, ....

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.28 Geology of the Hishikari vein system localised at the intersection of a
throughgoing structure with a dome in the basement sequence and overlying volcanic rocks.
The veins are obscured by alluvium (rice paddys) at the base of the valley produced by
erosion of the overlying soft clay altered volcanic rocks.

Figure 7.29 Hishikari, Japan conceptual cross section showing the veins mostly localised
within the component phyllite (Shimanto Group Shale) and mineralisation (anticlockwise
from the top left) as. termination within the clay-chlorite altered volcanic breccia, 50,000 g/t
Au (top left); Yamana vein with well developed ginguro bands, 948 g/t Au & 3720 g/t Ag;
finely banded specimen, 300 g/t Au; vein underground showing floating clast breccias.

Economic Geo. _ JH
7.2.3 Two fluid flow trends

Low sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation is dominated by two hydrothermal fluid flow

trends shown in figure 1.8, where individual deposit types are initially defined. This
conceptual model has been developed form the study of many individual ore systems.
Although not exclusive, part A mainly illustrates deposits in SW Pacific rim island arcs and
the Tethyan arcs underlain by oceanic crust, while part B mainly illustrates deposits in
strongly extensional settings such as Latin America underlain by continental crust. Some
terrains such as Nevada contain both epithermal styles such as Sleeper and Midas, while the
Frute del Norte carbonate-base metal Au system (more typical of the SW Pacific) occurs
within an arc in Ecuador, and numerous chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag deposits also occur in the
SW Pacific rim (Japan; Coromandel Peninsula, New Zealand) as well as caps to polymetallic
Ag-Au veins. Deposits in fluid flow trend A tend to occur more proximal to the magmatic
source in terrains underlain by oceanic crust and so are Au-rich and lack extensive quartz-
adularia gangue. The deposits in fluid flow trend B tend to occur in strongly dilatant
structural settings where the magmatic fluid component has been bled greater distances from
the magmatic source to evolve into the ginguro component, and meteoric waters circulating
through felsic to intermediate volcanic piles might deposit banded-adularia quartz gangue.
The change in Ag:Au ratios between the Ag-poor epithermal quartz-Au deposits (path A) and
Ag-rich chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag deposits (path B) might be explained by difference
between underlying oceanic or continental crust as well as the pronounced fluid evolution in
the latter case. This is reflected as the Ag:Au ratios decline in chalcedony-ginguro veins from
Argentine Patagonia to Japan and then Turkey, where the ginguro bands are quite pyritic,
interpreted to reflect the more magmatic setting and fluids source.

Cross overs and mixed deposit groups are apparent. The Nevada terrain contains both
epithermal quartz Au and chalcedony-ginguro mineralisation as well as attractive
polymetallic Ag-Au at Comstock, and numerous supergene Au enriched quartz-sulphide Au
systems which were worked historically, but have proven to be poor exploration projects
when subject to deeper drilling. Frute del Norte in Ecuador displays a trend from low
temperature quartz-sulphide Au (dominated by Au in marcasite), to carbonate-base metal Au
overprinted by bonanza grade free Au as epithermal quartz Au mineralisation, all overprinted
by chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins characterised by pyritic ginguro bands typical of a
magmatic arc environment. Sediment hosted Au deposits represent another variant (below).

7.2.4 Sediment hosted replacement Au

Sediment hosted replacement Au or Carlin style Au deposits develop by the interaction of a

low sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au style fluid with reactive marl (impure limestone or
calcareous shale) host rocks, typically within strongly extensional settings (Corbett and
Leach, 1998). The presence of anomalous Sb, Hg, Ba in addition to the strongly As-rich
pyrite are consistent with the interpreted (Corbett and Leach, 1998) elevated crustal level of
formation, supported by later detailed work (Leach, 2004). In keeping with the quartz-
sulphide style ores, Au displays a high fineness. Although best developed in the Carlin and
Battle Mountain trends of western USA, which reflect deep crustal source structures, these
deposits are also recognised in the SW Pacific rim (Mesel, Indonesia; Bau, Malaysia; Sepon,
Laos) and Latin America, in the presence of the controls to the formation of these deposits.
These controls therefore constitute: magmatic source at depth, dilatant structures to facilitate
fluid flow to epithermal levels, reactive impure carbonate host rocks with some primary
permeability (figure 7.30).

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.30 Conceptual model for the development of sediment hosted replacement Au
mineralisation showing the controls as: magmatic source at depth, dilatant feeder structures
present as sources of high Au grade ores mechanisms of fluid flow to the higher crustal level
reactive permeable

Many systems display a progression from deeper crustal level steep dipping feeder structures
with elevated precious metal grades to higher crustal level more extensive lithologically
controlled lower Au grade ores (figures 7.26 & 7.27, Mesel, Indonesia; Corbett and Leach,
1998). Lithologically controlled ores develop as dominantly magmatic hydrothermal fluids
utilise primary permeability within the impure limestone host rocks to promote
dolomitisation of the calcite which provides additional open space secondary permeability
(Leach, 2004). Stylolite textures and collapse breccias testify to calcite removal and creation
of open space (figure7.31). Variable silicification is associated with the deposition of
generally refractory Au within microfine arsenean pyrite and more brecciated and silicified
ores, typically within feeder structures may display higher Au grades. Silicification is also
manifest as essentially barren jasperoid replacement of reactive host rock, common in the
upper levels of ore systems. While favoured as oxide targets, primary (unoxidised) sediment
hosted replacement Au deposits must be of sufficient size to justify the high cost treatment of
the generally refractory sulphide ore and local environmental liability associated with As and
Hg contents.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.31 Sediment hosted replacement Au, anticlockwise from the top left: jasper,
Alligator Ridge, Nevada, USA; lithologically controlled ore, Goldstrike pit – about 2-4 g/t
Au, Nevada, USA; silicified breccia, Mesel, Indonesia; stylolite-rich impure limestone,
Mesel, Indonesia; lithologically controlled ore, Mesel, Indonesia.

Figure 7.32 Mesel Indonesia showing the transition from higher Au grade feeder structures to
higher crustal level more extensive lower Au grade lithologically controlled ores. Top photo
jasper outcrop; see figure 7.25 for lithologically controlled ore; middle photo brecciated
lithologically controlled breccia ore 12.7 g/t Au; bottom photo silicified breccia 29.45 g/t Au.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Sediment hosted replacement Au deposits of Western US have been described as classic ‘no
see ’em’ Au mineralisation, which generally does not shed pannable Au, although other
nearby styles of intrusion-related mineralisation may oxidise to yield alluvial Au (Mesel
district, Indonesia). Jasper, although commonly barren, is commonly preserved as float or in
outcrop (figures 7.31 & 7.32) and so may vector to mineralisation (Mesel, Indonesia;
Pipeline, USA) and soil sampling for Ba, Sb and As has also proven to be useful.

7.2.5 Exploration implications of low sulphidation styles

Significant exploration implications can be derived from understanding of the different styles
of low sulphidation epithermal Au. Confusion associated with the misuse of the intermediate
sulphidation terminology in the geological literature can be avoided. The various ore systems
display consistent paragenetic sequences and mineralogical zonation patterns which account
for many of the characteristics such as distribution of Au-Ag grades, gangue styles and
metallurgical characteristics. Some implications delineated by the study of many examples
which might be of use to explorationists include:
 Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu deposits commonly host anomalous supergene enriched
bonanza Au at the surface and base of oxidation, not present in hypogene ores at
depth.
 Carbonate-base metal Au ores host higher Au grades in the upper portions especially
where overprinted by bonanza Au grade epithermal Au + Ag mineralisation, which
commonly displays irregular distribution.
 Epithermal Au + Ag ores must be sampled with great care in order to correctly
accommodate the bonanza Au grades.
 Sampling of banded veins must allow for the presence of barren quartz-adularia
deposited from meteoric waters, whereas most Au might occur in the ginguro bands
deposited from the magmatic fluid component.
 Banded veins with auriferous pyrite (quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation) may
yield supergene enriched high Au at the surface but become less attractive at depth
(Kestanelik, Turkey; figure 7.16).

Important surficial features used as vectors to buried mineralisation are discussed more fully
in section 9. **.

7.3 Lithological control

7.3.1 Competent host rocks

Competent host rocks which undergo brittle fracture along continuous planes are required to
promote the development of throughgoing fissure veins or less continuous tension veins.
Ideally, fractures must be capable of repeated dilation (opening) in order to facilitate the
development of banded veins which characterise many low sulphidation vein deposits. Some
felsic domes (Ohui, New Zealand), felsic volcanics (Karangahake, New Zealand) or
sedimentary host rocks (Porgera, Papua New Guinea), are only capable of hosting stockwork
and not continuous fissure veins, while many other rock types do not host mineralised veins.

Andesite, typically as lavas or domes, provides the most common brittle host rock for low
sulphidation epithermal Au vein deposits throughout several terrains. In the Coromandel
Peninsular of New Zealand the best vein deposits with considerable vertical extent are
localised within the Miocene Coromandel Group andesite (Waihi [500m], Golden Cross

Economic Geo. _ JH
[open], Karangahake [700m]) and not the overlying Whitianga felsic tuffs and domes (Ohui).
The fissure veins at Karangahake change to sub-economic stockwork in the overlying
Pliocene Whitianga Group rhyolites (Brathwaite, 1989). At the 1 M oz Thames goldfield,
New Zealand, steep plunging bonanzas are localised the intersections of feeder quartz-
sulphide veins with cross-fractures (termed ‘flinties’ by the early miners from the chalcedony
fill), only in the flat to moderately dipping Premier Flow (Fraser, 19190; Merchant, 1986).
This rock unit is interpreted (Corbett, unpubl. data 1988) to provide a competency control to
restrict mineralisation. Similarly, in the Deseado Massif of Argentine Patagonia, vein
mineralisation is best developed in the competent Bajo Pobre andestite and generally not in
the overlying Chon Aike Formation ignimbites (Cerro Moro, Cerro Negro, Juevos Verde). At
the giant Comstock district, Nevada, (8.5 M oz Au & 200 M oz Ag, and included bonanza
Au-Ag grades such as 1.1 M ton at 87g/t Au & 1834 g/t Ag) ideal competent host rocks are
provided by the Miocene Alta Formation andesite which is commonly intruded by the also
competent Davidson diorite (Hudson, 2003).

Metamorphic rocks host epithermal veins in some districts, but are poorly mineralised in
others. For instance while the strongly foliated Mesozoic Auld Ang Syne metamorphic rocks
are poor vein hosts in the Great Basin of Nevada, the Shimanto Group phyllite is an ideal
vein host at Hishikari, Japan, and similar metamorphic rocks host the 2.5 M oz Au Konami
vein mine in Hokkaido Japan.

In felsic volcanic sequences more welded members of some volcanic piles tend to be brittle
and so host fissure veins. At the Cerro Vanguardia mine, Argentine Patagonia, a distinctive
welded quartz eye rich member of the felsic Chon Aike Formation locally termed the
‘granoso’ (from the quartz eye texture), preferentially fractures to host low sulphidation
epithermal veins. More competent andesite, dacite and locally rhyolite domes within less
competent volcanic sequences host veins host better veins than the surrounding rocks. A good
example occurs at Asacha, Kamchatka eastern Russia (Corbett, unpubl reports; Nally, 2003)
although others are recognised at Chitose, Japan; Ares, Peru and El Peñón, Chile (below). At
the Porgera, Papua New Guinea, Waruwari ore zone Au mineralisation comprises stockwork
veins within several 3 dimensional annulus-like zones around the margin of competent domes
extending into the host sediments only where thermally metamorphosed (Fleming et al.,
1986).

Silicified non-reactive permeable rocks such as sandstone represent ideal brittle host rocks
(Chatree, Thailand; Palmarejo, Mexico), whereas reactive rocks such as tuffs typically
undergo clay alteration to become extremely incompetent and so restrict vein formation.
Similarly at San Jose, Patagonia silicification has rendered particular portions of an andesite
rock package more competent, and so with an improved ability to host veins.

7.3.2 Interlayered volcanic sequences

The understanding of interlayered volcanic sequences is an important exploration tool as

there are many examples where overlying incompetent rocks obscure mineralisation within
underlying competent host rocks. Consequently, this author has ensured that in many cases
detailed analyses of the volcanic stratigraphy has been important element of the geological
model used to guide exploration (Grace Cumming, unpubl. reports). These studies have been
primarily directed towards the identification of buried competent host rocks, including targets
obscured by altered incompetent altered tuffs. Apparent that the stratigraphy identified in
these analyses might be provided by faults, many of which were actually growth faults active

Economic Geo. _ JH
pre-, syn- and post-mineral and typically host better veins (Palmarejo, Mexico; Waihi, New
Zealand; Kupol, Russia).

In interlayered andesite and tuff sequences mineralised structures are likely to host quality
veins only within the competent andesites and not in the interlayered tuffs, which may be
rendered even more incompetent by clay alteration (Arcata, Peru: Mastra, Turkey; Kupol
Eastern Russia). Sub-horizontal ore shoots develop as ore is localised wholly within the
andesite layers. In these settings exploration must be mindful that drill holes penetrate the
targeted structure where it lies within the competent andesites. Some refraction is common as
fractures pass between layers of different competency. Elsewhere, there are many examples
where outcropping incompetent permeable volcanic tuffs or breccias, which may have
undergone clay alteration to become more incompetent aquitards to obscure mineralisation at
depth within competent host rocks. The soft clay altered rocks tend not to crop out and so
blind veins are further obscured by overburden.

7.3.2.1 The Mariana vein in the Arcata district, Peru, was discovered where only very weak
geochemistry occurred within outcrop of silicified incompetent tuff but which is mineralised
within competent andesite at depth (figure 7.33). In this district exploration has …..

Figure 7.33 Rocks from the Mariana vein, Arcata district Peru (left) and conceptual graphic
(right) illustrating the host rock competency control to veins. Specimens include a weakly
anomalous silica-clay altered incompetent tuff (top) as a fresh rock (centre) and mineralised
vein in competent andesite in mine workings (bottom).

7.3.2.2 At El Peñón, Chile, the outcropping weathered tuffs host very weak Au anomalies (a
few ppb) in the vicinity of structures, which at depth host high grade Au mineralisation
within a competent rhyolite sill (figure 2.34; Yamana website; Warren et al., 2004; Corbett,
unpubl. reports). Furthermore, the dipping structures may refract to steeper angles as they
pass from the incompetent tuffs to the competent sill, further enhancing the tendency to form
flat plunging ore shoots (figure 3.7).

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.34 El Peñón, Chile, showing control of Au mineralisation, including > 50 gram
metres (equivalent to 5 metres >10 g/t Au) by the intersection of host structures and the
competent rhyolite sill, overlain by essentially barren tuffs. The lower exploration era figure
is from Warren et al., 2004 and the upper 2014 figure (form Yamana website) shows mining
to greater depths. Low sulphidation polymetallic Ag-Au epithermal mineralisation comprises
banded quartz with brown sphalerite-galena and MnO after Mn carbonate. Top graphic from
Yamana website and lower form Warren et al. (2004).

7.3.2.3 At Hishikari, Japan, incompetent clay altered volcanic breccias obscure bonanza veins
in the underlying competent Shimanto Group phyllites and reaction of the acid waters
responsible for the clay alteration with rising ore fluids accounts for the spectacular 50,000
g/t Au at the contact (figures 7.24, 7.35 & 7.38; section 7.4.4.4.2 below, Corbett and Leach,
1998 and references therein).

7.3.2.4 At the Chatree gold mine, Thailand, sheeted and stockwork carbonate-base metal Au
vein mineralisation is best developed within a competent, silicified, not reactive, sandstone
which is overlain an incompetent clay-chlorite altered, reactive, lapilli tuff with coarse
grained fiamme (figure 7.35). Silicification is taken as an early stage in the mineralisation
process, best developed in the vicinity of regional feeder structures, possibly capped by an
aquitard represented by the clay altered tuff. The soft tuff does not crop out well and so
contributes towards the blind nature of mineralisation. Detailed analysis of the volcanic
succession (Cumming et al., 2008) have aided the use of electrical geophysics (Roland Hill,
unpubl. reports) to identify the buried resistors which could represent silicification as
exploration targets.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.35 The C-H pits at Chatree gold mine in August 2005 showing the overlying clay-
chlorite altered tuff and mineralised silicified sandstone in drill core, along with an
exploration era photo showing the poor outcrop.

Parts of Palmarejo, Mexico (Masterman et al., 2005; Corbett, unpubl. reports) and the Drake
goldfield, Australia display similar relationships of ore systems in competent hosts obscured
by incompetent aquitards (Cumming et al., 2013).

7.3.3 Permeable host rocks

Permeable host rocks may also provide a lithological control to low sulphidation epithermal
hydrothermal fluid flow, a feature more common in high sulphidation deposits. At Round
Mountain, Nevada, a particular member of the interlayered volcanic sequence preferentially
hosts disseminated auriferous pyrite (figure 7.13). Similarly, at the giant Ladolam, Lihir Is.,
Papua New Guinea the matrix of permeable volcanic breccias (figures 4.43 & 7.12) adjacent
to fault controlled feeder structures have become flooded by mineralised arsenean pyrite
(Corbett, unubl. reports; Corbett et al., 2001). The exploitation of permeable volcanic
breccias by hydrothermal fluids may disturb the original rock texture and result in the
formation of a lithologically controlled altered matrix-rich hydrothermal breccia as a
replacement of the original of volcanic rock unit.

Sediment hosted replacement (Carlin-style) Au deposits feature a strong permeability control

as reactive impure limestone (marl) is exploited by hydrothermal fluids which create open
space and increase permeability by conversion of calcite to dolomite, followed by
silicification and mineralisation (Leach, 2004; section 7.1.4).

7.3.4 Conclusions and exploration implications

Exploration implications of understanding the lithological control to epithermal vein

mineralisation include:

Economic Geo. _ JH
  Competent host rocks (i.e. andesite flows) are required to fracture and host
throughgoing low sulphidation epithermal fissure veins. Some rocks (i.e. felsic
domes) fracture to host only stockwork veins.
 The proper understanding of volcanic stratigraphic successions (Grace Cumming,
short course presentations) can aid in the identification of exploration targets where
poor quality host rocks that display alteration and weak geochemistry might overlie
competent lithologies with potential to fracture and host veins. In some settings
(Hishikari, Japan) fluid mixing contributes towards high Au grade vein formation.
Similarly, an understanding of the stratigraphy might provide targets where subtle
variations in welding of ignimbrites or silicification of other rocks might restrict veins
to particular underlying units (Juevos Verde & Cerro Vanguardia, Argentine
Patagonia).
 Stratigraphic analyses might also identify growth faults as likely dilatant settings for
fissure vein formation.
 Drill holes must target the intersection of feeder faults with the competent members of
interlayered rock sequences.
 Hydrothermal alteration may render some non-reactive rocks (sandstone) silicified
and more reactive and reactive rocks (volcanic breccias) clay altered and less
competent, to subsequently act as aquitards to the flow of hydrothermal fluids.
 Low sulphidation epithermal mineralisation is only locally controlled by host rock
permeability, unlike associated alteration or high sulphidation epithermal deposits.

7.4 Structure

7.4.1 Dilatant structures

As discussed in detail in section 3, dilatant structures act as preferred mediums for

hydrothermal fluid flow and so provide the greatest control to the shape of ore shoots (wider
and higher grade vein portions), while structural intersections act as sites of fluid mixing as
an efficient Au deposition. Several structural environments envisaged for epithermal vein
formation (figure 3.7; Corbett, 2012; 2013) include:
 Listric or normal faults developed in strongly extensional settings host vein
mineralisation only in the steeper dipping portions to provide flat pitching ore shoots,
typically at the intersection with competent host rocks (figure 3.7; Comstock, Nevada;
Arcata and Corani, Peru; Pinos Altos and Palmarejo, Mexico; Sleeper, Nevada;
Gosowong, Indonesia). In interlayered volcanic sequences dipping faults may locally
refract to steeper angles within competent host rocks to contribute to ore shoot
formation (El Peñón, Chile).
 Oblique convergence contributes towards the development of steep pitching dilatant
structural sites within flexures or link structures (figure 3.12) within negative flower
structure (figure 3.14) arrays (Waihi, New Zealand), locally apparent as pull-apart
basins (Kelian and Wey Linggo, Indonesia) and which commonly overprint steep
dipping portions of listric faults (figure 3.30) in the development of steep ore shoots
(Vera Nancy, Australia; Palmarejo, Mexico).
 In compressional settings flatter dipping portions of thrust faults may host shallow
plunging ore shoots which may be blind at the surface (figure 3.7; Kencana at
Gosowong, Indonesia; Hamata at Morobe Goldfield, Papua New Guinea; Jaing Cha
Ling, China). Elsewhere in compressional settings steeply dipping veins form close to
parallel to the direction of compression within conjugate fractures. For instance in
Argentine Patagonia most vein systems exploit NW and NE conjugate fractures with

Economic Geo. _ JH
 an emphasis upon the NW structures, with best ore shoots hosted by WNW-EW
trending flexures (section 3.3.3.1).
 Sub-horizontal extension associated with collapse such as the failure of volcanic
edifices (Lihir, Papua New Guinea) or calderas (Emperor, Fiji; Drake, Australia)
provides environments for the development of flat dipping mineralised structures,
commonly by the exploitation of bedding planes (section 3.2.5).
 Structural intersections such as hanging wall splays provide environments for mineral
deposition by the mixing of rising pregnant ore fluids with collapsing oxidising fluids
(below) to deposit high grade to bonanza Au mineralisation as pencil-like ore shoots
at a variety of orientations governed by the intersecting structures (Porgera Zone VII,
Papua New Guinea; Thames, New Zealand; Cap Oeste, Argentine Patagonia).
 Transient changes in the structural environment, such as the nature of convergence,
including sector collapse, thrust erosion and rapid uplift and erosion, provide triggers
for the rapid rise of intrusion sources for ore fluids and the activation of dilatant
fracture systems as settings for ore formation (section 3.5).

7.4.2 Conclusions and exploration implications

The exploration implications of the structural control to low sulphidation epithermal fissure
vein mineralisation are apparent as:
 The shape of shape of ore shoots, commonly formed within steep dipping portions of
listric faults, vary from flat pitching at the intersections of feeder structures with
competent host rocks in interlayered, or steep pitching within flexures or fault jogs.
Combinations of dip-slip and strike-slip deformation and sites of fluid mixing at
structural intersection provide moderate pitching, locally pencil-shaped, ore shoots.
 Flat pitching ore shoots less commonly occur within the flatter dilatant portions of
compressional thrust or reverse faults, or extensional collapse structures, the latter
with the regular activated bedding plane discontinuities.
 Transient changes in the structural regime provide triggers for the initiation of
mineralisation as a dynamic process.

7.5 Mechanisms of Au-Ag deposition

Efficient mechanisms of Au-Ag deposition have the greatest influence upon precious metal
grade, including bonanza zones (defined as above 30g/t Au), in low sulphidation epithermal
vein systems (Corbett and Leach, 1998; Leach and Corbett, 2008). In low sulphidation
epithermal Au deposits Au and Ag are transported as bisulphide complexes (Seaward, 1982;
Seaward and Barnes, 1997), although the importance of chloride complexes (AuCl-) may
become more important at mesothermal and porphyry temperatures and depths, and
destabilisation of these complexes promotes Au deposition (figure 7.37; Corbett and Leach,
1998; Leach and Corbett, 2008). The recognition of cooling, mixing and boiling as potential
mechanisms for Au deposition in the early geological literature (Henley and Ellis, 1973), can
now be considered following many years of field studies. Mechanisms to account for Au
deposition in low sulphidation epithermal Au might now be considered to include:

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.37 Flow paths of a Broadlands geothermal fluid in which Au deposition results from
either boiling or mixing with evolved waters. For the boiling shown as path A, Au solubility
initially increases before a sudden decrease and mineral deposition. Path B for mixing with
oxygenated with an ore fluid shows a less pronounced initial increase is Au solubility before
mineral deposition and Au deposition occurs most easily in path C for mixing of an ore fluid
with low pH acid sulphate waters. Dave Cooke kindly calculated and provided fluid flow
path D for mixed bicarbonate-acid sulphate waters in the Baguio district, Philippines. The
rest of this figure is form Corbett and Leach (1998) and references therein, and was presented
at the Terry Leach Symposium (Leach and Corbett, 2008).

7.5.1 Boiling

Boiling has been demonstrated (Brown, 1986) in geothermal system to deposit Au during
flashing (the sudden pressure release of hydrothermal fluids brought from considerable depth
to the surface) and subsequently promoted in research literature (Hedenquist, 1991; Seaward,
1991; Hedenquist et al., 2000) as the mechanism of Au deposition, often at the expense of
cooling and mixing described above (Henley and Ellis, 1973). Some explorationists assume
boiling to represent the sole mechanism of Au deposition although individual low
sulphidation epithermal exploration projects may lack minerals such as quartz
pseudomorphing platy calcite and adularia cited (Hedenquist et al., 2000 and references
therein) evidence for boiling. Elsewhere, undue emphasis has been devoted in exploration
programs to the search for these boiling indicator minerals as a prerequisite for low
sulphidation epithermal ore formation, even though detailed sampling has demonstrated those
vein portions might not contain the main ore minerals (section 1.3.2.2). The presence of
adularia, formed as a low temperature K-feldspar alteration mineral, within felsic volcanic
wall rocks to veins, is often incorrectly provided as an indication of Au deposition boiling in
the vein. Similarly, veins deposited from hydrothermal fluids circulating through felsic
volcanic piles would be expected to contain substantial adularia.

Detailed sampling of individual vein portions in exploration projects has demonstrated in the
portions of banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag and polymetallic Ag-Au veins occupied by

Economic Geo. _ JH
the boiling indicator minerals (quartz pseudomorphing platy calcite and adularia) tend to be
not well mineralised. Similarly, the banded clean chalcedony vein portions, deposited from
meteoric waters, also tend to not host significant mineralisation as precious metals dominate
in the sulphide (including ginguro) vein portions deposited from the magmatic-dominated
hydrothermal fluid component (section 1.3.2.2) in banded polyphasal veins. The mineralised
sulphide and ginguro bands lack any evidence of fluid boiling and more commonly contain
low temperature clays. Furthermore, one would expect boiling to be a violent activity, yet
most chalcedony-ginguro veins display very fine crustiform and colloform banding. Violent
boiling deposits Au mineralisation in adularia-bearing ginguro or sulphide fill breccias. Terry
Leach noted (figure 7.33) Au solubility increases during boiling before a dramatic decline in
the transition from the pyrite to haematite solubility field. Yet haematite is not described in
the geological literature as a boiling indicator mineral, although present with bonanza Au
(below). Boiling therefore clearly deposits gangue minerals and some Au, locally rising to
high grades, but other mechanisms are preferred herein for the majority of Au deposition and
elevated Au grades in particular. Boiling contributes towards the cooling of the ore fluid.

Figure 7.38 boiling minerals and textures (anticlockwise from the top left) as: Golden Cross,
New Zealand showing the red stained adularia well removed from the mineralised ginguro
bands, Cracow, Australia showing pink adularia bands separate from the ginguro band;
barren crystalline adularia, Neavesville, New Zealand; three images of quartz
pseudomorphing platy carbonate, two from the Deseado Massif, Argentina and the last from
Ruheshibe, Japan.

A model is proposed herein that while boiling and cooling provide mechanisms for
epithermal vein development and are responsible for Au deposition, much of the high grade
including bonanza Au in the same veins has been deposited by mixing of ore fluids with
oxidising waters such as low pH acid sulphate waters (Hishikari, Favona, Frute del Norte,
below and Mastra above).

7.5.2 Cooling

Cooling is apparent from field observations as a mechanism of Au deposition from low

temperature fluids, although Seaward and Barnes (1991) lament the paucity of associated
experimental data. In many ore systems Au is transported (as a bisulphide complex) by
fluidised breccias is deposited within crackle breccias by interaction with wall rocks, to
provide rock alteration selvages to mineralised fractures (figures 4.2, 4.8 for Mt Morgan &

Economic Geo. _ JH
7.12 for Ladolam, Lihir Is.). Outward zonation of the wall rock alteration supports the
declining fluid temperature during fluid-wall rock interaction. Many other ore systems
characterised by coarse grained auriferous sulphides, such as the quartz-sulphide Au + Cu
deposits (above), show no evidence of boiling or mixing, but might be regarded as a slow
cooling ore fluid, particularly at depth. Au deposited late on fractures and grain boundaries in
coarse grained ores displays good metallurgical characteristics whereas fine grained ores
(Kerimenge, Lihir in Papua New Guinea) may contain refractory encapsulated Au (Corbett
and Leach, 1998). Some rapidly cooled ores display elevated Au grades. Cooling of
hydrothermal fluids provides a better explanation for the development of delicately banded
quartz veins, than the more violent boiling reactions portrayed in much of the geological
literature. Au deposition by cooling is controlled fracture permeability or original host rock
porosity, which in turn influences the quantity of ground water in the host rocks. Therefore,
entry of cool, dilute, groundwaters must promote enhanced mineral deposition. In these
settings, cooling of the ore fluid promotes silica deposition such as silica ledges at the water
table. In conclusion, field observations suggest low grade Au deposition is promoted by fluid
cooling, possibly related to mixing with ground waters, although mechanisms although
mechanisms which feature the destabilisation of the complexes more readily account for the
deposition of economic Au mineralisation (e.g. mixing and oxidation below).

7.5.3 Sulphidation

Sulphidation reactions were cited by Terry Leach as the main mechanism for the deposition
of Au encapsulated within As-Fe sulphides (arsenean pyrite and arsenean marcasite) in the
Northern Carlin Trend (Leach, 2004; Bettles, 2008). The dissolution of carbonate would have
released Fe from ferroan dolomite and ankerite to react with the Au complexes to deposit Au
associated with arsenean marcasite and arsenean pyrite as a sulphidation reaction which
lowered the fluid pH and to promote further carbonate dissolution. In his final work before
his untimely death Terry Leach extended the sulphidation model to Ladolam, Lihir Is., where
abundant Fe was made available by the alteration of biotite to K-feldspar and Au had become
encapsulated within arsenean pyrite (figure 12; Leach unpubl. reports in Kidd, 2008). Later
fluid mixing deposited higher grade Au. In As-rich solutions such two examples above Au
and As co-precipitate leading to the development arsenean Fe sulphide minerals (see
Seaward, 1991 and references therein). In conclusion sulphidation provides a mechanism of
bulk low grade Au deposition in settings of extensive interaction between ore fluids and wall
rocks characterised by available Fe.

7.5.4 Mixing reactions

Mixing of rising ore fluids with oxidising near surface evolved waters promotes highest grade
Au deposition (Corbett and Leach, 1998; Leach and Corbett, 2008) as part of several mixing
models subdivided (figure 2.44) as:

7.5.4.1 Deep circulating ground waters (figure 2.46) may provide elevated metal grades,
evidenced by the intergrowths of low temperature quartz (opal) with higher temperature
sulphides (dark sphalerite), such as in some banded and brecciated polymetallic Ag-Au ores
(Fresnillo, Mexico; Arcata, Peru; Juevos Verde, Argentine Patagonia). While fluid cooling
and dilution may be involved in this process, Au grades will be lower than in the oxidising
processes described below which are more effective in the destabilisation of the complexes
which transport Au.

Economic Geo. _ JH
7.5.4.2 Oxidation of bisulphide complexes which transport Au within rising pregnant ore
fluids by mixing of near surficial oxygenated ground waters represents a most efficient
mechanism for the destabilisation of these complexes and Au deposition (figure 2.46; Brown,
1989; Corbett and Leach, 1998). In the region of the pyrite-haematite phase boundary (figure
7.37) small increases in oxidation will decrease Au solubility by many orders of magnitude
and promote bonanza Au deposition (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein).
Furthermore, shown as path B in figure 7.37, this process features a less increased Au
solubility during the reaction path and so progresses more readily boiling. Consequently,
many epithermal ore systems feature bonanza Au with hypogene haematite, and locally clay-
chlorite. At Palmarejo Mexico, early exploration identified high grade Au-Ag including
electrum within hypogene haematite while at the Guadalupe zone deep drilling has
recognised high grade Au with hypogene haematite and at the Kencana, Gosowong mixes of
pyrite and haematite grade to 300g/t Au (figure 7.39). In Far Eastern Russia, high grade
chalcedony-ginguro and polymetallic ores feature hypogene haematite (figure 7.40).

Figure 7.39 High grade Au deposition by mixing of ore fluids with oxygenated ground waters
evidenced by hypogene haematite. At Guadalupe, Palmarejo free Au (A) and electrum (B)
within haematite while at bottom left and a deep drill intercept (DDH222, 496.4 m) assayed
101 g/t Au and 5,590 g/t Ag, too deep for the haematite to have been derived from supergene
processes. At the top right Kencana ore assayed up to 300 g/t Au and at the bottom right a
layer of haematite overlies high grade at Fresnillo, Mexico.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.40 From the Russian Far East, free Au in a ginguro band with hypogene haematite
from Kubaka (right) two specimens from Kupol; (top left) haematite-ginguro (602 g/t Au &
1600g/t Ag) and (bottom left) a polymetallic vein with marcasite, white sphalerite, argentite,
haematite and free Au (1534 g/t Au and 15,374 g/t Ag).

7.5.4.3 Bicarbonate waters, formed by the condensation of rising CO2 volatiles into ground
waters, mix with rising ore fluids and promote Au deposition mainly in the carbonate-base
metal Au deposits, the Ag-rich polymetallic Ag-Au variant, group of low sulphidation
epithermal Au deposits described above. Subsurface blankets of bicarbonate waters are
common in the upper portions of volcanoplutonic arcs (Philippines) where CO2 is present in
several orders of magnitude greater quantities than in back arc (Taupo Volcanic Zone)
settings (section 1.3.2.1). Even within arc settings the ore deposits derived from the mixing
with bicarbonate waters are best developed in settings where felsic domes abound (Porgera,
Woodlark Is., & Morobe goldfield, Papua New Guinea; Kelian & the Baguio district,
Philippines, Deseado Massif, Argentina) whereas arcs ore fluids evolve from quartz-sulphide
Au + Cu to epithermal quartz Au + Ag styles without the intervening carbonate base metal
stage where felsic domes are not recognised (Emperor, Fiji; Lihir & Simberi, Papua New
Guinea; Round Mountain & Sleeper, Nevada; Thames, New Zealand; Gosowong, Indonesia;
Mineral Hill, Mt Morgan, Australia). Fracture and breccia permeability or host rock porosity
control the distribution of the blankets of bicarbonate waters which may vent to the surface
and deposit travertine deposits (El Penon district; Morobe goldfield), and are interpreted to
have locally promoted the growth of stromatolites within shallow lakes (Cerro Negro,
Argentine Patagonia, section ***). The mixed silica-carbonate layering in the Wondumi
sinter deposit is consistent with the quartz-carbonate nature of the mineralised veins in that
district.

The paragenetic sequence in carbonate-base metal Au ores of quartz -> pyrite -> sphalerite-
galena -> carbonate, and common association within open space breccias supports the mixing
model. Oxidation by the weakly acidic bicarbonate waters destabilises the bisulphide
complexes which transport Au mineralisation in the rising pregnant neutral chloride waters
and deposits carbonate gangue which commonly overprints sulphides. Petrology by Terry

Economic Geo. _ JH
Leach demonstrated Au is best developed in association with the base metal sulphides close
to the contact with carbonate, and there is a relationship Au grade and carbonate type. The pH
of the bicarbonate waters influences the metal cations leached from the wall rocks and hence
the type of carbonate deposited, and importantly the more acidic and oxidising ground waters
are more efficient at destabilising the bisulphide complexes. Terry Leach delineated a
zonation in carbonate type in many deposits as acidic fluids became cooled and neutralised
by reaction with wall rocks. Alteration zonation is influenced by fluid flow patterns
controlled by structural feeders or aquifers and the site of carbonate generation. For instance
at Kelian, Indonesia (figure 7.37) the acidic ground waters collapse and rise whereas at the
Porgera the bicarbonate waters have collapsed down the Roamane fault (figure **).

Carbonate type changes with declining acidity (rising pH) of the bicarbonate waters with an
accompanied decline in Au grade (Corbett and Leach, 1998) as:
 Siderite (Fe-)
 Rhodochrosite (Mn-)
 Kutnahorite (MnMg-)
 Ankerite (MgCaFe-)
 Dolomite (MgCa-)
 Mg-Calcite (CaMg-)
 Calcite (Ca)

Siderite which is generally not well developed, probably because of lower bicarbonate water
acidity, displays an empirical association with elevated Au grades. Rhodochrosite represents
the most abundant and distinctive carbonate (discernible by the pink colour and hardness)
associated with good Au grades in many carbonate base metal deposits grading to brown
kutnahorite. Gold grades decline through ankerite and dolomite to calcite which is not likely
to be well mineralised. Calcite is present in many epithermal Au deposits overprinting
mineralisation. The association between carbonate type and Au grade are illustrated by two
adjacent trays of drill core from Chatree, Thailand (figure 7.41) where Au grades decline
from very high levels with rhodochrosite through dolomite the Mg calcite.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.41 Specimens from two adjacent trays of drill core at Chatree, Thailand, showing
the increase in Au grade from rhodochrosite to dolomite and Mg calcite.

Mn carbonates weather to provide distinctive surficial MnO which is a prospecting tool, but
will scavenge Ag, which is likely to display problematic metallurgy. The rediscovery of the
Hidden Valley carbonate-base metal deposit in Papua New Guinea (originally mined in the
1920’s) came from sampling of MnO matrix breccias (figure **), while MnO at surface
brought the author’s attention to what became the Corani veins, Peru. Similarly at Cripple
Creek, while the host breccias appear barren, mineralisation is discernible from the presence
of MnO (figure 4.41).

7.38. Kelian carbonate zonation

7.39. Porgera

7.5.4.4 Acid sulphate, warm low pH waters, derived from the oxidation of H2S above the
water table react with wall rocks to produce near surficial acid sulphate caps (sections 1.3.2.1
& 2.2.8), characterised by locally laterally extensive blankets of kaolinite, cristobalite with
minor alunite and local sulphur (figure 2.45), which with erosion commonly narrow to form
selvages adjacent to feeder structures (figures 2.35 at Arcata & 2.48). These low pH oxidising
waters provide one of the most effective mechanisms for the destabilisation of the bisulphide
complexes which transport Au (Corbett and Leach, 1998; Leach and Corbett, 2008). The
fluid flow path C in figure 7.37 shows only a decline in solubility, as different to boiling
which initially rises. Consequently, in many field examples the highest (bonanza) Au grades
are most commonly recognised in association with kaolin as evidence of mineral deposition
by the mixing of rising ore fluids with low pH acid sulphate waters. Grains of free Au or
electrum commonly sit within kaolin, or ginguro bands also contain kaolin or Au occurs
where kaolin-bearing fractures cut ginguro bands. The acid sulphate waters may collapse to
deep levels within epithermal systems (up to 1000 m below the palaeo surface). Drawdown
associated with the reversal of hydrothermal cells, as a result of the cooling of any intrusion
heat source, may promote collapse (section 2.2.2. & figure 2.8), while acid waters also
collapse down hanging wall splays. In these settings, heating of acid sulphate waters at depth
may result in the deposition of higher temperature acid minerals such as dickite and less
commonly pyrophyllite or diaspore, in place of kaolin. At shallow levels halloysite, the
hydrated form may occur rather than kaolin, and smectite will be more abundant in the
presence of less acid waters, passing to illite at depth.

The model proposed herein is that while boiling might be apparent in many veins and deposit
Au, the bonanza Au is derived from the mixing of ore fluids with low pH acid sulphate
waters evidenced by an association with kaolinite.

High Au grade blind ore systems are commonly constrained below acid sulphide caps and the
underlying argillic alteration, especially in the presence of permeable volcanic wall rocks.
The clay alteration is incompetent and prevents the upward propagation of veins and acts as
an aquitard to inhibit the upward migration of hydrothermal fluids. Consequently high Au
grade veins are commonly recognised at depth within competent host rocks immediately
below the acid cap and associated argillic alteration (Hishikari, Japan). This discussion will
consider just a few of the many examples of bonanza Au grades derived from fluid mixing
below, locally now eroded, acid sulphate caps - Champagne Pool, New Zealand; Sleeper &
Comstock USA; Hishikari, Japan; Juevos Verde, Cerro Moro & COSE, Argentine Patagonia;

Economic Geo. _ JH
Guadalupe at Palmarejo, Mexico; Arcata, Peru; San Cristobal, Bolivia; Kupol, Far Eastern
Russia; Lihir, Papua New Guinea; Frute del Norte, Ecuador.

7.5.4.4.1 Champagne Pool, Waitapu New Zealand developed as an interpreted 900 year old
eruption breccia venting chlorite-bicarbonate water to provide the distinctive CO2-rich
gaseous plume localised within a larger acid sulphate cap (figure 2.45; Simmons et al., 2004;
Hedenquist and Henley, 1984). Sinter deposits continue to form at this time adjacent to the
breccia pipe (figure 4.51). A red mineral-rich precipitate deposited at the crater rim in a brief
period from 1957 was found to contain 80 ppm Au, 170 ppm Ag, 170 ppm Hg along with
significant As and Sb, which contribute towards the red and yellow colours at the artists
palate (figure 4.51; Weissberg, 1969). Pregnant neutral chloride fluids rising up the eruption
breccia pipe mixed with the marginal low pH acid sulphate waters to promote metal
deposition at the contact between the two fluids.

7.5.4.4.2 The Hishikari gold mine, Japan, includes the Honko-Sanjin vein zone and lesser
Yamada zone (figure 7.44; Ibaraki and Suzuki, 1993 & Izawa et al., 1990; Izawa et al., 2001).
The Honko-Sanjin veins are localised within competent basement Cretaceous Shimanto
Supergroup phyllites and overlain by Hishikari Lower Andesites (1.38-1.62 Ma) which
represent strongly altered permeable volcanic breccias. The uppermost Shishimano dacite
(0.66-1.1 Ma) displays a similar age to mineralisation (0.6-1.15 Ma), leading (Izawa et al.
(2001) to suggest they may be derived from the same magmatic source.

At the Honko-Sanjin zone, the original alteration zonation cross section, derived from XRD
analyses of drill core (Izawa et al., 1990), was expanded to include rocks at higher elevation
(Corbett and Leach, 1998), from shallow to deep (figure 7.44), as:
I – cristobalite-smectite-kaolinite + alunite
II – cristobalite-smectite-kaolinite
III – quartz-smectite
IV – interlayered illite-smectite, chlorite-smectite
V - chlorite-illite/sericite

Some workers (Ibaraki and Suzuki, 1990) stress the superimposition of alunite-kaolinite onto
levels II and III from Zone I above, which was interpreted by Corbett and Leach (1998) as
analogous to a now partly eroded acid sulphate cap. Such a cap provides as a source for low
temperature acidic ground waters used in fluid mixing models for bonanza Au deposition by
Corbett and Leach (1998) and Shikazono et al. (2001). There appears to be a lateral decline in
the acid sulphate cap. Izawa et al. (2001) describe kaolinite in outcrop from above the Daisen
vein in the Honko vein system which, from the association with pyrite, is taken as hypogene
in origin, and so a relic of the original acid sulphate cap. By contrast the original study
(Izawa, et al., 1990) describes ‘sporadic’ alunite from 350-400 m elevation, which would be
on the margin of the system (figure 7.44)

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.44 Clay alteration for Hishikari, Japan from Izawa et al. (1990) and Ibaraki and
Suzuki (1990, 1993) as published in Corbett and Leach, 1998. The location is shown on
figure 7.24, note the end points A and B.

The mineralised veins at Hishikari, and discovery history, are described by Izawa et al. (1990
and 2001) as well as studies in the Special Issue of resource Geology edited by Shikazone et
al. (1993) (e.g., Shikazono, N., and Nagayama, T., 1993; Izawa, E., et al., 1993; Ibaraki and
Suzuki, 1993; Nagayama, T., 1993; and others), along with references referred to by those
workers. Colloform banded fissure veins at the main Honko-Sanjin ore system, which are
hosted in the competent Shimanto Supergroup phyllites, comprise mainly quartz
(chalcedony)-adularia and clay (smectite and lesser kaolinite). Gold occurs as electrum
mainly within ginguro bands. Veinlets comprising calcite, laumontite and smectite described
from within the wall rocks above the veins (Izawa et al., 2001) are similar to those recognised
elsewhere (figure 7.44). The smaller higher crustal level Yamama veins occur within andesite
(Izawa et al., 2001 and references therein).

Two mineralising events are apparent (Corbett and Leach, 1998) from detailed vein analyses
(Ibaraki and Suzuki, 1993; Izawa et al., 1990; Shikazono et al., 2001; Honda et al., 2001) as:
1. Early mineralisation occurs within colloform banded quartz-adularia + ginguro veins
deposited from hot (240oC) two phase fluids, which cooled to the vicinity of 200-
210oC, within the Shimanto phyllites. Steam-heated waters evolving from these
cooling fluids contributed towards the development of the alteration within the
overlying andesite, including the (now mostly eroded) surficial acid sulphate cap.
2. A later to locally contemporaneous event of bonanza grade Au mineralisation
developed by the mixing of cool acidic ground waters with rising ore fluids shown as
band II by Honda et al. (2001) and Izawa et al., (2001), characterised by colloform
quartz with abundant electrum within porous clay, comprising smectite and minor
kaolinite. Izawa et al. (2001) stress Au is dominant in the clay ore.

Economic Geo. _ JH
This setting of bonanza Au at Hishikari, within colloform quartz veins with kaolin, is
remarkably similar to the high Au grade material recognised at many other Pacific rim Au
deposits (Favona and Waihi, New Zealand, figure 7.44; Palmarejo, Mexico, figure 7.41).
Here and elsewhere the kaolin provides evidence bonanza Au has been deposited by the
mixing of rising mineralised fluids with acid sulphate waters. Fluid mixing resulted in the
formation of the 50,000g/t Au specimen shown in figure 2.29 from an upward vein
termination where it passes from the phyllite into the overlying permeable volcanic breccia
which is interpreted as a sink for low pH waters. Recent studies (Izawa, et al., 2001; Honda et
al., 2001) emphasise the high clay content of the well mineralised Hishikari veins and
association of high grade Au with the clay portions of veins.

Figure 7.45 Guadalupe chalcedony-ginguro ores with intergrown kaolin, (right) from the
2006 discovery 186 g/t Au & 3720 g/t Ag, (left) from 2014 definition drilling, 62.8 g/t Au &
1350 g/t Ag form 497.4m downhole and so clearly hypogene and not supergene kaolin.

7.5.4.4.3 The Guadalupe zone, 6.5 km SE of the Palmarejo Ag-Au mine, Mexico, represents
a discovery of significant blind mineralisation by (the former owners) Bolnisi Gold NL acting
on this authors use of the acid sulphate cap model (Corbett, unpubl. reports 2004-7).
Although no significant Au was identified within the surficial outcropping acid sulphate cap
(figure 2.47), encouragement was provided by the presence of small Spanish-era workings at
a lower altitude and the setting within a dilatant portion of a major structural corridor, defined
on mapping by Hall Stewart (figure 3.31). Although initial shallow drill testing confined
within the acid sulphate cap was unsuccessful, management allowed deeper a drill test to the
model and identified blind high grade Au-Ag mineralisation. A rising chalcedony-ginguro
style ore fluid has come in contact with low pH and oxidising ore fluids associated with
formation of the acid sulphate cap as an extremely effective mechanism of Au deposition.
Ginguro mineralisation is intergrown with kaolin (figure 7.45) and also haematite (figure
7.39). Acid sulphate alteration probably originally extended over a wider portion of
Palmarejo that is more deeply eroded than Guadalupe, as kaolin occurs within the open pit

Economic Geo. _ JH
ore and site geologists reported to the author, best Au-Ag grades are associated with kaolin
throughout the Palmarejo district.

7.5.4.4.4 There are many other examples of bonanza grade epithermal Au associated with
kaolin and so interpreted to have been deposits by the mixing of ore fluids with collapsing
low pH waters derived from acid sulphate caps, which may have been eroded. At the
Kilkenny vein, Cracow, Australia, recent exploration has identified highest Au grades within
the vein portions where the mineralised ginguro material is in contact with kaolin (figure 7.5).
At the Kapit Zone, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea, detailed XRD studies by Terry Leach
demonstrate how the acid fluids have collapsed to a deeper level in the hydrothermal system
and higher grade Au is present with kaolin within that alteration front (Leach unpubl. reports;
Kidd, 2008). Only minor erosion would be required to remove the acid sulphate cap, although
the collapse in only in the order of say 200m. Similarly, the acid caps are preserved at the
very highest portions of the Arcata mine, Peru (figure *).In the mine workings higher ore
grades recognised in the presence of rhodochrosite developed by the mixing of rising ore
fluids with bicarbonate waters, typical of this style of low sulphidation polymetallic Ag-Au
mineralisation. However, highest Au-Ag grade ores are noted with hypogene kaolin is also
present as an indication that low pH waters from the acid sulphate caps have mixed with the
ore fluids. At San Cristobal, Bolivia, initial mining has focused in the regions of higher Ag
grades located below the acid sulphate caps where best precious metal grades are recognised
(figure *). Frute del Norte in Ecuador, Sleeper gold mine, Nevada and Kupol gold mine Far
Eastern all contain instances of the highest Au grades intimately associated with kaolin,
commonly as free Au sitting in kaolin (figure **). The Sleeper gold mine Nevada hosts
bonanza Au mineralisation (Nash et al., 1990), localised where range front faults cut
competent host rocks and mostly obscured by cover. Banded quartz veins host 85% of the
bonanza Au in a mineral assemblage ‘consisting of abundant pyrite and kaolinite, with some
chalcopyrite’ (Saunders and Schoenly, 1995), consistent the model herein that mixing of ore
fluids acid sulphate waters accounts for bonanza Au deposition. High grade Au
mineralisation does not extend below the lower limit of collapsing kaolin varying to dickite at
depth, identified in a Pima study (figure *). Kaolin occurs within some high Au grade ores
and is intergrown with fresh pyrite as a demonstration of the hypogene rather than supergene
origin (figure *).

7.5.4.4.5 Hanging wall splays commonly localise bonanza Au at fault intersections (section
3.****) where pregnant ore fluids rising up dilatant normal faults, mix with low pH acid
sulphate waters drawn down the subsidiary hanging wall splay fault by venturi effect (figure
7.46). The popular Buchanan (1981) epithermal model might therefore be modified so that
this fault intersection, described as a boiling zone by Buchanan (op cit), represents a site of
fluid mixing. The presence of kaolinite in the ore assemblage indicates low pH acid sulphate
waters promoted high grade Au deposition.

Mixing zones developed as sites of Au deposition by fluid mixing may form as flat dipping
zones below acid sulphate caps (Ladolam, Lihir Is, Papua New Guinea) or steep dipping
pencil-like ore shoots developed at fault intersections (Cap-Oeste, below). Explorationsists
should be aware that extent of mixing zones is limited by the distribution of the two fluids
involved in the mixing reaction. Flat dipping mixing zones may therefore display floors
marked by the limit to which low pH waters have collapsed, and the underlying feeder
structures host only low Au grades.

Economic Geo. _ JH
At the Cap-Oeste ore system, El Tranquillo, Argentine Patagonia, high Au-Ag grade ores
define pencil-like ore shoots developed at the intersection of a feeder structure and hanging
wall splays, where kaolinite within the ore assemblage provides evidence that high grade
mineral deposition was promoted by the mixing of low pH acid sulphate waters collapsing
down the hanging wall splays with ore fludis rising up the feeder structure (figure 7.**;
Corbett, unpubl. report in Bow, 2012).

Figure 7.46 A hanging wall splay added to the fluid mixing model (figure 2.46) to illustrate
typical setting of bonanza Au mineralisation where ore fluids rising up a dilatant normal fault
mix with oxidising waters drawn down a hanging wall splay by the venturi effect. The
specimen from Juevos Verde, Deseado Massif, Argentina, shows the mixing of acid sulphate
waters (upper half with kaolin) and an ore fluid (lower half with ginguro), while free Au lines
the contact (223 g/t Au & 17,622 g/t Ag).

7.5.4.4.5.1 A well at the Palinpinon geothermal, Philippines, was revisited by Terry Leach in
the 1990’s who provided this unpublished data (figure 7.47) and suggested further work (Rae
et al., 2011 and references therein). The deep drill hole, which exploits hot geothermal waters
from a youthful magmatic source at depth for electricity production, is cased in the upper
portion and perforated in the lower section. Geothermal waters enter the perforated pipe at a
depth of 3000 m below the surface and rise rapidly to the surface. When the pipe became
blocked at about 1200 m below surface and had to be reamed out Terry examined the scale
and considered the relationships. The scale brought up from the reaming out of the blockage
contained anhydrite, barite, alunite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, tennantite, Ag and
electrum. While alunite provides evidence of an acid assemblage, kaolin might have been
washed out and the other components are typical of a deep epithermal mineral assemblage.
As illustrated in figure 7.47, the blockage in the geothermal pipe occurs where the perforated
portion cuts a steep dipping fault, which links the geothermal drill hole to a near surficial
reservoir of acid sulphate waters, which elsewhere vents to the surface as acid springs.
Terry’s interpretation was that the venturi effect of the geothermal waters rushing up the well
pipe sucked the acid sulphate waters down the cross fault, and at the intersection, mixing of
the pregnant up-flow in the pipe with the low pH waters collapsing down the cross fault,
promoted deposition of an epithermal Au-Ag mineral assemblage within the scale.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Interestingly, where the well also blocked at 2100 m below the surface the scale contained
chalcopyrite, bornite, Au and carbonate, a porphyry Cu-Au mineral assemblage deposited
closer to the source (figure 7.47).

Two important features emerge from the Palinpinon example:

 As also recognised in ore (fossil geothermal) systems low pH waters may collapse to
considerable depths (here 1200 m below the surface) to mix with rising ore fluids and
promote high grade Au-Ag deposition.
 Fault intersections such as hanging wall splays represent ideal settings for high grade
Au-Ag deposition, commonly forming pencil-like ore shoots. The Buchanan (1981)
epithermal model, which also features a hanging wall splay and acid sulphate caps,
might now be modified to feature fluid mixing as a mechanism of Au deposition
rather than boiling.

Figure 7.47 Sketch of a geothermal well at the Palinpinon geothermal field (pictured) from
data provided by the late Terry Leach (pers. commun).

7.5.4.4.5.2 At Favona, New Zealand, elevated Au-Ag grades in the upper portion of the vein
system (Torckler et al., 2006), are herein interpreted to result from mixing of low pH acid
sulphate waters with the rising mineralised fluids (figure 7.48). An inspection by the author
identified kaolin clay in the uppermost portion of a drill hole as evidence of an original acid
sulphate cap (figure 3.44). Hanging wall dominated ore systems are ideally suited to host
high grade Au deposited by the mixing of collapsing near surficial (here acid sulphate) waters
and rising ore fluids (section 3.2.2.***). The strongly flared eruption breccias occur in the
same NNE trending structural corridor as mineralisation, but do not directly pass down into
veins, and display a post-vein component of activation (section 4.4.6.3.1). Kaolin is
intergrown with the ginguro bands of the banded chalcedony-ginguro veins which host best
Au grades as an indication Au deposition by the mixing of acid sulphate fluids and rising ore
fluids.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.48 A cross section (from Torckler et al., 2006) and drill core from the Favona vein
system Waihi, New Zealand, showing a preserved portion of the acid sulphate cap (top) and
kaolin within the ginguro bands of high Au grade vein intercepts. See figure 4.60 for location
of the cross section.

7.5.5 Conclusions and exploration implications

There are profound exploration implications in understanding how the mechanisms of Au-Ag
deposition provide the main control to ore grade in low sulphidation epithermal deposits,
which rises as the ore fluid is subject to cooling, boiling, and sulphidation reactions, to higher
precious metal grades associated with the mixing of rising ore fluids with oxygenated,
bicarbonate or acid sulphate ground waters. The numerous examples of hypogene kaolin
intergrown with bonanza Au suggests the latter of these mechanisms is the most efficient and
provides the highest ore grades.

The exploration model to account for many instances of bonanza Au grades proposes that
modest Au grades are developed within banded epithermal veins by cooling, mixing and
boiling reactions during initial vein formation. Bonanza Au deposition results from fluid
mixing best developed as oxygenated or low pH waters enter the ore environment at the same
time as rising pregnant waters. Fluid mixing deposits bonanza Au as specific events
evidenced by individual bands such as Au with haematite or kaolinite within banded veins or
cross-cutting lower Au grade veins. Bonanza Au might therefore occur within mixing zones
localised at the intersections of structures which transport different fluids and explorationists
should be aware that Au grades rapidly decline outside the settings of the controls to
mineralisation. Prospecting for mixing zones is discussed in section 9.

7.6 Post mineral effects

7.6.1 Dilution

Economic Geo. _ JH
Although ore shoots develop by the coincidence of the factors described above other features
may restrict ore formation or dilute ore. Post-mineral felsic dykes cut veins and locally stope
out ore at Chatree Thailand, and Kupol, Far Eastern Russia (Thomson and Golden, 2011),
while elsewhere (Golden Cross, New Zealand) post-mineral calcite cross cuts veins and
dilutes the ore in many other epithermal vein systems (figure **). Dilution may also lower Au
grades in veins characterised by excessive quartz-adularia deposition from circulating
meteoric waters, whereas Au-Ag mineralisation is mostly localised within the magmatic vein
component (section 1.3.2.2 figures 1.9-1.11).

7.6.2 Supergene enrichment

Low sulphidation quartz-sulphide style Au + Cu mineralisation (section 7.1.1.1 above) is

notorious for near surface supergene Au enrichment (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Gold present
on the grain boundaries or fractures within coarse pyrite crystals is easily liberated during
weathering which also creates low pH groundwaters and so concentrates within iron oxides in
the top few mm of gossanous veins as well as at the base of oxidation and collapsing down
faults with both chemical and mechanical concentration (figure 7.49). The presence of
anomalous Au (including shallow mine workings) in association with coarse boxworks after
pyrite should As a result it is very common in the exploration environment for high Au
grades obtained in surface rock chip sampling, not to be supported by drill testing in sulphide
ores. This author has recognised instances of a decline from hundreds of g/t Au at surface to
less than 2g/t in sulphide material at depth. Supergene Au displays a decline in Ag content to
very yellow and forms locally referred to as ‘mustard gold’. Near surficial supergene
enriched Au is commonly worked by small scale (typically illegal) miners only in the oxide
zone. For instance drilling under Tawere Ridge on Sangihe Island, Indonesia where 5000
miners have been working yielded <2g/t Au in hypogene ores. Similarly, drilling under
highly Au anomalous (to hundreds of g/t Au) oxidised ores at Pollocks near Coyhaique in
Chile, yielded barely 2 g/t Au. In some instances detailed drilling has identified flat dipping
ore zones associated with FeO deposited at the base of oxidation (figure 7.429. In these
settings, gold typically concentrates above the base of oxidation, while Ag may concentrate
below the base of oxidation with Cu in the chalcocite blanket. Particularly in desert settings,
bonanza grade supergene Ag may concentrate as chloride complexes (Broken Hill, Australia;
Chanarcillo, Chile).

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.49 Supergene Au enrichment commonly results from the weathering of coarse
auriferous pyrite to provide concentrations within surficial boxworks (top right), FeO at the
base of oxidation (bottom left) and collapsing down faults (bottom right).

Explorationists should exercise extreme caution in settings where highly anomalous Au is

associated with outcropping boxworks after pyrite (figure 7.49). Oxidised quartz-sulphide
ores with local supergene enrichment represent low cost heap leach ore deposits capable of
mining very low Au grades at a profit (San Cristobal, Chile; Himmetetdede, Turkey, above).

7.6.2.1 Mt Morgan, Australia provides one of the most spectacular examples of supergene Au
enrichment of weathered quartz-sulphide ore (section 7.1.1.1.5 and references therein). Gold
grades up to 62,000 g/t Au were exploited from oxide ores in the early years following
discovery in 1882, contributed towards the overall oxide production of 2.7 M oz Au at an
average grade of 30.6g/t Au.

7.5.2.2 The Cirianiu project, Fiji, hosts oxidised quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation developed
as feeder structures, stockwork veins, breccias and disseminations within relatively
incompetent graben fill lapilli Miocene tuffs, which display intense illite-pyrite alteration and
variable silicification (Taylor et al., 2013). Hypogene mineralisation, best developed in the
steep-dipping feeder structures and fractured flat dipping replacement competent
silicification, is overprinted by supergene processes which concentrate Au in the steep
structures and at the base of oxidation, as funnel shaped ore zones (figure 7.50). These ores
are expected to be easily heap leachable.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 7.50 The Cirianiu project, Fiji showing quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation as a
stockwork vein (top left), dissemination (bottom left) and oxidised fault (bottom right) with a
graphic from Taylor et al., (2013).

7.7 Conclusion

A range of low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits are derived from a mix of essentially
barren meteoric waters and the mineralised magmatic component. When sampling
explorationists need to consider which vein portion contains mineralisation and whether there
is near surficial supergene Au enrichment.

Analyses of many ore systems demonstrate best Au-Ag (quantity and precious metal grade)
occurs within ore shoots developed at the coincidence of several factors categorised as:
 Style of mineralisation varies within magmatic arc or strongly extensional (intra arc or
back arc rift) fluid flow paths, to provide differences in precious metal grades,
geological setting and metallurgy.
 Competent lithologies are required to fracture well in order to host veins.
 Dilatant structures which have acted as conduits for fluid flow and sites of fluid
mixing, provide variable pitches to the orientation of ore shoots.
 Efficient mechanisms of Au deposition provide elevated Au grades and so control the
overall precious metal grade of ore shoots.
Dilation and supergene enrichment should also be taken into account.

Highest Au grades are recognised in settings where rising ore fluids have mixed with low pH
acid sulphate waters, particularly at the intersection of feeder structures and hanging wall
splays. Field studies therefore demonstrate former models for Au deposition by boiling might
now be discarded. Mixing represents one of many explanations for flat dipping buried ore
zones formerly termed ‘boiling zones’.

Economic Geo. _ JH
8 HIGH SULPHIDATION EPITHERMAL Au-Cu-Ag

8.1 Introduction

A characteristic fluid gives rise to high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits, which may also
contain Cu and/or Ag, and are defined by a distinctive ore and gangue mineralogy, along with
zoned wall rock advanced argillic grading to marginal argillic alteration (section 1.3.2.4 &
2.2.6). Earlier terms include high sulphur (Bonham, 1986) and acid sulphate (Hayba et al.,
1985; Heald et al., 1987) as described in section 1.3.1. This style of mineralisation is termed
high sulphidation epithermal Au (-Cu + Ag) and only occurs with advanced argillic
alteration. By contrast advanced argillic alteration may occur elsewhere (barren shoulders)
without high sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation. Consequently, explorationists are
advised to avoid using the term high sulphidation epithermal alteration and not to use the
term advanced argillic mineralisation. Similarly, it is important to be able to distinguish in the
field, advanced argillic alteration associated which might be prospective for high sulphidation
epithermal Au mineralisation, from barren advanced argillic alteration described in section
2.2 and shown in figure 2.21. The models in use here do not place high sulphidation
mineralisation within porphyry-related ‘lithocaps’ but separate alteration systems.

8.1.1 Distribution

High sulphidation epithermal Au deposits are preserved in poorly eroded magmatic arcs,
rather than the back arc setting for many low sulphidation epithermal deposits and many high
sulphidation epithermal Au deposits are telescoped upon slightly older porphyry Cu
intrusions.

In the process suggested (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein) for the formation
of high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits, a volatile-rich (H2O, CO2, SO2, H2S, HCL) fluid
exsolves from a buried porphyry Cu style magmatic source late in its cooling history (figures
1.6 & 1.18) and typically rises rapidly up a structural fluid plumbing system, somewhat like a
bubble, without significant interaction with the wall rocks or assimilation of ground waters
(section 1.3.2.4). This is distinct from low sulphidation epithermal systems which are
characterised by variable mixes of magmatic-meteoric dilute fluids (sections 1.3.2.1 & 7).
High sulphidation epithermal fluids are therefore magmatic-dominated, highly saline and
oxidised with sulphur as mostly SO2. The important fluid evolution takes place as the
volatiles rise and so there must be a gap between the epithermal Au deposit and any source
intrusion at depth. As the high sulphidation fluid rises, volatiles contained within pressurised
fluids at porphyry levels, are progressively exsolved from solution in the rapidly
depressurised fluid. Below 400oC exsolved vapour phase SO2 undergoes disproportionation
to form H2SO4 and this reaction increases as the depressurised fluid rises. Consequently, the
rising fluid, which was hot and near neutral at porphyry levels, progressively becomes more
acidic during the rise to epithermal levels, where it might attain a pH of 1-2 at about 250-
300oC. In many cases the rising fluid breaks up into a rapidly moving volatile-rich phase,
which is responsible for much of the zoned hydrothermal alteration by progressive reaction
with wall rocks. The slower moving liquid-rich fluid phase is responsible for the transport
sulphide mineralisation which therefore commonly overprints alteration (figure 8.1; Corbett
and Leach, 1998 and references therein).

Explorationists are urged to use caution in the application of any exploration models which
seek to prospect for porphyry Cu deposits below high sulphidation alteration and

Economic Geo. _ JH
mineralisation, as there is commonly a considerable gap between the high sulphidation
manifestations and the magmatic source in which fluid evolution has taken place. Many
features control the extent of this gap, particularly the dilational control to fluid flow derived
from the structural setting. Strongly dilatant settings bleed high sulphidation epithermal fluids
from the intrusion source at depth and increase the distance between the two (telescoped
outwards). Furthermore, explorationists should be mindful that not all advanced argillic
alteration is associated with high sulphidation mineralisation (section 2.2.3). In many cases
where high sulphidation mineralisation lies directly on top of porphyry deposits, the former
have been found to be younger and so are interpreted to be derived from much deeper
intrusions sources (Wafi, Papua New Guinea; Caspiche, Chile), although wall rock porphyry
mineralisation may, in dilatant structural settings, extend beyond the porphyry closer to the
high sulphidation mineralisation (Bor district, Serbia). These deposits commonly develop in
settings of pronounced uplift and erosion and so the inward telescoping relationships of
epithermal deposits overprinting deeper porphyry are common. The relationship between the
Lepanto high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits and Far South East porphyry Cu-Au is
more typical, where there is about a 1000 m gap to the base of the main high sulphidation
mineralisation (Garcia, 1991; Arribas et al., 1996; Corbett and Leach, 1998).

At epithermal crustal levels the hot acidic volatile-rich phase of the high sulphidation fluid
progressively undergoes cooling and neutralisation by reaction with the wall rocks to provide
characteristic zoned advanced argillic grading to marginal argillic alteration (section 2.2.7;
figure 2.36). Fluid permeability commonly changes from a deep level structural control to
shallow level control by permeable lithologies or breccias which might be reactive and so aid
the wall rock alteration process (below).

8.2 Alteration zonation

As described in section 2.2.7, the hot acidic (250-300oC & pH of 1-2) high sulphidation
epithermal leaches the wall rocks to provide a texture, at the centre of the zoned alteration,
termed vughy or residual silica. The term ‘vughy’ reflects the resultant texture formed by the
removal of minerals such as feldspars, although textural destruction also occurs. The term
‘residual’ recognises that only silica and some rutile remain after the intense leaching, while
some silica may also be deposited (figures 1.15 & 8.2). This vughy residual texture is
characteristic of the central portion of the advanced argillic alteration formed by the high
sulphidation fluid, but need not be mineralised. The vughy or residual silica is especially well
developed in the alteration of permeable feldspathic rocks such as brecciated dacite dome
margins, or fiamme-bearing volcanic rocks which display primary permeability to facilitate
fluid flow and alteration (Pierina, Peru, figure 8.16). Individual clasts may be leached or in
many cases the vughy texture results from the removal of feldspars (figure 8.2; Veladero,
Argentina, figure 8.21). Granular silica is locally recognised as a mix of silica and alunite,
which commonly disaggregates during drilling to sand (figure 8.3). Barren shoulders host
massive, locally brecciated, silica (section 2.2.4; figure 2.24). Silica ledges are common as
generally steep dipping structurally controlled zones of vughy residual silica or flat dipping
lithologically controlled alteration. These resistant siliceous alteration zones may be well
exposed as the softer adjacent clay alteration is readily weathered away, particularly in the
wet tropics. Although vughy silica may contain abundant introduced pyrite, at this stage in
the process of alteration and mineralisation, in many instances only very low grade Au
mineralisation might be present.

Economic Geo. _ JH
Figure 8.1 Illustration of the two phase nature of the fluid associated with may high
sulphidation epithermal Au deposits, characterised by zone hydrothermal alteration
associated with the volatile-rich portion of the fluid followed deposition of mineralisation
deposited by the liquid-rich portion.

Zoned hydrothermal alteration develops as the high sulphidation fluid continues to be

progressively cooled and neutralised by wall rock reaction and mixing with cool neutral
ground waters. The progressively cooled and neutralised fluid therefore forms hydrothermal
alteration mineral assemblages initially dominated by silica-alunite and then grading away
from the fluid plumbing system as pyrophyllite + diaspore and then more marginal dickite or
kaolin. The outer parts of the zoned alteration may display argillic alteration similar to that
which is typically associated with low sulphidation epithermal deposits and characterised by
illite grading out to smectite. Pyrite is recognised throughout. Factors which control the
alteration mineralogy and form of the alteration zones include: crustal level, proximity to the
fluid feeder and host rock permeability. The width of alteration zones generally declines
moving away from fluid feeders, although host rock permeability is also a factor as andesite
lavas form much narrower alteration zones than permeable lapilli tuffs or volcanic breccias.
Alteration zones developed at shallow crustal levels are likely to host lower temperature
minerals such as kaolin rather than high temperature dickite, and opal-chalcedony might
develop in place of vughy silica. In elevated crustal settings narrow alteration zones might
grade rapidly from silica to alunite and then kaolin and illite alteration, with only minor
pyrophyllite and no diaspore (Nena, Papua New Guinea; figure 2.37). Alteration zones
formed at deeper crustal levels will contain well developed vughy silica and wide central
alteration zones of alunite and pyrophyllite with associated diaspore, grading to marginal
dickite rather than kaolin, although the more marginal alteration zones may narrow in less
permeable host rocks. Deeper level alteration zones commonly impinge upon silica-sericite-
pyrite (phyllic) alteration related to underlying porphyry intrusions and so illite might not be
recognised. The zoned advanced argillic - argillic hydrothermal alteration, which is

Economic Geo. _ JH
characteristic of high sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits, is used as a prospecting tool to
vector towards mineralisation mostly developed within the silica core (below).

Figure 8.2 Vughy silica alteration at the (anticlockwise form the top left) as: volcanic breccia,
Pucamarca, Peru; volcanic breccia with flattened fiamme-like clasts, El Guanaco Chile,
milled matrix breccia with rhyodacite clasts, Pucamarca, Peru; dacite porphyry, El Indio,
Chile; rhyodacite flow, Pucamarca, Peru.

Figure 8.3 Granular silica composed of fine silica and alunite (anticlockwise from the top
left) 3 images from Tantuahuatay, Peru, one in outcrop, one as oxide with 0.4 g/t Au of
probably supergene origin and one showing the disaggregated nature; granular silica,
Pucamarca, Peru.

Economic Geo. _ JH
8.3 Mineralisation

As mentioned above, the fluid responsible for the formation of high sulphidation epithermal
Au deposits often, but not always, breaks into the initial vapour-rich phase responsible for the
characteristic zoned hydrothermal alteration, and the slower moving liquid-rich phase
responsible for mineralisation (figure 8.1). In these circumstances enargite-pyrite
mineralisation typically overprints alteration (figures 8.4 & 8.5), although they may occur
together in less evolved, typically shallow level hydrothermal systems (Mt Kasi, Fiji; figure
8.4). Mineralisation typically occurs close to the structurally controlled fluid plumbing
system within the competent vughy silica and locally silica-alunite. Only very rarely (Wafi,
Papua New Guinea; Pueblo Viejo, Dominican Republic) does Au mineralisation occur in the
clay alteration zone towards the margin of the system. This author has speculated the Wafi
high sulphidation Au mineralisation might be remobilised from earlier low sulphidation Au
deposited in fractured metamorphic rocks around a diatreme margin. The Au + Ag content of
high sulphidation mineralisation is generally contained within the Cu sulphide enargite which
occurs with pyrite and is commonly accompanied by gangue of coarse bladed barite and
massive coarse grained alunite deposited in addition to the wall rock alteration alunite (figure
8.6), although ore mineralogy changes with temperature related to depth (below). Sulphide
mineralisation typically overprints the competent vughy silica as a breccia matrix, fracture
veins or fill to open space vughs (figure 8.4). Relationships of higher precious metal grade
fluidised breccia feeders to lower metal grade crackle breccias are common, just as the
presence of vughy silica clasts within sulphide breccia flooding further demonstrates the two
stage nature of alteration and later mineralisation (figure 8.5).

While most SW Pacific rim high sulphidation Au occurrences are devoid of Ag [Matabe,
Indonesia is Ag-bearing (Sutopo et al; 2003)], deposits in Latin America are typically Ag-
bearing and some virtually Ag-only (Diablillos, Argentina). Much of the Au is exploited from
oxide ores, typically as low cost heap leach operations (La Arena, Peru). The precious metal
mineralisation commonly hosted within enargite which may display problematic metallurgy
along with an As contaminant, locally smelted on site (El Indio, Chile; Bor, Serbia), or
elsewhere (Lepanto, Philippines), to yield Cu as well as Au. While Au is extracted from some
sulphide ores (Yanacocha, Peru; Maricunga Belt, Chile) many deposits have ceased operation
once the oxide ores have been exploited and sulphides intercepted (Gidginbung & Peak Hill
Australia; Sipan, Peru). Some Cu-rich chalcocite blankets below the oxide zone have been
mined economically (Monywa, Myanmar; Win and Kirwin, 1998). The Cukaru Peki project,
Bor district, Serbia, is preserved as a very deep level portion of a high sulphidation
epithermal system deposits dominated by As-free Cu minerals covellite + bornite-chalcocite
(Reservoir Minerals, 2015) and so represents an attractive high sulphidation Cu ore.

There is a common vertical zonation in sulphides in high sulphidation epithermal deposits

controlled in the upper portions by temperature, and at depth by pH of the evolving ore fluid
(figures 8.7 & 8.8). Enargite passes with shallower levels to the low temperature polymorph
luzonite which may be accompanied by a change from pyrite to marcasite and deposition of
native sulphur. At highest elevations goldfieldite [5Cu2S.(Sb, As, Bi)2(S,Te)3] contains a
mixture of Sb and Te, typical elements developed at elevated epithermal settings. At deep
levels the typical high sulphidation enargite passes to covellite-chalcocite and then bornite
moving towards the porphyry environment. The decline of As-bearing enargite ores and rise
of high Cu sulphides, therefore makes deep level high sulphidation epithermal deposits
attractive exploration targets (Cukaru Peki, Serbia). The presence of hypogene chalcocite in
porphyry systems is also associated with the remobilisation of Cu by overprinting high

Economic Geo. _ JH
sulphidation fluids (Wafi, Papua New Guinea; figure *). Enargite-barite-alunite bearing veins
are recognised at the base of many high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits (La Coipa,
Chile; Pierina, Peru) just as enargite-bearing D veins overlie some porphyry Cu deposits
(Poposa, Argentina; El Salvador, Chile in Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) and so there is a
tenuous link between the porphyry and epithermal environments.

Figure 8.4 Examples of high sulphidation mineralisation as: disseminated at Mt Kasi; vein at
El Indio, fluidised breccia at Maragorik and breccia matrix at Yanacocha.

Figure 8.5 Later stage enargite-pyrite veins and breccias cut earlier vughy silica which locally
occurs as clasts in sulphide-matrix breccias. The assay intervals which included the top right
specimen assayed 3.97 g/t Au, 19.4 g/t Ag, 1250 ppm Cu and 294 ppm As and the bottom
right 9.9 g/t Au and 18 g/t Ag.

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Figure 8.6 Gangue minerals within high sulphidation epithermal mineralisation.

Most mineral deposition in high sulphidation epithermal Au systems is interpreted to occur

from a cooling fluid. However, higher precious metal grades are locally interpreted to result
from the mixing of rising ore fluids with collapsing near surficial oxidising waters, developed
above the water table in the steam heated zone. At Pierina, Peru, high Au grades occur where
cores of fresh sulphide with sulphur contain rims of covellite in rocks which are otherwise
oxidised (figure 8.12) where collapsing steam heated alteration is also recognised. At
Veladero, Argentina, high grade Au occurs with hypogene jarosite, while supergene jarosite
is barren. Similarly, higher Au grades at the Puren, Chile, high sulphidation Au deposit occur
with jarosite, and MnO in the pit is indicative of an evolution to lower sulphidation (below).

Figure 8.7 Vertical zonation of metals and sulphide minerals in high sulphidation epithermal
Au-Ag deposits.

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Figure 8.8 Vertical and lateral zonation of minerals in high sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag
deposits. The main sulphide minerals, enargite-pyrite grade vertically to cooler luzonite and
then goldfieldite in coolest condition and at depth the covellite and deeper chalcocite where
As is no longer present. Lateral zonation is to tennantite and then low Fe sphalerite.

Figure 8.9 Permeability controls to high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits as permeable

lithologies, dilatant structures and breccias such as diatreme breccia pipes of brecciated dome
margins.

8.4 Permeability controls

The influence of variable permeability represents a principle control to hydrothermal fluid

flow and hence the distribution of high sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation, apparent

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as the interaction of structure, lithology and breccia environments (Corbett and Leach, 1998;
Corbett, 2013). Many ore systems display a common theme of feeder structures for alteration
and mineralisation deposited within permeable lithologies including breccias.

8.4.1 Structure

The models in use here suggest the acidic hydrothermal fluids responsible for the formation
of high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits form during the evolution from intrusion source
rocks at depth to epithermal crustal levels of where alteration and mineralisation are
recognised. Consequently, there should be a lateral and vertical gap (of several hundred to
1000 metres) between the source intrusion and high sulphidation epithermal Au system.
Major structures (including structural corridors) localise intrusion source rocks, typically at
dilatant sites such as splay faults, where these second order feeder structures facilitate the
fluid flow from porphyry to epithermal crustal levels and associated evolution (figure 8.10;
section 3).

Figure 8.10 Structural controls to high sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits (from
Corbett, 2012).

Splay faults to major throughgoing structures localise porphyry intrusions and provided the
dilatant environment for adjacent high sulphidation deposits.

8.4.1.1 The Nena high sulphidation epithermal Au-Cu deposit, at Frieda River, Papua New
Guinea, is hosted by the same splay fault which localised the Horse-Ivaal porphyry Cu and
Ekwai Debom (figures 2.27, 2.32 & 3.24). There is a considerable difference in the crustal
level of formation over 5-7 km from the poorly eroded shallow crustal level Nena high
sulphidation epithermal mineralisation, to the deeply eroded Horse-Ivaal porphyry Cu and
adjacent Ekwai Debom barren shoulder (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein).
While the presence of young auriferous gravels further along to the NW of Nena (Corbett,

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unpubl. report 1991) supports block faulting to account for much of this difference in level of
the hydrothermal system exposed, the possibility that Nena is younger than Horse-Ivaal
cannot be ruled out. The Nena mineralisation occurs as a horizontal pencil-like ore shoot
formed at the intersection of the dilatant feeder structure and a permeable unit in the volcanic
sequence and fluid flow is discernible from the NW to SE (figure 2.37). Note in the long
section view cores change from high temperature Cu-rich enargite-covellite near the fluid up-
flow, to low temperature Cu-Au luzonite ore with anomalous Sb and Te to the SE (figure
2.37).

8.4.1.2 Lepanto, Philippines, breccia mineralisation occurs as a flat pitching pencil-like ore
shoot localised at the intersection of the dilatant splay fault structure and the margin of a
diatreme breccia pipe (figure 8.11). The decline in temperature of formation towards the NW
from mineralogy (D. Cooke, pers. commun., 2006) supports the fluid flow from the FSE
porphyry (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein) and note the gap between the two
ore systems in which fluid evolution occurred.

Figure 8.11 Structural control to the Lepanto high sulphidation Au-Cu deposit localised at the
intersection of the dilatant splay fault and the diatreme breccia pipe margin. The upper photo
is of a mineralised fluidised breccia and the lower an alunite-kaolin altered milled matrix
breccia from the diatreme marginal to the ore zone at the diatreme margin. Mineral zonation
support the fluid flow model that mineralisation was derived from the vicinity of the FSE
porphyry at the bottom right of the long section. Figures from Corbett and Leach (1998) and
references therein.

8.4.1.3 The Wafi high sulphidation epithermal and Golpu porphyry systems lie within a
larger scale pull-apart basin scenario as the higher crustal level component of a splay fault
within negative flower structure (figure 3.14). Here, and arc-normal transfer structure
developed as the suture between the western and eastern orogens of Papua New Guinea has
focused overprinting events of intrusion-related alteration and mineralisation (figure 3.25).

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Major structural corridors localise other high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits as the
transfer structures at Yanacocha, Peru and Mt Kasi, Fiji, or the conjugate transfers at Pascua-
Lama-Veladero extending across the Chile-Argentina frontier, El Guanaco, Chile and
Quevar, Argentina, while El Indio and La Coipa are associated with movement on arc-
parallel structural corridors. In all these cases mineralisation occurs within second order
structures such as flexures (including sigmoidal loops) and tension veins.

8.4.1.4 At La Coipa, further north in Chile (figure 3.2) a series of NNE tension veins
developed in the competent slates mined underground, are interpreted (Corbett, unpubl.
reports) as feeder structures for breccia mineralisation within the overlying volcanic rocks.
The dilatant tension veins apparent on the data of Oviedo et al. (1991) are interpreted to have
formed by a dextral sense of movement in the constraining NS structural grain of the district
(figure 8.12). Banded veins intersected in drill core display typical enargite, pyrite, barite and
alunite, high sulphidation Au epithermal mineralogy. The similarity in structural setting for
El Indio and La Coipa to other low sulphidation (El Peñón) and porphyry (Chuquicamata &
La Escondida) deposits in the region contributes to the model of a change in the nature of
convergence as a trigger for mineralisation.

Figure 8.12 At La, Coipa, Chile, narrow tension veins developed in the competent slates (top
right) have acted as feeder structures for disseminated mineralisation hosted within the
overlying volcanic rocks (two top left photos). The typical high sulphidation feeder structures
below the open pit comprise banded enargite, pyrite, barite and alunite veins (bottom left
photo). Note the dark coloured disseminated enargite mineralisation which overprints the
vughy silica altered volcanic in the central left photo. Map adapted from Oviedo et al. (1991).

8.4.1.5 The El Indio veins were interpreted by the late Stan Caddy to have developed as a
sigmoid loop (figure 3.32; Jannas et al., 1999). Best mineralisation occurs in the roughly EW
trending most dilatant portions of the flexure (sigmoid loop) herein interpreted as part of the
NE link structure developed between two major arc parallel NS remote sensing lineaments, to
accommodate a component of dextral movement (figure 3.44). Elevated Au-Cu grades in the
enargite ore result from the repeated activation of the structural environment evidenced by
the banded veins (figure 8.4) while fluid evolution (below) within the dilatant structures

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accounts for the bonanza Au. A similar sense of movement is discernible on the adjacent
Viento veins where moderate-steep pitching ore shoots host best mineralisation within a
series of flexures formed by combined strike-slip and dip-slip movement (figure 3.32).

8.4.1.6 At Mt Kasi, Fiji, mineralised vein/breccias occur as tension veins developed by a

component of strike-slip movement on a structural corridor, at the intersection with a
brecciated dome margin (figure 8.13; Corbett and Taylor, 1994). The old ‘slot’ open pit,
aligned along the trend of the structural corridor (figure 8.13), exploited tension veins
oriented at a high angle to the trend of the slot margins and structural corridor, in the model
described in section 3.2.2.4.3. Consequently, early drill holes bored across the slot and
structural corridor trend were parallel to the tension vein direction, and so either drilled down
or missed veins to provide irregular results. Careful geological mapping by Geoff Taylor
provided an explanation for the lack of continuity between drill holes and further drilling
intersected the veins at a proper angle.

Figure 8.13 At Mt Kasi Fiji, the ‘Slot’ open pit is aligned along the trend of the structural
corridor (two top right photos) but tension vein/breccia mineralisation crops out at high
angles to the slot margins, at the brecciated dome margin.

8.4.1.7 At the El Guanaco gold mine, Chile, NE conjugate fractures are interpreted to have
localised an ore system which comprises EW veins developed in response to Andean
compression, and locally further dilated by a component of strike-slip movement on the
conjugate fractures (figure 8.14). The enargite-pyrite veins discernible in the deeper portions
of the open pit acted as feeder structures for the development of flat-lying disseminated
mineralisation within permeable host rocks high on the pit walls (figure 8.14). The lower
grade oxidised disseminated ores are mined in the open pit and structurally controlled ores
underground.

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Figure 8.14 At El Guanaco, Chile enargite-pyrite feeders structures in the bottom of the pit
and, which define the pit elongation, have acted as feeder structures for flat-lying zones of
vughy silica and disseminated ores permeable volcanic rocks (bottom right photo).

8.4.1.8 The Pascua-Lama and-Veladero ore systems are localised along a NW trending
conjugate fracture, yet host NS trending mineralisation which is interpreted to have
developed in response transient EW extension developed as a result of relaxation of Andean
convergence (figure 8.15).

Figure 8.15 Transient extension accounts for the NS alignment of ore zones at the Pascua-
Lama and Veladero deposits, hosted by a NW conjugate fracture.

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Several high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits comprise mapped listric fault feeder
structures linked to permeable host rocks which contain more ore but at lower metal grades
(Sipan, Peru; Quimsacocha, Ecuador; La India, Mexico; Quevar, Argentina).

8.4.2 Lithological

Lithological controls to high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits are apparent as permeable

units within less permeable volcanic packages or breccias discussed below. Perhaps one of
the most common volcanic host rocks for high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits are
fiamme tuffs, formed by flattened pumice clasts, within volcanic rock packages. Primary
permeability is readily exploited by the early volatile phase of the ore fluid to form vughy
silica which then provides secondary permeability for the later mineralising event. Fiamme
tuffs in youthful undeformed volcanic sequences give rise to flat ore zones (Pierina, Peru;
figure 8.16; Volkert et al., 1998; Sipan, Peru, figure 8.17) locally discernible as ore shoots
developed at the intersection with a steep dipping feeder structure (Sipan, Peru; Quevar,
Argentina). Narrow steep dipping feeder structures may provide higher precious metal grades
although the bulk of the ore occurs within the overlying lower metal grade flat dipping
mineralised permeable volcanic units (Maragorik, Papua New Guinea Corbett and Hayward,
1994;, Sangihie Island, Indonesia; Corbett and Leach, 1998). At La Coipa (figure 8.12) and
El Guanaco (figure 8.14) disseminated bulk low Au grade oxide mineralisation occurs in
permeable volcanic rocks which overlie feeder structures within underlying competent rocks.

Figure 8.16 Pierina, Peru showing the sub-horizontal form of vughy silica developed by
replacement of the permeable fiamme tuffs (top right) while the ore locally contains rims of
covellite surrounding sulphide with native sulphur (top left). The long section is from
Volkert, et al. (1998).

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Figure 8.17 Composite structure-lithology control to high sulphidation epithermal Au at
Sipan, Peru showing the enargite feeder structures (bottom), breccia ore with vughy silica
clasts and sulphide matrix (centre) and fiamme tuff (top). The photo of the open pit is taken at
the stage when mining had extracted the oxide ore and intercepted the metallurgically
different sulphide ore.

In central Peru several high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits are hosted within bedded
quartzite sequences of the Chimú Formation (Lagunas Norte, La Arena, La Virgin, El Toro).

Figure 8.18 At Lat Arena, Peru, lithologically controlled Au mineralisation within sandstone-
quartzite occurs as: pervasive vughy silica (centre right) along bedding planes (top right) and
within breccias (bottom right), while vertical bedding planes have not doubt aided fluid flow.

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Mineralisation was triggered by a relaxation in convergence evidenced by the arc-parallel
feeder structure which assayed 653 g/t Au, no doubt wit a considerable component of
supergene Au enrichment.

8.4.2.1 At La Arena, hydrothermal fluids pass easily from steep dipping dilatant feeder
structures with high Au grade to steep dipping quartzites where the important permeability is
provided by sub-vertical bedding planes which have been decoupled during folding (figure
8.18). Enargite occurs mostly along the bedding planes which are locally slickensided by
bedding plane slip, with oxidised sulphides, and in association with vughy silica altered
permeable sandstone-quartzite (figure 8.18). Best Au grades are associated with vughy silica
fill breccias (figure 8.18). Very low Au grades are mined as the oxidised host rocks break
along the bedding planes and orthogonal fractures during mining, characterised by only dig
and transport to the leach pads, without any rock blast or crush components. A transient
change from orthogonal Andean compression to extension by interpreted relaxation of
convergence provided a trigger for mineralisation. An arc-parallel feeder structure, apparent
in the open pit, contains particularly high grade Au (653 g/t Au), no doubt enriched by a
component of supergene Au enrichment.

8.19 Breccias in high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits from left to right for mineralisation
as: tension vein/breccias, fluidised breccias feed crackle breccias and breccia ore; and for
permeability, brecciated margins to domes as well as phreatomagmatic breccia pipes and
brecciated marginal host rocks.

8.4.3 Breccia

Breccias represent an essential component of many high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits

(figure 8.19):
 By provision of permeability for the development of initial alteration, commonly as
brecciated dome margins, phreatormagmatic-phreatic breccia pipes, or volcanic
breccias.

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  Plumbing systems for the introduction of mineralisation, typically as higher metal
grade fluidised feeding crackle breccias (Corbett and Leach, 1998).

Breccias which provide permeability for mineralised hydrothermal fluid flow are common as
brecciated dome margins (Yanacocha, Peru and Mt Kasi, Fiji; figure 8.20) and which locally
include diatreme-flow dome complexes (Veladero, Argentina (figure 8.21). Phreatomagmatic
breccia pipes (with associated, locally endogenous, intrusive domes) contain mineralisation
with the pipes (La Virgin, Peru figure 8.22; Miwah, Indonesia; Wafi, Papua New Guinea),
and in many cases extending into the adjacent wall rocks where the diatreme eruption has
created fracture permeability (Matabe, Indonesia, Sutopo et al., 2003; Veladero, La Frontera,
Argentina; Lagunas Norte, Peru, Cerpa et al., 2013). Elsewhere, in the absence of intrusive
domes etc, it is not always clear whether ore hosting breccias are phreatomagmatic or simply
phreatic (Pucamarca, Peru), while non-ore phreatic breccia pipes locally overlie
mineralisation (Pascua, Chile).

Figure 8.20 At Mt Kasi, Fiji, high sulphidation epithermal mineralisation is hosted within a
brecciated dome margin.

At Wafi, Papua New Guinea, permeability for high sulphidation fluid flow is provided by a
pre-existing diatreme breccia which is cross cut by the alteration and mineralisation (figure
4.44 & 8.23). Hydrothermal alteration appears to have been more restricted within the
dipping metamorphic sequence and expand upon contact with the more permeable milled
matrix breccias of the diatreme breccia pipe where increased wall rock alteration provides
more extensive alteration (figures 8.23 & 24; Corbett, 2005).

Elsewhere breccias have acted as mediums of mineralised fluid flow. At Lepanto,

Philippines, breccia ore is hosted in a fluid conduit formed at the intersection of a dilatant
structure and the diatreme margin (figure 8.11). At Mt Kasi a component of strike-slip
movement on the host structural corridor has produced a series of tension gash breccia zones
which have acted as feeders for ore hosted within a brecciated dome margin (figure 8.13). At
Tantahuahay, Peru, steep dipping siliceous breccia zones, to several metres in width, form

Economic Geo. _ JH
ledges of now oxidised high sulphidation epithermal mineralisation, cutting earlier porphyry-
related collapsing advanced argillic alteration.

Figure 8.21 At Veladero, Argentina, the distribution of Au mineralisation is in part controlled

by diatreme-flow dome complexes. Photos (anticlockwise from the top left) include: the view
shows a dome on the skyline on the centre right with a brecciated dome margin (centre left),
and milled matrix breccias including with rebrecciated and vughy silica clasts (bottom and
centre photos), along with two photos (top right) of fluidised and fracture sulphide
mineralisation within the earlier milled matrix breccias.

Figure 8.22 The La Virgin diatreme breccia pipe, Peru showing (anticlockwise from the top
left) include: a view showing the structure at the left and topographic low occupied by the

Economic Geo. _ JH
altered and brecciated sandstone/quartzite, fluidised sulphide-flooded breccia (centre left),
two images sandstone-quartzite clast milled matrix breccia.

Figure 8.23 Advanced argillic alteration at the Wafi high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit
is well developed within the permeable milled matrix breccias shown here including a contact
between two breccias in the lower photo. From Corbett and Leach (1998) and references
therein.

Figure 8.24 Milled matrix breccias from the Pucamarca phreatomagmatic-phreatic breccia
pipe (anticlockwise from the top left) particular aspects with: angular rhyodacite wall rock
clasts (left row top and centre left), bedded breccias (centre row top and centre); rebrecciated

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clasts (centre row bottom, right row top), intersections of two breccias (right row bottom
two).

Figure 8.25 Fluid injection breccias represent mechanisms for the entry of hydrothermal
fluids into a body of rock. In most cases metal grade will be equivalent to the matrix quality
for that ore system. Large bodies of rotation breccia with milled clasts and extensive matrix
(lower photo; La India, Mexico) contain most mineralisation, grading out to fluidised (middle
photo, Caballo Blanco, Mexico) and then most distal crackle breccias (Caballo Blanco,
Mexico). Also shown are a linear crackle breccia (Lama, Argentina) and fluidised-crackle
breccia (Quimsacocha, Ecuador). For other fluidised breccias, see Maragorik in figure 8.2 and
for other crackle breccias see figures 4.2 and 4.5.

8.5 Steam heated alteration

Steam heated blankets represent the uppermost portions of preserved high sulphidation
epithermal systems (section 2.2.4.5; figures 2.41-2.43). In the aerated vadose zone above the
water table, H2S exsolved from the cooling high sulphidation system becomes oxidised to
form warm low pH waters which are cooled and neutralised by reaction with the wall rock to
produce sub-horizontal blankets of steam heated alteration, characterised by cristobalite,
kaolin, sulphur and a distinctive powdery alunite with total destruction of the original rock
texture (figures 2.42-2.43). Although Hg is common as cinnabar (figure 2.43) the alteration is
essentially barren of other elements unless it collapses upon pre-existing geochemical
anomalies or ore systems (Puren and Coipa Norte, Maricunga district, Chile; figure 2.43).
Steam heated blankets are exceedingly soft and only preserved in youthful and/or arid
terrains, where they may extend laterally for some distances and so possibly obscure
underlying mineralisation (Quimsacocha, Ecuador; Maricunga Belt, Chile), or as erosional
remnants of once much more extensive blankets (Pascua-Lama, Chile-Argentina; El Indio
district & Maricunga Belt, Chile; figures 2.42 & 2.43). Ledges of massive to brecciated low
temperature silica (typically chalcedony or opal) with kaolin open space fill commonly form
at the water table and mark the approximate base of the steam heated blanket, where
neutralisation of the acid waters deposited silica (figures 2.41-2.43). Elsewhere detextured

Economic Geo. _ JH
silica-clay alteration underlies steam heated blankets (figure 8.26). Draw-down, the reversal
of once rising hydrothermal cells as the source intrusion cools, may cause the low pH waters
responsible for steam heated alteration to locally collapse as blankets upon high sulphidation
epithermal mineralisation (figure 2.42), down discrete structures evidenced by kaolin-
powdery alunite alteration (figure **). In this setting, mixing of rising pregnant high
sulphidation epithermal fluids with extremely oxidising steam heated waters locally promotes
high grade Au mineralisation. At Pucamarca, Peru and El Guanaco, Chile high grade Au
occurs where structures with kaolin-powdery alunite cut the ore zone, at Pierina clots of
sulphide ore with covellite rims occur within the oxide zone, and at Veladero well
mineralised hypogene jarosite is distinguished from supergene jarosite.

The blind Quimsacocha high sulphidation epithermal Au system in Ecuador was eventually
discovered by prospecting below steam heated alteration, at drill hole 122 of the exploration
program (Jones et al., 2005; figure **).

Figure 8.26 At Pucamarca the progression from the laterally extensive steam heated blanket
exposed in early mining to a narrow zone at depth and deeper structurally controlled zones in
drill core passing to detextured silica-clay alteration below the steam heated blanket. (top
right photo Miroslav Kalinaj).

8.6 Evolution from high to lower sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation

High sulphidation epithermal Au deposits described above develop by a process of

progressive cooling and neutralisation of hot acidic ore fluids and so these fluids may locally
evolve to a neutral character typical of low sulphidation epithermal deposits such that some
high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits display a spatial and temporal relationship with
lower sulphidation epithermal mineral assemblages. Such a progression might be discernible
in the field as a paragenetic sequence of enargite-barite-alunite -> tennantite -> galena-
sphalerite-carbonate, which would be expected to overprint advanced argillic alteration of the
original high sulphidation mineralisation. The typical low sulphidation mineral assemblage of
galena-sphalerite with lesser tennantite would normally be associated with argillic (illite
dominant) wall rock hydrothermal alteration. Of interest to the explorationist is that ores

Economic Geo. _ JH
formed in this progression to later and/or marginal lower sulphidation mineral assemblages
generally display higher grade precious metal grades and substantially improved metallurgy
to the original high sulphidation enargite ores.

8.6.1 The El Indio Au-Ag-Cu deposit in the Andes of Chile has long been famous as a high
sulphidation epithermal deposit with unusually high grade bonanza Au ores. The mine
construction was easily funded by the production from 1979 to 1984 of about 0.8 M oz Au of
direct shipping ore (DSO) at an average grade of about 240 g/t Au which was sold directly to
the smelters (Walthier et al., 1985), with the practice continuing to 1987 (Wyllie, 1988).
Three events of overprinting ore mineral deposition are recognised, characterised by early
enargite, later tennantite and then quartz-gold (Jannas et al., 1990 & 1999 and Jannas 1995).
Much later, mapping of the more recently developed adjacent Viento vein recognised the
transition from south to north as: enargite-luzonite in the south, grading to mineral
assemblages which became enriched in pyrite-galena-sphalerite-rhodochrosite and then
quartz-gold furthest north, with a transition to illite alteration in the north of this zone (figure
1.17; Corbett, unpubl. report, Jan 2000; Leach, unpubl. reports 2000-2001; Heberlein, 2008).
Clearly this zonation represents a spatial transition from high to low sulphidation mineral
assemblages. Detailed petrology by Terry Leach confirmed the initial field observations of
this author, as well as the temporal zonation of Jannas (op cit), concluded the El Indio high
sulphidation system has evolved in time and also from south to north, from high to low
sulphidation (T. Leach unpubl. Reports 2000, 2001; Heberlein, 2008). The base-metal and
carbonate ores are likened to low sulphidation epithermal carbonate-base metal Au style
(section 7.1.1.2), while the bonanza Au ores are equivalent to the low sulphidation epithermal
quartz-Au style (section 7.1.1.3). A possible fluid flow path is shown as C in figure 1.12.
Terry Leach’s petrology supported the conclusion from mapping that the Campana diatreme
breccia could have been the source of north moving evolving ore fluids (Corbett, April 2000;
Leach, Oct. 2000, April 2001; Heberlein, 2008).

8.5.2 At Orcopampa, Peru, Salazar et al. (2009) describe bonanza grade Au-Te mineralisation
in the Chimpo zone as of an essentially a low sulphidation type which overprints advanced
argillic alteration vein fill and wall rock alteration characterised by a central silica ledge
rimmed by dickite, kaolinite, pyrophyllite, diaspore and alunite in decreasing order of
abundance (figure 8.26). Mineralisation is best developed within steep pitching ore shoots
localised within flexures, formed by a component of strike-slip movement on the host
structure. Highest Au grades are associated with white to grey quartz which appears to pass,
in more recent mining at depth, to polymetallic ores (pyrite, pale Fe-poor sphalerite, galena,
tennantite-tetrahedrite), possibly reflecting the change to mineral deposition from more
magmatic fluid at depth, while there has been a greater incursion of meteoric waters in the
upper levels (Corbett, unpubl. report 2014). The association of Au with quartz (figure 8.27)
and base metal sulphides is more typical of low than high sulphidation epithermal
mineralisation. A strong correlation between bonanza Au and fracture controlled kaolin-
dickite in drill core suggests low pH waters, associated with the early high sulphidation event
or collapsed from an acid sulphate cap, mixed with the low sulphidation ore fluid to promote
Au deposition (Corbett, unpubl. report 2014).

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Figure 8.27 The Chimpo zone of Orcopampa, Peru showing anticlockwise from the top left:
view and detail of the silica ledge; hypogene kaolin on a fracture (318 m down hole);
tetrahedrite ore, banded quartz with free Au (27.2 g/t Au & 7.1g/t Ag); sulphide ore with pale
sphalerite (18 g/t Au & 210 g/t Ag) and bonanza Au (this photo Salazar et al., 1990). The
central long section illustrates the steep pitching ore shoots.

Figure 28 The transition from high to low sulphidation mineralisation at the Alejandra vein,
La Zanja, Peru, anticlockwise from the top left as: silicified fiamme tuff, enargite
mineralisation (1 g/t Au & 18.1 g/t Au), red and yellow sphalerite overprints enargite and
vughy silica, Au intergrown with kaolin in white to buff quartz (2,639 g/t Au & 63 g/t Ag),
kaolin in the same interval as the above free Au overprinting vughy silica (1,271 g/t Au & 54

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g/t Ag). The centre photo shows sub-surface clastic bedding as an indication of the strongly
dilatant character of the host structure (see figure 4.4 & section 4.2).

8.5.3 At the Alejandra vein, La Zanja, Peru, fiamme tuffs which would normally be too
incompetent to host fissure veins have been silicified by advanced argillic alteration,
associated with an initial event of high sulphidation epithermal mineralisation, which grades
away from the feeder structure. A transient change in the orientation of compression is
interpreted (Corbett, unpubl report, 2014) to have promoted to formation of best ore, as steep
pitching ore shoots within flexures. Sub-surface sedimentary structures testify to the strongly
dilatant nature of the ore zone (figure 8.28). In drill core the evolution from high to low
sulphidation is clearly discernible as the overprinting of enargite-pyrite within the high
sulphidation vughy silica ledges by sphalerite and then high fineness free Au with milky to
buff quartz (figure 8.28). Note the change in Au fineness in figure 8.28 from 18 for the high
sulphidation enargite, to 0.02 and 0.04 for the low sulphidation ores. The close association of
kaolin with bonanza Au (figure 8.28) suggests Au deposition resulted from the mixing of low
sulphidation ore fluids with oxidising low pH waters, possibly remaining from the earlier
high sulphidation epithermal fluid, or later acid sulphate waters.

8.5.4 The Quevar prospect in Argentina lies on a major NW trending conjugate fracture
easily discernible on the remote sensing imagery (figure 3.2). Listric faults interpreted to
have developed during sector collapse of a volcanic edifice have acted as feeder structures for
the introduction of hydrothermal fluids which imposed advanced argillic alteration upon the
andesitic volcanic pile. Most permeable lapilli tuffs with fiamme to several cm have acted as
the main lithological fluid conduit and so display vughy silica grading out to silica-alunite
then dickite-kaolin alteration. The absence of substantial pyrophyllite is indicative of a
relatively high crustal level system. Preserved steam heated alteration zones indicate the top
of the palaeo hydrothermal system is locally preserved. However, block faulting and/or uplift
in the centre of the volcanic edifice has relocated some alteration zones to lower altitudes. Ag
mineralisation displays a progression from high to lower sulphidation and the influence of
low pH waters in mineral deposition (section **). Early fracture vein fill enargite-luzonite-
barite-alunite-kaolin grades to tennantite-tetrahedrite and then later sphalerite-galena-
argentite with a local kaolin overprint. While high grade Ag occurs with Bi sulphosalts in the
tennantite-tetrahedrite ores and with abundant argentite, highest Au-Ag grades are recognised
in the presence of fracture controlled kaolin interpreted to have collapsed into the ore
environment. Fluid mixing is therefore interpreted to have influenced the deposition of
highest Au-Ag grade low sulphidation Au-Ag mineralisation. Au-Ag grades and metallurgy
have improved, moving from the early high sulphidation to later low sulphidation
mineralisation.

8.5.5 The Lepanto district, Philippines illustrates the common occurrence of high
sulphidation and carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation in the same district as El Indio with
the Rio del Medio carbonate-base metal Au occurrence (Jannas et al., 1990, 1999). Fluid flow
in the Lepanto high sulphidation orebody is described (Hedenquist et al., 1998) from the FSE
porphyry source in the SE towards Lepanto in the NW, and these workers note higher Au is
associated with a tennantite-tetrahedrite overprint on the enargite ores. Thus, there is some
evolution from high to lower sulphidation within the Lepanto ores. However, the setting of
the Victoria carbonate-base metal deposit, south of Lepanto and the FSE porphyry is not
consistent with development as part of the Lepanto fluid flow trend. Rather, Sajona et al.
(1998) point out that the NE-EW trending Victoria veins overprint earlier enargite veins in
the NW Lepanto trend, are dated as 0.2-0.4 Ma younger than the Lepanto system, and also

Economic Geo. _ JH
cool from chalcopyrite-abundant in the SW to sphalerite-dominant in the NE, a rough repeat
of the Lepanto-FSE fluid flow trend. Victoria is therefore a separate hydrothermal system to
Lepanto, formed as tension veins (figure 8.11) due to the same kinematic environment
suggested for Lepanto (Corbett and leach, 1998, figure 6.24).

Figure 8.29 The Link Zone , Wafi, Papua New Guinea is described by Leach (1999), see
cross section, as a transition from high to low sulphidation shown as carbonate-base metal Au
style in the accompanying photos. See figure 8.20 legend.

8.5.6 The Link Zone at Wafi, Papua New Guinea, comprises low sulphidation epithermal
carbonate-base metal style Au mineralisation developed, in the model of Leach (1999), by the
cooling and neutralisation of the hot acidic waters at the margin of the Wafi high sulphidation
epithermal Au deposit, developed at the margin of an earlier diatreme breccia pipe. At Wafi,
high sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation is hosted by typical vughy-residual silica
alteration within the diatreme breccia pipe (Zone C in figure 8.29) and by clay alteration
within brecciated wall rocks about the pipe margin (Zones A, B and North in figure 8.29).
The simultaneous progression (defined by Leach, 1999) of both alteration and mineralisation
from those typical of high sulphidation to low sulphidation epithermal, at the diatreme
margin, was no doubt promoted by the mixing of high sulphidation fluids emanating from the
earlier diatreme, with meteoric waters within the fractured metamorphic rocks at the diatreme
margins (figures, 5.29 & 8.29). Wafi copper mineralisation “with sporadic Zn, Pb and Mo”, is
associated with enargite-tennantite + luzonite within silica-alunite at shallow level and a
depth with clay grading from covellite to chalcopyrite at greatest depth, as the high
sulphidation system overprints the earlier porphyry (Leach, 1999; section 5.3.1.2). The
presence of high sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation within clay alteration (Zones A,
B and North) is unusual (Leach, 1999). As the diatreme pre-dates the high sulphidation
system, a broad Zn anomaly supports the possibility that an earlier carbonate-base Au event
could represent the source of the Au now present as high sulphidation epithermal. However,
site geologists suggest the Link Zone carbonate-base metal Au veins overprint the high
sulphidation alteration and mineralisation in support of the Leach (1999) model.

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8.5.7 At El Guanaco, Chile, localised high Au grades have been recognised in a dilatant
structure where ore fluids evolved to lower sulphidation, evidenced by MnO, and higher Au
grades are promoted by mixing with low pH waters derived from the steam heated cap (figure
**; Corbett, unpubl. report, 2013).

8.7 Conclusions and exploration implications

Explorationists should be aware of the controls to localisation, shape, precious metal grade,
size and metallurgy of high sulphidation mineralisation. Dilatant sites on major structures
localise quality high sulphidation systems, sometimes in groups (Pascua-Lama-Veladero,
Chile-Argentina; Nena, Papua New Guinea; Lepanto, Philippines). Host rock permeability
controls influence the shape and size of high sulphidation systems with some of the larger
systems developed in breccias (Yanacocha, Peru) or permeable volcanic rocks (Pierina, Peru;
La Coipa, Chile). Higher precious metal grades capable of being mined underground occur in
structurally controlled systems (Lepanto, Philippines; El Indio, Chile), but the highest Au
grades result from the transition from high to lower sulphidation (El Indio, Chile;
Orcopampa, Peru), especially if there is an incursion of low pH waters (Quevar, Argentina;
El Guanaco, Chile).

Because enargite ores are of difficult metallurgy, ideal targets represent outcropping oxidised
systems, although the easily discernible prominent colour anomalies might already have been
identified. The strong pyrite is expected to provide not only a colour anomaly but acid
drainage.

Figure 8.30. The flat lying ore zone at Quimsacocha, Ecuador (Jones et al., 2005) is obscured
by grass covered barren steam heated alteration, here as outcrop and drill core.

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